TOPIC 5
PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT
Introduction
In this topic, we will introduce you to participation and the various issues concerning people’s
participation in development. We will define the concept of participation; look at the advantages of
people participating in development processes and lastly some of the constraints to participation.
The Essence of Participatory Approach in Development
The concept of participation acquired prominence in development literature after especially the United
Nations International Labour Organization’s World Employment Council in 1976 stipulated that
participation is a basic human need and thus a value in itself. In particular, World employment conference
of 1976 identified the crucial role of participatory programmes in the improvement of rural life.
In this context, participation was being defined as “an active process in which the participants take
initiative and action that is stimulated by their own thinking and deliberation and over which they can
exert effective control”.
The concept of participation then can be said to entail the empowerment of people. That is, the enabling
of men and women to take control of their destinies. This is captured by Oakley and Marsden (1984) who
perceive promotion of people’s participation as entailing “The distribution of power in society, for it is
power which enables groups to determine which needs and whose needs will be met through the
distribution of resources.
People participate in development processes for various reasons.
It should just be spontaneous. Here a group of people or community takes initiative and
addresses a need without any external prompting to address a need they have. Participation in
this case is sustained by the urgency of need.
People can be induced to participate. This can be by an insider, for example an opinion leader. It
can also be an outsider, for example, a development worker.
There are different basis/ways through which induced participation may take place.
i) Benefit induced- People participate in development in anticipation of benefits to them
individually and also collectively.
ii) Exractionist participation – Oyugi (1991) talks of extractionist participation where communities
are involved in development activities but the benefits and credit go to others.
iii) Vertical Participation – is a term coined by Bryant and white (1982) to refer to situations where
participation results from members of community developing relations with key figures either in
government, or non-governmental organizations and even in the donor world, for purpose of
mutually beneficial development activities. Patron-client network relationships set in and
therefore without the elites being involved then communities find themselves stuck.
iv) Compulsory participation- approximates what Cohen and Uphoff (1977) call direct
participation. Here participation involves formal authority and sanction and where necessary to
coercive forces of the state are called in.
What then can be said is that to an extent the people participation can be plotted on a continuum
dependent on the degree of their initiative and control of the process.
Rationale for participatory development
a) Since the process of development is essentially concerned with human development, it is only fair
that it should have a human face, by being participatory, equitable and sustainable.
b) There is an emerging consensus that development must be participatory (UNDP) 1991; World
Bank 1989, Unicef 1987). It is increasingly accepted that participatory development is the key to
economic growth and human development the only way to achieve development of the people, by
the people, for the people.
c) Conventional wisdom of local level participation in development is that, it increases the quality
and relevance of decisions as well as the chances of success.
d) Participatory development is sustainable as it enhances people’s self-reliance.
e) Equity is enhanced. As needs are met collectively and responsibilities shared.
Ways of ensuring optimum participation of people in development projects.
People need avenues or structures within and through which to participate. These could be self-
help organizations; development communities; or unions
Homogeneity: to be effective these organizations should have as homogeneous membership as
possible
Conscientization: People’s ability to see and work on situations and issues needs to be enhanced
through awareness raising and conscientization efforts.
Economic empowerment: People access and control of economic empowerment.
Certainty of the benefits: People’s level of participation will depend on their calculation of
whether they will benefit from the effort. In any case, people are rational actors.
Participatory management: For optimum participation, there is need for a leadership that is
selected and operates in a democratic and participatory manner.
The government should create an enabling Socio-economic and political climate.
The economic commission for Africa sponsored African charter for popular participation in development
and Transformation, adopted in Arusha, Tanzania in 1990, states that African governments should come
up with endogenous and people-centered development strategies by inter alia (by)
Extending more economic power to the people through the equitable distribution of incomes:
support for their productive capacity through enhanced access to productive inputs such as land,
credit, technology etc.
Promoting mass literacy and skills training in particular and development of human resources in
general
Greater participation and consensus building in the formulation and implementation of economic
and social policies at all levels
Increasing employment opportunities for the rural and urban poor
Strengthening communication capacities for rural development.
Bottlenecks to participatory development
There are some common obstacles to popular participation in development. These are those factors and
issues that make it difficult for people to fully participate in development activities. These include,
Over centralized government development structures which limit people’s choices.
Often the leaders available at the community levels lack the necessary basic training and skills
(Muia 1987).
Lack of viable structures to facilitate participation
Economic power of most communities in most areas is limited.
Gender imbalance is another obstacle