1

UNIT II

Listening Comprehension: identifying General & Specific information

Note taking and drawing inferences
Introduction to Phonetics: Articulation of consonants and vowel sounds

Listening vs. Hearing

Hearing: is a biological activity that involves reception of a message through sensory channels

Listening: occurs when we pay attention and interpret the auditory stimulus.

Differences between listening and hearing: page 73, Rizvi

Effective Listening: Effective listening involves not only recognising unit boundaries
phonologically, but also the recognition of false starts, pauses, hesitations, stress, intonation, and
rhythm patterns.

a) Sensing: Sensing is, thus, the first step of the listening process. You hear sounds and
concentrate on them in order to receive the message. You recognise unit boundaries
phonologically as it is important for you to recognise phonological differences.

b) Decoding: Decoding or interpreting in listening refers to the process of changing the coded
message into information. It involves understanding the spoken language, because if the
message cannot be decoded or understood, communication fails.

c) Evaluation: After the message has been decoded, interpreted, and its significance evaluated,
appropriate conclusions are drawn from it. In order to evaluate a verbal message correctly, facts
have to be separated from opinions, relevant information from irrelevant information, examples
from ideas, and explicit information from implicit information. The intention and attitude of the
speaker also have to be analyzed. We should be aware of our own prejudices and biases so that
we avoid making wrong conclusions.
d) Response: Response is the action or reaction of the listener to the message.

Types of listening
a) Superficial: The listener has little awareness of the content (what is being said). The output in
this type of listening is zero because the listener tends to ignore the message, and is not able to
concentrate on the theme, main points, and supporting details of the message.
b) Appreciative: The main purpose of appreciative listening is to get enjoyment and pleasure.
Examples include listening to recordings of songs, entertaining stories, jokes, anecdotes, and so
on. The output may be taking part in the entertainment process.
c) Focused: The main purpose is to get some specific information that might be used to take a
decision. This is the most common type of listening that we practice in non-formal oral
communicative situations. Examples include listening to the radio, watching and listening to
television programmes, listening to railway and airport announcements, and so on.
d) Evaluative: involves evaluation of the oral message or commentary and developing a line of
thought. The listener interprets and analyses what he or she listens to in order to understand
both the explicit as well as implicit meaning of the oral message. It may also involve matching
topics against one’s own interests, and making mental notes of the important points. Thus, the
 2

main purpose of evaluative listening is to evaluate the content of the oral message to select
appropriate information. The output could be an oral response, or summarising and recalling
information at a later stage. Examples include listening to structured talks, classroom lectures,
workshops, seminars, and so forth.
e) Attentive: Attentive listening demands the complete attention of the listener. It is basically
active and intelligent listening in situations such as group discussions, meetings, job interviews,
and so on. The listener pays attention to all parts of the message, i.e., the central idea, main
points, supporting details, examples, and illustrations. There is no ‘selective dismissal’ of any
part of the oral message. As attentive listening is interactive and productive, facilitating proper
interaction and more effective listener-speaker relationships, it requires conscious effort on the
part of the listener and demands concentration, involvement, and responsibility. Some other
examples of attentive listening include listening to administrative instructions, formal
conversational interaction, suggestions, requests, important telephone calls, and so on.
f) Empathetic: Empathetic listening is listening not only to what the speaker is saying but also to
how he/she is saying, i.e., his/her feelings, emotions, and state of mind. The listener has to
understand and respond to the affective signals that the speaker might make and has to be alert
to the speaker’s implied meaning, intention, and attitude. Moreover, he/she has to understand
and interpret non-verbal clues and the body language of the speaker.

Difference between effective and ineffective listening (pg 77)

Barriers to listening (pg 79)

a) Physical Barriers
b) Psychological:
c) Linguistic
d) Cultural

Listening Comprehension: Comprehension is the act of understanding or the power of the mind to
understand. Listening comprehension is the act of understanding an oral message. As a professional,
you have to achieve the ability to comprehend material delivered at relatively fast speed and
understand spoken material. Llistening comprehension includes several skills and sub-skills. These
skills include:

i) Scanning: Scanning is the ability to locate specific information in a conversation, speech, or

presentation
ii) Prediction: The ability to predict forthcoming information from the context and the
information at hand
iii) Speech decoding: Speech decoding is integral to listening comprehension. It involves the
following processes:
a) Sound perception: Decoding of verbal messages requires the ability to perceive and
recognise speech sounds and sound patterns accurately as well as the ability to
recognise the way sounds combine to form syllables and utterances. The listener has to
be attentive to the sounds that he/she hears because any lapse or mistake may lead to
miscommunication and misunderstanding.

b) Word Recognition: Speech decoding during listening also involves the ability to
recognise words accurately, understand definitions of the words and phrases being used,
recognise the way words are used in context, and identify discourse markers and
attention signals.
 3

c) Accent recognition: In order to decode a verbal message, the listener has to recognise
stress and intonation patterns. In addition, he/she needs to identify pauses, false starts,
hesitations, and turn-taking in a conversation, discussion, or other transactions
involving more than one speaker.

iv) Comprehending: Comprehending a verbal message involves the ability to:

Identify the central theme, main ideas, and supporting details
Concentrate and understand long speeches, Identify the level of formality
Deduce incomplete information
Decode unfamiliar vocabulary

v) Oral discourse analysis: Oral discourse analysis is the process of identifying relationships
among different units within the speech or oral message. It includes:
a) Critical skills: When you listen to a structured talk, speech, or presentation, you need to
analyse it in order to distinguish between relevant and irrelevant information, factual
and nonfactual information, examples and ideas, and so on
b) Attitude analysis: The ability to analyse a verbal message in order to understand the
speaker’s attitude to you and the topic under discussion. This is more important in
meetings, discussions, and conferences
c) Inferential skills: Effective listening comprehension involves understanding not only
the explicit meaning of a verbal message but also the implicit meaning because the
speaker may not speak everything explicitly and clearly. Thus, the listener may have to
analyse a verbal message in order to draw inferences and conclusions. This may involve
interpreting the non-verbal clues and body language of the speaker.

Ten Thumb rule for good listening

i) Stop Talking: Do not talk while listening. One cannot be a speaker and a listener at the
same time. The listener should accept his/her role and allow the speaker to talk.

ii) Stop Thinking: It is not enough for the listener to keep their mouth shut while he/she is
listening, instead they must focus 100% on what the speaker is saying.

iii) Remove Distractions: In order to focus 100% on the person speaking, the listener should
avoid all kinds of distractions. He/she should not create any distractions for himself/herself
and should not allow others to interrupt.

iv) Do Not Let Your Mind Wander: One of the main causes of listening inefficiency is the
slowness of speech. We can listen faster than the speaker can speak. This lag time may
make the listener’s mind wander or daydream. This can be avoided by concentrating on
each word spoken by the speaker.

v) Put Speaker at Ease: A conducive environment should be provided to the speaker in order
to enable him/her to be at ease. If the speaker is not comfortable, he/she will not be able to
speak clearly.

vi) Do not Pre-judge: Give the speaker a chance to complete what he/she has to say. Pre-
judgement closes the mind and does not allow you to perceive the speaker impartially. You
can make proper judgement only after you have fully comprehended the information.
 4

vii) Be Patient: The speaker should be allowed sufficient time and not interrupted until he/she
takes a pause and invites the listener to do so. Patience is the key to good listening.

viii) Do not be Angry: The listener should control his/her temper while listening. He/she may
not like what the speaker is saying, or may completely disagree with his/her point of view
but good listening demands that he/she listens to him/her calmly without making any fuss.

ix) Empathise with the Speaker: In order to understand the speaker’s perspective and
appreciate his/her point of view, the listener should try to put him/her in the speaker’s
position.

x) Take Notes: The listener should take notes if he/she wants to keep a record of what was
said, and wants to use it at a later stage.

Listening to Structured Talks

In order to understand a structured talk (i.e., lectures, seminar talks, presentations, speeches, oral
reports, and so on) or any other formal oral discourse, we require effective listening strategies that help
us in comprehending the subject-content and language patterns of the oral message. These are:
Pre-listening Analysis
Pre-listening analysis includes determining the purpose of listening and knowing the speaker or
presenter.
1) Determining the Purpose: The most important aspect of pre-listening analysis is determining
what needs to be achieved by listening to the speaker. Does the listener want to listen to the
speaker to get a broad understanding of a topic of his/her interest? Does he/she intend to obtain
specific information? Does he/she want to understand specific instructions?
2) Knowing Your Speaker: The second essential aspect in pre-listening analysis is analysing the
speaker. If the listener knows the speaker well, he/she will be able to make appropriate
adaptations for better understanding.
Predicting
Predicting is a listening strategy for lecture comprehension. It is the process of guessing the
information that one expects to receive during a lecture or talk. The listener should be able to think
ahead, hypothesise, and predict. Predicting includes various micro-skills, including the ability to:
1) Guess the information that the lecture contains
2) Use the title of the lecture/talk/presentation to roughly predict the central theme and the focus
of the verbal message
3) Scan the use of visual aids in the opening part of the lecture to predict the nature and scope of
content
4) Identify oral clues used by the speaker
The listener should try to guess the overall content of the speech, i.e. guessing the information that he/
she expects to receive. The more he/she is familiar with the content, the more he/she understands the
oral message.
 5

Using Background Knowledge

Once the listener has guessed the information that he/she is likely to receive, he/she may recall related
information. He/she can pool his/her ‘background knowledge’ to get a general idea of what he/she is
going to listen to.
Intensive Listening
Once the listener has determined his/her purpose, analysed his/her speaker, and used prediction
techniques and background knowledge, he/she is ready to listen to the lecture or talk. Most speakers
organise the talk into three segments: introduction, body, and conclusion. The listener has to
concentrate on each segment to understand the overall meaning, focus, and implication of the talk. The
guidelines for this have been given below:
1) Listening to the Introduction: Listen to the opening or introduction of the talk to get answers to
the following questions:
(a) What is the position, knowledge, background, experience of the speaker?
(b) What is his/her credibility?
(c) What is the overall purpose of the talk?
(d) What is the central idea or theme?
(e) What is the overall organisational structure?
(f) What does the speaker intend to do? (describe, instruct, report, narrate, explain, argue, persuade,
illustrate, and so on)
(g) What are the main points of the talk?
Concentrate on the visual aids, if used by the speaker. Identify the key words or phrases that the
speaker might use to emphasise the main points.

2) Listening to the Body

As the body of a talk or lecture contains the main message, you should pay attention to every part of
the body carefully.
a) Concentrate on the verbal signposts in order to recognise the organisation and main points of
the oral message.
b) Recognise main supporting details of the oral message.
c) Concentrate on visual aids such as overhead transparencies, flipcharts, handouts, slides,
multimedia visuals, and so on to get a clear idea of the important points of the talk.

3) Listening to the Conclusion: Listen to the closing or conclusion of the talk to understand the
main themes of the verbal message. Recognise the speaker’s focus of the talk. Concentrate on
what the speaker wants the listeners to do, or remember.

Listening and Note-taking or reproduction of speech

Taking notes helps one to understand the points clearly and keep a record for future reference. Even if
the facts are easy to remember, they should be jotted down for clarity. Note taking includes four simple
steps, i.e., listening, filtering, paraphrasing, and noting.
 6

Listen
i) Follow the 10 thumb rules for good listening and apply active listening techniques for
better comprehension.
ii) Carefully listen to the verbal message in order to identify its purpose and scope.
iii) Identify different modes and styles of delivery (i.e., reading style, conversational style,
informal style, rhetorical style, and so on).
iv) Deduce meanings of words and phrases from their context and infer relationships.
v) Recognise key terms related to the subject/topic of the lecture.
vi) Recognise function of stress and intonation to signal information structure.
vii) Recognise function of non-verbal cues as markers of emphasis and attitude.
viii) Interpret the oral message with reference to oral conventions followed by the speaker.

Filter
i) Do not try to write everything.
ii) Filter the information received.
iii) Concentrate on verbal signposts to recognise the organisation and main points in an oral
message.
iv) Identify relationships among units within the speech (i.e., main points, supporting points,
minor points, generalisations, hypotheses, illustrations, and so on).
v) Look out for key phrases and signal words.
vi) Identify the role of discourse markers.
vii) Identify the main points.

Paraphrase
i) After identifying the core information, rephrase suitably.
ii) Use appropriate words and phrases to express the central idea, main points, and main
supporting details.
iii) Do not use full sentences.

Note
i) After restructuring and rephrasing the core information, jot them down.
ii) Use appropriate reduction techniques such as abbreviations and symbols to save time.
iii) Use subordinating techniques and a suitable method of sequencing, i.e. numerals and
numbers, decimalisation, and so on.
iv) Use note cards or notebooks to record notes.
 7

Unit II Part 2
Conversation: Conversation is an interactive process involving speakers and listeners. While talking
to someone, we use audible and visible symbols in order to communicate meaning in the minds of our
listeners. It establishes, maintains, improves, and consolidates social as well as professional relations.
Strategies for good conversation / Methods for improving speaking skills
i) Be an Active Listener: One should learn to be an active and efficient listener. When you
talk to someone, whether in a formal or informal oral situation, you must listen to the
person carefully and attentively. You should not interrupt the person while he or she is
speaking. This is unacceptable and reflects bad manners.
ii) Be a Subtle Speaker: One should be careful about what one says and how it is said. Rather
than saying whatever comes to mind a speaker must think about the long-term
consequences of their words.
iii) Speak with Clarity: The speaker must articulate and pronounce words with clarity, while
also taking care of their voice quality, accent, volume, and intonation.
iv) Be Simple: It pays to be simple during a conversation. One cannot impress others by being
difficult, vague, and abstract; you should in fact, use simple and familiar language while
talking to people. You may use informal vocabulary during an informal and casual
conversation but use only formal vocabulary during a formal situation.
v) Use Appropriate Pauses: Speaking too quickly may result in lack of comprehension on the
part of the listener. This will result in confusion. So, it is essential to speak slowly with
appropriate pauses.
vi) Be Polite: Politeness is the key to good conversation. Never be rude and impolite. Be
courteous and use polite expressions and phrases during oral interaction.
vii) Be Friendly: It is easy to talk to friendly people. Greet people with a smile and make them
feel comfortable. Avoid making hurtful remarks and judgemental statements. As a general
rule, do not make generalizations such as “All businessmen people are cunning and greedy”
or “Women are foolish”.
viii) Be Positive: It is important to learn to appreciate the good and positive qualities of other
people and express our appreciation. Criticism must also be provided as positive feedback
only.
ix) Be Flexible: A good conversationalist is always flexible in approach, attitude and style. We
may need to change our approach to a topic of conversation or even the topic itself if we are
getting bored or if it is leading to a heated argument.
x) Be Tactful: It is necessary to be very tactful during conversation, especially when talking
to one’s teacher, boss, senior colleague, or someone who matters. It is better to think before
speaking than to suffer afterwards. Choose the topics carefully and avoid controversial
issues that may lead to unnecessary arguments.
xi) Do not Argue: However, a good conversationalist never argues during a conversation. We
may disagree with the person we are talking to but there is no need to impose our point of
view on the other person. It is important to respect the views expressed by other people and
express our disagreements and reservations in a friendly way.
xii) Be Interested: We should also take keen interest in the other person or persons talking to
us. Maintain eye contact with each one of them and contribute to the conversation in a
lively and meaningful way.
 8

The speech process: The process through which a message is devised and communicated to another
person. The following are the different stages of the speech process:
i) The Message: The speech process begins with the selection of a message. The message
includes everything that the speaker does or says, both verbally and non-verbally. Here, the
speaker is concerned with the content of the specific message that he/she wants to convey.
The speaker’s knowledge, experiences, abilities and the overall objectives of speaking
generally determine the scope of ‘the message’. In order to make a message have the
desired impact, its content must be clear and relevant. In a professional situation, selecting
a message might involve finding and selecting a subject or general topic, and deciding
about the type, scope, and sources of information.
ii) The Audience: To be an effective speaker, familiarity with one’s audience is necessary. The
more formal the speaking situation, the more important it is for the speaker to know his/her
listeners in order to decide how to present his/her ideas. Professional situations such as
seminars, conferences, meetings, discussions, job interviews, and so on demand a careful
audience analysis that might involve answering the following questions:
Who are the listeners? What is their age, sex, educational background, and so forth? What is their
knowledge about the topic/subject under consideration? What are their personal and professional
needs? What do they expect from the speaker?
iii) The Speech Style: Speech style is the manner in which the content of the speech is
presented. It is the manner of speaking. It could be very formal, as in a technical seminar, or
very informal, as in a casual conversation.
iv) Encoding: Encoding in oral communication involves selecting a language, an appropriate
oral form, and positive non-verbal signals. Verbal messages need a common language code,
which the listener may easily decode. If the listener cannot understand the message,
communication fails. We should choose a speech style that is appropriate to the type and
nature of our content, the audience, as well as the occasion and setting. Encoding in oral
communication involves selecting a language, positive non-verbal signals, and an
appropriate oral form (These options include face-to-face interpersonal communication
(meetings, conferences, group discussions, panel discussions, interviews) or speaker-
audience communication (speeches, debates, seminars, workshops, symposia), electronic
communication (teleconferencing and videoconferencing) or telephonic communication.)
v) Feedback: Feedback is the process through which the speaker receives information about
how his/her message has been received by the listeners, and his/her response to those cues.
The feedback process is not complete until the speaker has responded to the listener.

Improving Fluency and Self-Expression

Fluency: Fluency is the natural flow of words without any unnecessary pauses and repetition. It has
the following components:
i) Ability to compose and speak meaningful utterances by using appropriate vocabulary and
grammar skills.
ii) Appropriate use of macro-skills of grammar and pronunciation such as subject-verb
agreement, tense formation, clause linkage, use of transitional words, basic intonation
patterns, rhythm, and so on.
 9

iii) Confident of the content of one’s speech in order to be fluent.

In order to improve self-expression and achieve the desired clarity and fluency, articulation,
pronunciation, voice quality, accent, and intonation need to be improved. These five important aspects
are briefly described below.
a) Articulation: In order to speak English fluently, clearly, and confidently, articulation has to be
improved. It is basically our ability to modify voice or breath with tongue, teeth, lips, and other
organs of speech in order to produce speech sounds. Good articulation helps us to speak more
distinctly and focus attention on our message.
English has 44 speech sounds that include twelve pure vowels (monophthongs), eight diphthongs, and
twenty-four consonants. Regular practice is required to be able to articulate them correctly. To be an
effective speaker one must practice articulation of difficult English vowel and consonant sounds,
change faulty speech patterns, and practice appropriate and correct speech patterns. Moreover, one
needs proper eartraining to be sensitive to sounds.
b) ‘Good’ Pronunciation: An important aspect of improving expression is learning ‘good’
pronunciation. Pronunciation is the manner of uttering or speaking (words and sounds), and
‘good’ pronunciation is the way of speaking that ordinary people find easy to understand. As
dictionaries give the pronunciation of a word in phonemic symbols, it is essential to be familiar
with phonemic transcription. In addition, one should learn effective pronunciation techniques.
Interestingly, there is no such thing as a ‘correct pronunciation’ because there is no one right
way of speaking. The pronunciation of English varies from one country to another and there are
marked pronunciation features associated with English spoken in important English-speaking
countries like the United Kingdom, United States of America, Canada, and Australia. Even
within the United Kingdom, there are variations between England, Scotland, Wales, and
Northern Ireland. One particular accent, called Received Pronunciation (RP) has come to be
accepted as the standard in the United Kingdom. Thus, it is better to consider pronunciation in
terms of ‘acceptable pronunciation’ and ‘unacceptable pronunciation’ rather than correct or
incorrect pronunciation. Acceptable pronunciation is, clearly intelligible to all ordinary people
whereas ‘unacceptable pronunciation’ refers to a way of talking that is difficult for most people
to understand.
c) Voice Quality: It is essential to refine the quality of one’s voice and learn to adjust or vary its
tone or pitch (i.e. voice modulation). As voice modulation gives variety to oral delivery, it can
improve expression during oral presentations, speeches, debates, conferences, group
discussions, and meetings. An impressive voice may be a God gift but voice quality can be
improved by proper voice training and regular practice.
d) Accent and Intonation: Unlike most Indian languages, which are syllabic, English is a
stressed language. In syllabic languages, such as Hindi or Bengali, each syllable receives equal
importance. However, English pronunciation focuses on specific stressed words while non-
stressed words or syllables are spoken fast. This means that the stressed words/syllables stand
out from the rest, are usually said more loudly, on a different pitch, and are held for a longer
time than the other word/syllable or words/syllables.
Intonation is the variation of the pitch of the voice. When we speak, we can notice the
variations in the level at which our voice is pitched. Sometimes the pitch of our voice rises,
sometimes it falls, and at other times it remains level. We should learn correct intonation
patterns. It is essential to improve self-expression.
 10

Types of Tones
There are several tones. However, we will discuss three of them, i.e., falling tone, rising tone, and
falling rising tone.
Tonic Syllable: Tonic syllable is the syllable on which the pitch change begins. Some people call it the
‘nucleus’. Look at the following sentences:
'Who’s your 'father?
In this sentence, there is a high static tone on the syllable “who’s”, i.e., the accented syllable is on a
level pitch. However, the tone starts falling down on the last stressed syllable ‘fa’, i.e., the voice slides
down from the original pitch, becoming softer and softer until it stops. Thus, ‘fa’ is the tonic syllable or
the nucleus.
Falling Tone The pitch of our voice falls on the tonic syllable in a falling tone. We use the falling tone
in ordinary statements (assertive sentences, including both affirmative and negative, without any
implication), wh-questions (questions beginning with a wh-word, such as what, when, where, and so
on), polite expressions, greetings, imperative sentences (commands, prohibitions, and so forth), and
exclamatory sentences.
Rising Tone: The pitch of our voice rises on the tonic syllable in a rising tone. We use a rising tone in
polite questions, conditional expressions, polite requests, direct questions (requiring yes/no answers),
and incomplete utterances.
Falling-rising Tone: There is a change in the pitch from high to low in a falling-rising tone. You use
this tone when you are in doubt or want to convey some implicit or special meaning. Study the
following examples (The symbol ⁄ is used here to indicate a rise and fall of tone):

1. Her 'husband is ⁄smart. (Implied meaning: Her husband is smart but not intelligent)

2. I don’t 'want to 'go to the ⁄party. (I don’t want to go but I’ll go because you want me to go.)

3. The ‘place is ⁄nice. (The place is nice but the people are not.)

Rhythm in Connected Speech

Rhythm is a pattern of successive accented and unaccented syllables in an utterance or a sentence. In
connected speech in English, one sound is linked closely to the next in such a way that is difficult to
tell exactly where one word ends and the next begins. This linking of words and phrases affects our
pronunciation in more than one way and helps to maintain rhythm in speech.
Rhythm is an important characteristic feature of English speech. In an utterance or a sentence in
connected speech, some syllables stand out from the rest and are stressed, while some syllables remain
unstressed. In fact, stressed and unstressed syllables make a pattern in connected speech and this
pattern is known as rhythm. Speak the following sentences aloud to understand this feature of English
speech:
1. Can I 'help you?
2. 'What can I 'do for you?
 11

3. I am 'pleased to 'meet you.

4. I am 'glad to 'meet you.
In the first sentence above, there is one stressed syllable and three unstressed syllables, while in each
of the remaining sentences there are two stressed and four unstressed syllables. Thus, it is evident that
in every sentence or utterance there are some syllables that stand out from the rest and are stressed.
The rhythm in English pronunciation is maintained by pronouncing the stressed syllables carefully
while the unstressed syllables are crowded together between the stressed syllables.

PHONETICS
Phonetics: Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, including how they are produced, perceived, and
represented by written symbols. It's a branch of linguistics that examines the physical properties of
speech, including the configuration of the vocal tract and the acoustic qualities of sounds. there is no
‘one-to-one correspondence’ between letters and sounds in English as it is in many Indian languages.
This is the reason why many Indians find it difficult to learn English pronunciation.
Speech Mechanism and Biological basis of speech:
The steady stream of air as we exhale is the energy source for speech production. Sounds which come
from our mouth, or even our nose, are the result of interruptions of a stream of air moving from the
lungs through trachea, larynx, pharynx, oral cavity, nasal cavity. The various organs involved in the
production of speech are called Speech Organs or Vocal Organs.
 12

Tongue:
• The tongue is one of the most versatile articulators and plays a significant role in shaping
speech sounds.
• It can move forward and backward, up and down, and touch various parts of the mouth to
produce different sounds.
• For example, the tip of the tongue is involved in producing sounds like “t,” “d,” “n,” and “l,”
while the back of the tongue is used for sounds like “k,” “g,” and “ng.”
Lips:
• The lips are essential for producing labial sounds, which involve the use of the lips to shape the
airflow.
• Sounds like “p,” “b,” “m,” “f,” and “v” are all labial sounds, where the lips either close or
come close together during articulation.
Teeth:
• The teeth are involved in producing sounds like “th” as in “think” and “this.”
• In these sounds, the tip of the tongue is placed against the upper front teeth, creating a unique
airflow pattern.
Alveolar Ridge:
• The alveolar ridge is a small ridge just behind the upper front teeth.
• Sounds like “t,” “d,” “s,” “z,” “n,” and “l” involve the tongue making contact with or near the
alveolar ridge.
Palate:
• The palate, also known as the roof of the mouth, plays a role in producing sounds like “sh” and
“ch.”
• These sounds, known as postalveolar or palato-alveolar sounds, involve the tongue articulating
against the area just behind the alveolar ridge.
Velum (Soft Palate):
• The velum is the soft part at the back of the mouth.
• It is raised to close off the nasal cavity during the production of non-nasal sounds like “p,” “b,”
“t,” and “d” and lowered to allow airflow through the nose for nasal sounds like “m,” “n,” and
“ng.”
Glottis:
• The glottis is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx.
• It plays a role in producing sounds like “h,” where the vocal cords remain open, allowing the
airflow to pass through without obstruction.
 13

By combining the movements and positions of these articulators, we can produce the vast range of
speech sounds used in different languages around the world. Understanding the role of articulators is
fundamental to the study of phonetics and speech production.
Phonetic Transcription: Phonemic symbols of English are a reliable guide to the English
pronunciation. It is, thus, the writing of a language by means of a separate symbol for every sound. A
pronunciation symbol or a phonemic symbol represents each English sound. As the letters of the
English alphabet can be a poor guide to pronunciation, it is advisable to learn the phonemic symbols of
English because these symbols are a reliable guide to English pronunciation.
Consonants: A consonant sound may be defined as a speech sound that is produced with stoppage of
air. For example, to say the word ‘paper’ our lips try to stop air from passing through while producing
the sound ‘p’. Thus, the voice or breath in consonants is partially hindered by the tongue, teeth, lips, or
other organs of articulation. There are twenty-four consonant sounds in English. These consonant
sounds are classified according to the manner and place of articulation.

There are two ways to classify these consonants through their manner and place of articulation:
 14

a) Consonants and their places of articulation:

1) Bilabial: The lips act as articulators [/p/ /b/ /m/]

2) Labio-dental: The lower lips articulate with the upper teeth [/f/ /v/]
3) Dental: The tongue tip and the rims articulate with the upper teeth [/θ/ and /ð/]
4) Alveolar: The blade, or the tip and blade articulate with the alveolar ridge [/t/ /d/ /l/ /n/ /s/ /z/]
5) Post-alveolar: The tip of the tongue articulates with the rear part of the alveolar ridge [/r/]
6) Retroflex: The tip of the tongue is curled back to articulate with part of the hard palate that lies
immediately behind the alveolar ridge. The American pronunciation of /r/
7) Palato-alveolar: The blade or the tip and blade of the tongue articulate with the alveolar ridge
and at the same time the front of the tongue is raised toward the hard palate [/ʃ/ /ʒ/ /ʈʃ/ /dʒ/]
8) Palatal: The front of the tongue articulates with the hard palate [/j/]
9) Velar: The back of the tongue articulates with the soft palate [/k/ /g/ /ŋ/]
10) Glottal: An obstruction or narrowing that causes friction but not the vibration of vocal folds
[/h/]

b) Consonants and their manner of articulation:

1) Stops or Plosives: A stop consonant completely cuts off the airflow through the mouth [/p/, /b/,
/t/, /d/, /k/, /g/]
2) Fricatives: In a fricative consonant, the articulators involved in the constriction approach get
close enough to each other to create a turbluent airstream. The fricatives of English are [f], [v],
[θ], [ð], [s], [z], [ʃ], and [ʒ].
3) Approximants: In an approximant, the articulators involved in the constriction are further apart
still than they are for a fricative. The articulators are still closer to each other than when the
vocal tract is in its neutral position, but they are not even close enough to cause the air passing
between them to become turbulent. The approximants of English are [w], [j], [ɹ], and [l].
4) Affricates: An affricate is a single sound composed of a stop portion and a fricative portion. We
begin with a complete closure but instead of finishing the articulation quickly and moving
directly into the next sound, the tongue pulls away from the stop slowly, so that there is a
period of time immediately after the stop where the constriction is narrow enough to cause a
turbulent airstream. English affricates are [dʒ] [tʃ].
5) Laterals: Sounds which involve airflow around the side of the tongue are called laterals. [l] is
the only lateral in English.

Vowels: Unlike a consonant sound, a vowel sound is unobstructed in articulation by the tongue, teeth,
or lips. During the articulation of a vowel sound, the active articulator is raised towards the passive
articulator in such a way that there is a sufficient gap between the two for air to escape through the
mouth without friction. English has 20 vowel sounds: 12 Monophthongs and 8 Diphthongs
 15

Minimal Pairs: A minimal pair is a group of words that differ from each other only in one sound.
However, this difference brings about a change in meaning. For example, the words
‘fill’ and ‘till’ differ only in the first consonant sound but they mean different things.
They are minimal pairs. Read the following minimal pairs aloud:
 16

Syllables: A unit of speech that can be stressed in different ways, depending on the language and the
word.

Word and Sentence Stress: In linguistics, stress means, an emphasis or prominence given to a certain
syllable in a word, or to a certain word in a phrase or sentence. English speakers use two kinds of
stress when the speak—word stress and sentence stress.
Word stress or lexical stress: Is saying one syllable of a word longer than the others eg: TEACHer,
JaPAN, CHINa, converSAtion, INteresting, deMAND,

Rules for word stress

i) A word can have only one stress. In a very long word, there can be a minor secondary
stress
ii) Only vowels are stressed, not consonants
iii) For nouns and adjectives, mostly the first syllable is stressed eg: CLImate, KNOWLedge,
FLIPpant, SPAcious
iv) For verbs mostly the last syllable is stressed eg: reQUIRE, deCIDE
v) Words that end in “-ic” and “-ion” often have the stress on the second to last syllable eg:
ecSTATIC, geoGRAphic, exTENsion, retriBUtion

Rules for sentence stress

i) In a sentence some words are stressed while others are weak when we speak.
This can be determined by the meaning that we want to convey or some grammatical rules.
For eg:
WE want to go and play
We BOTH want to go and play
We both and to go and PLAY
ii) Content words are the key words of a sentence. They are often stressed in a sentence
iii) Structure words are filler words that make a sentence grammatically correct. They are
usually unstressed

[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
Refer to these videos for pronunciation of vowels and consonants