An Introduction to

Statistical Analysis

Ariel F. Melad
Faculty, Cagayan State University

Revised: July 2025

 Self – assessment Survey

1. What did you

know about
STATISTICS?

2. What do you want to knowFeel

in free to comment your
STATISTICS? answer on the picture.
 Objectives
At the end of this module, students are expected
to:
• define statistics and statistical analysis
• identify different types of variables
• employ and compare the different methods in collecting data
• collect statistical data both quantitative and qualitative
• classify data according to level of measurement
• develop tables and charts for categorical and numerical data
• identify appropriate sampling method to use in a given
population
• apply statistics in business and economics
• apply the statistical analysis process
 Introduction to Statistical Analysis

TOPICS:

1.1 Definitions of Statistics and Statistical Analysis

1.2 Why study Statistics?
1.3 Types of Statistics
1.4 Types of Data
1.5 Measurement Scales
1.6 Collection of Data
1.7 Organization and Presentation of Data
1.8 The Statistical Analysis
Statistics???
 Introduction to Statistical Analysis

1.1 Definitions of Statistics

Statistics is a science that deals with the

collection, organization, presentation, analysis
and interpretation of data to make decisions.

Plural form: set of numerical data

Two Major Areas of Statistics

Source: Khan, R (2025). Statistics Made

Easy. [Link]
 Introduction to Statistical Analysis
Examples:
Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics

A housewife wants to determine A housewife would like to predict,

the average monthly amount she based on here last year’s grocery
spent on groceries in the past 6 bill, the average weekly amount
months. she will spent on groceries for this
year.
A politician wants to know the A politician would like to estimate,
exact percentages of votes cast based on an opinion poll, his
for him in the last election. chance for reelection in the
upcoming election.
A bowler wants to find his A bowler wants to estimate his
bowling average for the past 6 chance of winning a game based
games. on his performance and his
opponents.
 Introduction to Statistical Analysis

Identify whether Descriptive or Inferential

• Two players in our team have been AFK during

our last 2 games.
• Content marketing is expected to continue
growing over the next two years.
• Maya Loan releases hit 47 billion pesos to a
million borrowers. [Philippine star,2024]
• Hence, most Filipinos do not have money.
 Introduction to Statistical Analysis

1.2 Definition of Statistical Analysis

• Statistical Analysis is a science

concerned with the organization and
interpretation of data according to well-
defined, systematic, and mathematical
procedures and rules.
Introduction to Statistical Analysis
 Introduction to Statistical Analysis

Major characteristics of statistics:

• Statistics are the aggregates of facts. It means a single

figure is not statistics. For example, national income of a
country for a single year is not statistics but the same for
two or more years is statistics.

• Statistics are affected by a number of factors. For

example, sale of a product depends on a number of
factors such as its price, quality, competition, the income
of the consumers, and so on.
 Introduction to Statistical Analysis

• Statistics must be reasonably accurate. Wrong figures, if

analyzed, will lead to erroneous conclusions. Hence, it is
necessary that conclusions must be based on accurate
figures.
• Statistics must be collected systematically. If data are
collected haphazardly, they will not be reliable and will
lead to misleading conclusions.
• Lastly, statistics should be placed concerning each
other. If one collects data unrelated to each other, then
such data will be confusing and will not lead to any
logical conclusions. Data should be comparable over
time and over space.
1.2 Why Study Statistics?

Source: Khan, R (2025). Statistics Made

Easy. [Link]
 1.2 Why Study Statistics?

General Uses of Statistics

• aids in decision making
✓provides comparison
✓explains action that have taken place
✓justifies a claim or assertion
✓predicts future outcome
✓estimates unknown quantities
• summarizes data for public use
 1.2 Why Study Statistics?

Data give us information that we need. They serve as our basis

for planning and decision making. In business, decision makers
use statistics to:
• Present and describe business data and information properly.
• Draw conclusions about large groups of individuals or items,
using information collected from subsets of the individuals or
items.
• Make reliable forecasts about a business activity.
• Improve business processes.
 Introduction to Statistical Analysis
Why do we collect data?
• A marketing research analyst needs to assess the
effectiveness of a new television advertisement.
• A pharmaceutical manufacturer needs to determine whether
a new drug is more effective than those currently in use.
• An operations manager wants to monitor a manufacturing
process to find out whether the quality of the product being
manufactured is conforming to company standards.
• An auditor wants to review the financial transactions of a
company in order to determine whether the company is in
compliance with generally accepted accounting principles.
 Introduction to Statistical Analysis
Population vs. Sample
Population a collection of all the elements under
consideration in a statistical inquiry

Sample a part (or subset) of the population

from which data are collected
Example:

A manufacturer of kerosene heaters wants to determine if customers

are satisfied with the performance of their heaters. Toward this goal,
5,000 of his 200,000 customers are contacted and each is asked “Are
you satisfied with the performance of the kerosene heater you
purchased?”
Identify the population and sample.
 Introduction to Statistical Analysis

• Example 1. A candidate for political office hires a polling

firm to assess his chances in the upcoming election. The
population consists of all voters in the candidate’s
district. The sample consists of all voters in the
candidate’s district interviewed by the polling firm.

• Example 2. The researcher would like to determine the

number of Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) in
Region 2. The population consists of all SMEs in the
region while sample consist of all SMEs particularly in
Cagayan only.
 Introduction to Statistical Analysis
Sample Size Calculation

1. Cochran’s Formula
2. Sample size calculator by Raosoft
3. Sample size calculator by Qualtrics
4. Sample size calculator by Monkey Survey
5. Sample size calculator by Smart Survey
6. G-power
7. Slovin’s formula
 Introduction to Statistical Analysis

Example:
An entrepreneur will conduct a survey to find out
the acceptability of the new product in the market.
If there are 30,000 residents in the district and they
want 5% margin of error, how many people living
there should be respondents in the survey?
Solution:
 Definition of Terms
Parameter vs. Statistic
Parameter a numerical characteristic of the
population
Statistic a numerical characteristic of the
sample
Example: In order to estimate the true proportion of
employees at a certain office who smoke cigarettes,
the personnel department polled a sample of 200
employees and determined that the proportion of
employees from the sample who smoke cigarettes is 0.12.
What are the parameter and statistic in this situation?
 Definition of terms
Variable or data refers to the characteristics or
properties whereby members of the group or set
vary from one another. A characteristic or
information of interest that is observable or
measurable from every individual or object under
consideration.

Example: Gender, Age, Occupation, Profit of the

organization, expenditure, number of customers,
employee’s ID number, etc.
 1.4 Types of Data

Data

Categorical Scale

Nominal Ordinal Discrete Continuous

 Types of Data
1. Qualitative or Categorical (non-numeric) measures a
quality or characteristics.
Examples: Employment status, Marital Status, Political
Party, Eye Color, etc.

2. Quantitative or Scale (numeric) measures a numerical

quantity or amount. It answer the question “how much” or
“how many”.
Examples: family income, expenditures, profit, number of
customers, height, etc.
Types of Quantitative Data
• Discrete data assumes only a finite or countable
number of values.
Example: number of customer in the selling area, Class
size, number of household, number of sibling, etc.

• Continuous data assumes infinitely many values

corresponding to the points on a line interval or whose
set of values is uncountable.
Examples: profit of the company, family income, height,
weight etc.
 1.5 Measurement Scales

Measurement is the process of determining the

value or label of the variable of interest based on
what have been observed.

1. Nominal Scale used with variables that are

qualitative in nature. The data collected are
simply labels, categories or nameless without
any implicit or explicit ordering of the categories
or explicit ordering of the labels. It is the lowest
level of measurement.
 1.5 Measurement Scales

Examples:
• Sex /Gender
• The complexion of students
• Hair Color of students
• Marital status
 Measurement Scales
2. Ordinal scale has a relative low level of property of
magnitude, but it does not have the property of equal
intervals between the adjacent units. This is concerned
with the ranking or order of the objects measured. The
level of measurement is higher than nominal.
Examples:
• Winners of a contest
• Faculty Rank
• Military Rank
• Student class designation
• Student grades
• Product satisfaction
 Measurement Scales
3. Interval scale has its property of magnitude and equal
interval between two adjacent units, but it does not have
an absolute zero point, that is the number zero is
arbitrarily assigned and does not mean the absence of
the characteristic under consideration. The level of
measurement is higher than the ordinal.

Examples:
• Temperature in Celsius scale
• IQ of zero does not mean total absence of knowledge.
• Military time
 Measurement Scales

4. Ratio scale is the highest level of measurement scale.

It has all the properties of an interval scale, that is, it
has magnitude and equal intervals plus the absolute
zero point. Furthermore, the number zero indicates the
absence of the characteristic under consideration.

Examples:
• The reaction time to a particular drug
• The number of visits to a Doctor,
• The weight loss of on diet individual,
• The average score of CAT score of CAS students
Measurement Scales
 Definitions
Dependent vs. Independent variable

Dependent variable is sometimes called

criterion variables while the Independent
variable is sometimes called predictor variables
or a variable that can be controlled or
manipulated.

independent variable - presume cause

dependent variable - presume effect.
 Independent vs. Dependent
Example 1. Suppose the investigator is interested
in the relationships between two variables: the
effect of information about the gender of a job
applicant on hiring decisions made by personnel
managers. The hiring decision is the dependent
variable because it is thought to depend on the
information about the gender of the applicant,
while the gender of the applicant is independent
because it is assumed to influence the dependent
variable and does not “depend” on the other
variable.
 Independent vs. Dependent

Example 2. “Study on the effect of

Psychological stress on blood pressure”

the Independent variable is the amount

Psychological stress an individual feeling
and the dependent variable is the
individual’s blood pressure.
 Independent vs. Dependent

• The effect of online advertising on sales

• Lung cancer due to smoking cigarettes
• The size of the store and amount of
expenditure
1.6 Collection of Data
2 types of data
• Primary data refers to the information
gathered directly from an original source
or based on the direct or firsthand
experience
• secondary data refers to the information
which is previously gathered by previous
individual.
 1.6 Collection of Data
Methods of Collecting Data
1. Interview Method is a person-to-person
exchange between the interviewee and the
interviewer. It provides consistent and more
precise information.
Methods of Collecting Data

2 types:

• Direct Method. The researcher personally interviews

the respondent. Basically the researcher visits the
interviewee for a specific time available or scheduled
time by the interviewee. A focus group discussion
(FGD) can also be used to interview a group of
respondents. The method is appropriate if the
information is only minimal and less number of
samples.
 Methods of Collecting Data

• Indirect Method. The researcher uses

telephone or any device to interview the
respondents. This method is quite expensive
especially if there so many respondents. This
method is considered biased because people
with no telephone cannot have the chance to be
included as sample in the study.

Disadvantages: Time consuming, Expensive and

has limited coverage.
 Methods of Collecting Data

2. Questionnaire Method is a written

response given to prepared questions.
Questionnaire is a list of well-planned
questions to illicit answers to the problems
of the study.
 Questionnaire Method

• Multiple choice. Questions that contain

several alternatives.
• Dichotomous. Questions having two
afterlives available. Multiple choice and
dichotomous are close-ended questions.
• Open-ended. Questions where respondent
are free to formulate his own answer and
expand on the subject of the question.
 Questionnaire Method
• Pitfalls encountered in constructing survey
questionnaire:
[Link] ordering of questions
[Link]-barreled questions
[Link] or threatening questions
[Link] questions
[Link] or non-exhaustive listing
[Link] wording
 Examples of Pitfalls in Question Construction
• Incorrect ordering of questions
Q7. How would you rate the scent of lotion X?
Q8. What do you think of lotion X?

Improvement: ________________________________________
________________________________________
• Double-barreled questions

“Does your department have a special recruitment policy for

ethnic minorities and women?”

Improvement: ____________________________________
_____________________________________
• Sensitive or Threatening Questions
“Do you steal office supplies? Yes _____ No _____
Improvement: ____________________________________________
____________________________________________
• Unrealistic questions

“What brand of perfume do you think you will be using three years
from now?”
Improvement: ____________________________________________
____________________________________________
• Incomplete/non-exhaustive listing
“Did you learn about the brand from TV, radio, newspaper, or
friends?”
Improvement: ____________________________________________
____________________________________________
• Biased Wording

“Do you think that decent, low-cost funerals are sensible?

Improvement: ____________________________________________
____________________________________________

• Leading questions

“The majority of physicians in the Philippines feel that

smoking is harmful; do you agree?”

Improvement: ________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
 Methods of Collecting Data

3. Registration Method is a method of

gathering information or data is enforced by
the law. The examples of data gathered
using this method are data obtained from
National Statistics Office, DepEd, CHED,
SEC, Supreme Court and many government
agencies.
 Methods of Collecting Data

4. Observation Method where the

investigator observes the behavior of the
subject and their outcomes. The subject
usually cannot talk or write and it requires a
proper recording of the behavior at the
appropriate time and situation. It is
commonly used in psychological and
anthropological studies.
 Methods of Collecting Data
5. Experiment method is a method of
gathering data when the objective is to
determine the cause and effect relationship
of a phenomenon under controlled
conditions.

Key variables:
(1) independent variable - treatment
(2) dependent variable - measurement
• Other variable:
Extraneous variables are not part of the
experiment but can influence the result.
 Sampling Techniques
1. Random sampling techniques is a
process of selecting samples in such a
way that all individuals in the defined
population have an equal chance of being
selected as sample, the process being
called is randomization
2. Non Random Sampling is a process of
selecting samples wherein not all
members are given equal chances to be
chosen as a sample
 Random Sampling
a. Simple Random Sampling (SRS)

• Lottery Sampling. It is the most common and the easiest

method of random sampling where a group of sample is
selected from a population. The names of respondents
are written in a pieces of papers then rolled and place in
bowl. The respondents who are included in the study are
those names written on the piece of paper picked at
random from the bowl.

• Use of table of random numbers. The samples can be

selected using table of random numbers or using
random numbers from a scientific calculator.
 Random Sampling
b. Stratified Sampling is a process of selecting
sample in such a way that identified sub-groups or
strata in the population are presented in the
sample in the same proportion that they exist in
the population.

Population must be first divided into homogeneity

to avoid the possibility of drawing samples whose
member come only from one stratum. It is often
called stratified proportional sampling.
 Random Sampling

Steps:
• Identify and define the population.
• Determine the sample size using Slovin’s
Formula.
• Identify the sub-groups (or strata)
• Classify all members of the population as
members of the identified strata.
• Randomly select samples.
 Random Sampling
Illustration: Consider the data on Population of
Barangay Malaya according to socio-economic
status.
Sample
Strata Population Percentage Computation
size, n

High income 500 0.05 385*.05 19

Middle
Income 2,500 0.25 385*.25 96
Low Income 7,000 0.7 385*.7 270
TOTAL 10,000 385
 Random Sampling
c. Cluster Sampling sometimes referred to as an
area sampling because it is frequently applied on
geographical basis. On this basis, districts or
blocks of a municipality or city are selected. The
sample clusters may be chosen by SRS or by
systematic sampling. These districts or blocks
constitute the cluster. The number of clusters C in
the population is called the size of the population
of clusters. Clusters may be of equal or unequal
sizes.
 Random Sampling

Example 1. A community has a lower,

middle and upper income residents living
side by side, we may use this community as
a source of a sample to study the different
socio-economic status. By concentrating on
this particular area, we can save time, effort
and money.
 Random Sampling

Example 2. A forester wishes to estimate

the average height of coconut trees on a
plantation. The plantation is divided into 386
plots. An SRS of 20 is selected and all trees
on the sampled plots are measured.
 Random Sampling

d. Systematic Sampling with a random

start is a method of selecting a sample by
taking every k th unit from an ordered
population, the first unit being selected at
random. Here k is called the sampling
interval and 1/k the sampling fraction.
 Random Sampling
Sample Selection Procedure (for n that is a
divisor of N)
[Link] the units of the population consecutively
from 1 to N.
2. Determine k by the formula.
k = N / n = population size/sample size
3. Select the random start r (from 1 to k). The unit
corresponding to r is the first unit of the
sample.
4. The other units of the sample correspond
to the labels, r + k, r + 2k, ..., r+(n-1)k
 Random Sampling
Example 1. A medical investigator is
interested in obtaining information about
the average number of times N = 15,000
specialists prescribed a certain drug in the
previous year. To obtain a sample of n =
500 specialists, we could select one
specialist at random from the first k = 30
names appearing on the list and then select
every 30th name thereafter until a sample of
size 500 is selected.
 Random Sampling

e. Multi-Stage sampling is a technique

uses several stages or phases in getting
the sample. The population is first divided
into a number of first-stage or primary
units, from which a sample is drawn.
Within the sampled first-stage units, a
sample of second-stage or secondary
units is drawn.
 Random Sampling
Example. The following is one possible set up for
school surveys.
Sample Stage
Primary Department
Secondary Program
Third stage Major
Fourth state Year level
 Non-Random Sampling

a. Purposive Sampling is based on the

criteria or a certain characteristics lay
down by the researcher. People who
satisfy the criteria are interviewed.
 Non-Random Sampling

Example 1. A researcher may want to find

out the central bank circular, instead of
interviewing the executives of all banks, he
purposely can choose to interview the key
executives of only five biggest banks in the
country.
 Non-Random Sampling

Example 2. A researcher wants to catch out

the profitability of SMEs in Tuguegrao,
hence, the researcher may randomly select
SME owners from the chosen area.
 Non-Random Sampling

b. Quota Sampling is relatively quick and

inexpensive method to operate. Each
interviewer is given definite instruction
about the section of the public he is to
question, but the final choice of the actual
person is left to his own convenience or
preference.
Example 1. A researcher want to determine
the favorite teams of the PBA. His quota is
say 100 basketball fans. The researcher
may reach his quota by going to the
ARANETA coliseum to enjoy watching the
game at the same time interview thrilled
viewers during the game.
c. Convenience Sampling is done where in
a researcher may get his sample at his
own convenience.
 Non-Random Sampling

Example 1. A researcher wants to find out

the most cost- effective fertilizer that could
give a better yield among farmers. Hence,
the researcher may gather data from his
barangay because this is the most
accessible for him to gather the data.
 Non-Random Sampling

d. Accidental or incidental sampling is a

process of getting a subject of study that
is only available during the period.
 Non-Random Sampling

Example 1. If the researcher wants to

determine the top seller brand of toothpaste
in the region, then the researcher would
identify the pick shopping hours in a certain
mall and stand by at the exit gate and
interview.
 Non-Random Sampling
e. Snowball sampling can happen in a
number of ways, but generally it is when
a group of people recommends potential
participants for a study, or directly recruits
them for the study. Those participants
then recommend additional participants,
and so on, thus building up like a
snowball rolling down a hill.
 Non-Random Sampling

• If you are trying to recruit people who are

difficult to identify or have to meet certain
criteria to participate, then snowball
sampling can be used to ease data
collection
 Non-Random Sampling

Cases Wherein Nonprobability Sampling

is Useful
• Researchers do not have enough
resources to implement probability
sampling.
• There are very few respondents who are
willing to be interviewed.
• It is extremely difficult to locate or identify
subjects.
Organization and Presentation of Data

Methods of Presenting Data

[Link] method
[Link] method
[Link] method
 Organization and Presentation of Data

1. Textual Method. Presents data in

narrative form to describe the data
collected.
Example 1:
The top three prospective investing countries for the third
quarter of 2015 include the Netherlands, Japan and
South Korea. The Netherlands pledged PhP
27.7 billion or 56.9 percent share during the quart
er while Japan and South Korea committed PhP
4.1 billion and PhP 3.6 billion, or 8.4 percent and 7.5
percent of the total approved FI, respectively.[source:
[Link], 2015]
 Organization and Presentation of Data

Example 2.

Most Filipino couples prefer to tie the knot in

May. Around 12% of all weddings in 2015 or
50,469 ceremonies were in held in May,
recent data from the Philippine Statistics
Authority(PSA) showed.
 Organization and Presentation of Data

2. Tabular Method. Presents data in

condensed form by arranging them
systematically in rows and columns .A
statistical table that can be constructed to
present a data collected is the Frequency
Distribution Table (FDT).
 Organization and Presentation of Data
Some Guidelines in Presenting Tables
• A title should be provided which includes the type of
information given and any relevant dates.
• Row and column labels should be precise.
• Categories should not overlap.
• The units of measure must be clearly stated.
• Show any relevant total, subtotals, percentages, etc.
• Indicate if the data were taken from another publication
by including a source note.
• Formal tables should be self-explanatory, although they
may be accompanied by a paragraph of interpretation or
a paragraph directing attention to important figures.
Organization and Presentation of Data

Table 3. Average monthly wages of 143 employees of

ABC Company

Monthly Wages (Rs) No. of Workers

800-1,000 18
1,000-1,200 25
1,200-1,400 30
1,400-1,600 34
1,600-1,800 26
1,800-2,000 10
Total 143

Source: ABC Company, Western INDIA

Organization and Presentation of Data

Table 1. Blood Types of 25 Patients Afflicted with certain

Disease

Blood Type Number of Patients Percentage

O 9 36%

A 5 20%

B 6 24%

AB 5 20%

Total 25 100%
Source: CARAGA General Hospital, Philippines
 Frequency distribution table

• Frequency distribution table (FDT) for

Quantitative type of data

If the classes are numerical and discrete, we

construct our FDT as follows:
Frequency distribution table
 Frequency distribution table
Step 3. Compute the class size (i) or class
width by rounding top the nearest value
whose precisions is the same as those of
the raw data
i = R/K
Step 4. Determine the classes by starting
with the lowest class with the lowest value in
our data or the highest class with the highest
score.
 Frequency distribution table

Step 5. Sort or tally the data into these

classes.

Step 6. Count the number of tallies in each

class and write them under frequency
column. We usually omit the tally column
in presenting the FDT.
 Frequency distribution table

Step 7. Build additional columns to obtain

other information about the distributional
characteristics of the data. These are
• Class Boundaries (CB)
• Class Mark or Midpoint (X)
• Relative Frequency (RF)
• Cumulative frequencies CF
Example: ABC Company, Inc.
Suppose we are given the number of goods delivered for
a given 40 outlets. The numbers below are called raw
data
120 133 180 138
140 150 170 153
161 149 124 168
148 139 161 142
130 143 137 147
165 138 147 167
156 148 128 118
146 150 149 129
142 158 152 150
175 151 142 157
 Example: ABC Company, Inc.

Solution:
Step 1. R = 180-118 = 62
Step 2. K = 40 = 6.32 = 6 (round off)
Step 3. C = 62/6 = 10.33 = 11(round up)

Step 4, 5 and 6
 Example: ABC Company, Inc.

Solution:
Step 1. R = 100.8-59.2 = 41.6
Step 2. K = 25 = 5 (round off)
Step 3. C = 41.6/5 = 8.32 = 9(round up)

Step 4, 5 and 6
Example: ABC Company, Inc.

Classes CB f X RF% <CF >CF

118 - 128 117.5 – 128.5 4 123 10.0% 4 40

129 - 139 128.5 – 139.5 7 134 17.5% 11 36

140 - 150 139.5 – 150.5 15 145 37.5% 26 29

151 - 161 150.5 – 161.5 8 156 20.0% 34 14

162 - 172 161.5 – 172.5 4 167 10.0% 38 6

173 - 183 172.5 – 183.5 2 178 5% 40 2

 Example: ABC Company, Inc.
Classes CB f X RF% <CF >CF

59.2 - 68.1

68.2 - 77.1

77.2 - 86.1

86.2 - 95.1

95.2 - 104.1
 Stem-and-leaf plot
11 8
12 0489
13 039878
14 086293879227
15 600812307
16 15187
17 50
18 0
19
 Stem-and-leaf plot
2
3
4
5 9.2,
6 6.6,6.7,6.8,5.3,
7 0.2,1,5.4,8.5,8.5,2,9.9,6.2,
8 6.9,2.5,0.8,7.8
9 2.8,2.9,7.3,2.8,4.1
10 0.8,
 Interpretation
• ABC Company, Inc. has recorded the
highest number of goods delivered in 40
outlets is 140 – 150 which is estimated
almost 38% of its outlets. There were 11 or
27.5% outlets which is below the average
number of goods delivered while 14 or 35%
are above the average number of deliveries.
The highest number of goods delivered is
180 while the lowest number is 118.
[source: ABC Company, Inc.]
 Graphical Presentation of Data
Qualities of a Good Graph
• Accuracy. A graph should not be
deceptive, distorted, misleading, or in any
way susceptible to wrong interpretations
as a result of inaccurate or careless
construction.
• Simplicity. The basic design of a graph
should be simple, straightforward, not
loaded with irrelevant or trivial symbols
and ornamentation.
 Graphical Presentation of Data

• Clarity. The graph should be easily read

and understood; there should be a forceful
and unmistakable focus on the message
that the graph is trying to communicate.
• Appearance. A good graph is one that one
that is designed and constructed to
attract and hold attention by holding a
neat, dignified, and professional
appearance.
 Common Types of Graphs
[Link] graph
[Link] chart/Column chart
[Link] chart
[Link]
[Link] graph
1. Line Graph is a graphical presentation of
data especially useful for showing trends
over a period of time.
Example of LINE graph
Example of Multiple line graph
Example of Multiple line graph
 BAR GRAPH

2. Bar graph consist of series of rectangular

bars where the length of the bar represents
the magnitude to be demonstrated.
 BAR GRAPH

• Use horizontal arrangement of the

individual bars when comparison of
categories is being made.
• Use vertical arrangement of the individual
bars when chronological comparisons are
being made.
 Bar Graph

a. Column charts can be used for vertical

arrangement of the individual bars when
chronological comparisons are being made.
The emphasis is on the magnitude of data
set.
BAR GRAPH

Source: Philippine Statistics Authority, National Accounts

BAR GRAPH
b. Horizontal Bar Charts can be used for
qualitative types of data in a given specific
time. It is use to compare the magnitudes of
the different categories of a qualitative
variable.
Bar Graph
 Pie Graph

c. Pie graph provides easy measurement

and fast presentation of nominal data
divided into a few categories. It is a circular
graph that is useful in showing how quantity
is distributed among a group of categories.
Pie Graph
 Pie Graph
P E R C E N T AG E D IS T R IB U T IO N O F T O T AL F AM IL Y
E X P E N D IT U R E S , P H IL IP P IN E S : 1 9 9 4

H ouse Furnishings &

Equipm ents O therExpenditures
3% T axes Paid 2%
M edical C are 1%
2%
R ecreation
0%
Education
4%
Food
50%
C lothing, Footw ear, etc.
4%

Personal C are & Effects

3%

H ousehold O perations
3%
T ransportation &
C om m unication
5%
Fuel,Light & W ater
6% H ousing Alcoholic B everages
15% T obacco 1%
1%
 Pictograph

d. Pictogram used pictures or symbols to

represent certain quantity or volume. Similar
to bar charts except that the bars are
replaced by pictures with each object or
character represents a certain amount
quantity.
 Pictograph

Steps in constructing a pictograph

• Step 1: Encode the data in the Microsoft
excel as shown below then highlight the
entire data including the label.
• Step 2. Click insert ribbon.
• Step 3. From the next menu, click bar
section followed by clicking the second
choice (stack bar) from the 2-D Bar
section.
 Pictograph

• Step 4. Right- click the bars on the graph

then select format data series.
• Step 5. Click Fill section. Under fill
section, select picture or texture fill.
• Step 6. Insert a picture from the file,
clipboard or clipart then click stack
section.
• Step 7. Insert legend, title, etc. as shown
below to finish the graph.
 Histogram

e. Histogram is a special type of bar graph

of a frequency distribution table. Class
boundaries are represented by the width of
the bars and the frequencies that fall within
the classes are represented by the height of
the bars.
Histogram
 Scatter plot

f. Scatterplot. A graph used to examine

whether a relationship exists between
quantitative variables. For instance, whether
sale is related to advertising, whether
starting salary is related is related to
undergraduate grade point average, or
whether the price of a stock is related to the
company’s profit per share.
Scatter plot
Scatter plot
 The Statistical Analysis

The Research Study Process

 The Statistical Analysis

The study analysis process

 The Statistical Analysis
How statistical analysis can help you?
 References
• Altares, [Link]. Elementary Statics with Computer Applications. Rex Book
Store. 2012
• Amid, Diego M. Fundamentals of Statistics. Lorimar Publishing Co.,Inc.
2005
• Cabrero, Salamat and Sta. Maria. Business Statistics. Anvil Publishing
Company.2013.
• Coronel, [Link]. Statistics for University Students, A comprehensive
Approach. National Book Store. 2004.
• Mansfield, E. Statistics for Busienss and Economics Methods and
Applications , 3rd Editon. W.W. Norton and Company , INC. 1987
• Nalangan, L.C. and Casinillo M.C. Laboratory Manual in Statistics 1
(Elementary Statistics). Rex Book Store. 2009.
• Parreno E.B. and Jimenez, R.O. Basic Statistics, 2nd edition. C&E
Publishing, Inc. 2014.
 References
• Russell, J. and Boggis, E .The Statistics Tutor’s Quick Guide to Commonly Used
Statistical Tests. Ellen Marshall, University of Sheffield. [Link].
• Samuels, P. (n.d). Statistical Methods, An introduction. Birmingham City University.
Retrived from [Link]
• Sison and Ereno. Computation Mathematics for Teachers (MATH F). University of the
Philippines Open University. 1998
• Surinder Kundu. Business Statistics, 2014
• Weires, R.M. Introduction to Business Statistics, 7th edition. Cengage Learning Asia
Pte Ltd. 2015.
• Zamora-Reyes, C.O and Ladao-Saren, L.B. Elementary Statistics Txt/Workbook.
National Book Store. 2003.
• A module on Basic Statistics .University of the Philippines Statistical Center Research
Foundation (UPSCRF)

Internet references:

• [Link]
[Link]
• [Link]