Outbreeding Devices
Majority of flowering plants produce hermaphrodite flowers and pollen
grains are likely to come in contact with the stigma of the same flower.
Continued self-pollination result in inbreeding depression.
Flowering plants have developed many devices to discourage self
pollination and to encourage cross-pollination.
Fertilization
The fusion of male gamete with female gamete is called fertilization.
This process is completed in the following steps:-
Germination of pollen grain
Entry of pollen tube into ovule
Entry of pollen tube into embryo sac
Double fertilization
Germination of pollen Grain
2-celled stage 3-celled stage
Male gametes
Vegetative nucleus
Stigma
Pollen - Pistil Interaction
All the events from pollen deposition on stigma until the entry of
pollen tube into ovule are together referred as pollen – pistil
interaction
Incompatible
pollen grain
Compatible
pollen grain
Entry of Pollen Tube Into Ovule
Pollen Tube
Pollen Tube
Pollen Tube
Porogamy Chalazogamy Mesogamy
e.g. most of angiosperms e.g. Casuarina e.g. Cucurbita
[Capsella]
Entry of Pollen Tube Into Embryo sac
Central cell Plasma
membrane
Egg nucleus
Synergid
Pollen Tube
Filiform
Antipodal apparatus
Polar nuclei Male gametes
Egg cell Vegetative
nucleus
Synergid
Entry of Pollen Tube Into Embryo sac
Polar nuclei
Male gametes
Entry of Pollen Tube Into Embryo sac
Primary endosperm
nucleus
Zygote
Pollen Tube Male Gamete
A breeder is interested in crossing different species and often genera
to combine desirable characters to produce commercially ‘superior’
varieties.
Artificial hybridisation is one of the major approaches of crop
improvement programme.
In such crossing experiments it is important to make sure that only
the desired pollen grains are used for pollination and the stigma is
protected from contamination (from unwanted pollen).
This is achieved by emasculation and bagging techniques.
If the female parent bears bisexual flowers, removal of anthers from
the flower bud before the anther dehisces using a pair of forceps is
necessary. This step is referred to as emasculation.
Emasculated flowers have to be covered with a bag of suitable size,
generally made up of butter paper, to prevent contamination of its
stigma with unwanted pollen. This process is called bagging.
When the stigma of bagged flower attains receptivity, mature pollen
grains collected from anthers of the male parent are dusted on the
stigma, & the flowers are rebagged, and the fruits allowed to develop.
If the female parent produces unisexual flowers, there is no need for
emasculation. The female flower buds are bagged before the flowers
open. When the stigma becomes receptive, pollination is carried out
using the desired pollen and the flower rebagged.
Double Fertilization
Micropylar end
Degenerating
synergids
Zygote (2n) 1 female gamete (egg) +
1 male gamete
Primary endosperm (Syngamy)
Cell (PEC)
Double
Primary endosperm Fertilization
Nucleus (3n) (PEN)
2 polar nuclei + 1 male
gamete
Degenerating (triple fusion)
antipodal cells
Chalazal end
Question Endosperm is formed during the double fertilization by :-
(1) Two polar nuclei and one male gamete
(2) One polar nuclei and one male gamete
(3) Ovum and male gamete
(4) Two polar nuclei and two male gametes
Ans. (1)
Question Free nuclear division in an angiosperm takes place during :-
(1) Pollen formation
(2) Endosperm formation
(3) Embryo formation
(4) Flower formation
Ans. (2)
Post-Fertilization : Structure & Events
Post-Fertilization Structure and Events include :-
Endosperm development
Embryo development
Maturation of ovule into seed
Ovary into fruit
All these events collectively termed post-fertilization events.
Development of Endosperm
Endosperm development precedes embryo development.
The PEC divides repeatedly and forms a triploid endosperm tissue.
The cells of this tissue are filled with reserve food materials and
are used for nutrition of the developing embryo.
Development of Dicot Embryo
Degenerating
synergids Zygote (2n)
Primary Endosperm
Cell (PEC)
Primary Endosperm
nucleus (3n)
(PEN)
Degenerating
antipodal cells
Development of Dicot Embryo
Zygote
Mature
Globular Embryo
Heart-Shaped Embryo
Development of Dicot Embryo
Zygote
Globular Embryo Heart-Shaped
Embryo
Plumule
Cotyledons
Hypocotyl
Radicle
Root cap
Dicot Mature
Development of monocot Embryo
Scutellum
Coleoptile
Shoot apex
Epiblast
Radicle
Root cap
Coleorhiza
Monocot
Life Cycle of Angiosperms Angiospermic plant
Flower
Germination
Carpel Stamen
Seed (Megasporophyll) (Microsporophyll)
Sporophyte Ovule Pollen sac
Embryo (2n) (Megasporangium) (Microsporangium)
(Oospore) Megaspore
Endosperm Microspore
Zygote Mother cell Mother cells
Syngamy Triple fusion Reduction division
(Meiosis)
(Fertilization) Gemetophyte
(n)
Sec. Nucleus Megaspore Microspores
(2n) (Pollen grains)
Female Gamete Female
(Oosphere of egg) Male
Gametophyte Gametophyte
(Embryo sac)
2 Male Gametes
Life Cycle of Angiosperms Angiospermic plant
Flower
Carpel Stamen
Sporophyte (Megasporophyll) (Microsporophyll)
(2n)
Ovule Pollen sac
(Megasporangium) (Microsporangium)
Megaspore Microspore
Mother cell Mother cells
Sporophyte Megaspore Microspore
(2n) Mother cell Mother cells
Reduction division
(Meiosis)
Gemetophyte
(n)
Megaspore Microspores
(Pollen grains)
Female Male
Gametophyte (Embryosac) Gametophyte
Female Male
Gametophyte (Embryosac) Gametophyte
Sec. Nucleus Female Gamete 2 Male
(2n) (Oosphere of egg) Gametes
Gemetophyte
(n)
Triple fusion Syngamy
(Fertilization)
Triple fusion Syngamy
(Fertilization)
Endosperm (Oospore)
Zygote
Sporophyte
(2n) Embryo
Seed
Angiospermic plant Germination
Angiospermic plant
Life Cycle of Angiosperms Flower
Germination
Carpel Stamen
Seed (Megasporophyll)(Microsporophyll)
Ovule Pollen sac
Embryo Sporophyte (Megasporangium)
(Microsporangium)
(2n)
(Oospore) Megaspore
Endosperm Microspore
Zygote Mother cell Mother cells
Syngamy Triple fusion Reduction division
(Fertilization) (Meiosis)
Gemetophyte
(n)
Sec. Nucleus Megaspore Microspores
(2n) (Pollen grains)
Female Gamete
Female
(Oosphere of egg) Male
Gametophyte
Gametophyte
(Embryosac)
2 Male Gametes
Seed
Fertilized ovule is known as seed. In other words, seed is a mature
fertilized, integumented megasporangium (Ovule).
Seed consist of -
Testa
Seed Coat
Tegmen
Embryonal axis
Embryo
Cotyledons
Endosperm
Perisperm
Seed
Non-Endospermic Endospermic
Endosperm at maturity absent Endosperm at maturity present
e.g. gram, pea, bean, ground e.g. wheat, rice, coconut,
nut. But in castor, seeds barley and maize etc.
are endospermic. But in orchid, seeds are
non-endospermic.
Structure of seed
Seed coat
Cotyledon
Plumule
Hilum
Micropyle Radicle
STRUCTURE OF BENGAL GRAM (DICOT SEED)
Pericarp Aleurone layer (3n)
+ (Protein layer)
Seed coat
Starchy
Endosperm
(3n) Coleoptile
Plumule
Scutellum
(cotyledon) Radicle
Coleorhiza
STRUCTURE OF MAIZE GRAIN (MONOCOT SEED)
Advantage of seed
Since reproductive processes such as pollination and fertilization
are independent of water, seed formation is more dependable.
Better adaptive strategies for dispersal to new habitats.
Provide nourishment to embryo.
Provide protection to the young embryo.
Generate new genetic combinations leading to variations.
Seed are the basis of agriculture.
Seed Viability
Few species seed viability few months.
Large number of species seed remain viable for several years.
Some seed can remain alive for 100 of years. There are several
records of very old viable seeds.
e.g. – lupine – Lupinus arcticus
e.g. – Date Palm – Phoenix dactylifera
Number of seeds in
a fruit
Generally equal to or less than the number of ovules in an ovary.
Orchid fruit contain thousands of tiny seeds.
Parasitic species like Orobanche and Striga also have many seeds
in a fruit.
Factors affecting
seed germination
Moisture/water :- 75 to 95%
Oxygen
Temperature :- 20 to 25°C
Nutrition
Light
Epigeal germination
Epicotyl
Cotyledon
Hypocotyl
Hypogeal germination
Plumule
Cotyledon
Hypocotyl
The Fruit
Characteristic feature of the flowering plants.
Mature or ripened ovary, developed after fertilization.
PERICARP (Fruit wall) :
After ripening, the ovary wall changes into pericarp.
Pericarp may be thick and fleshy or thick and hard or
thin and soft.
Pericarp
Epicarp Mesocarp Endocarp
Remember
1 In fleshy fruits, pericarp is generally differentiated into these 3 parts.
2 In dry fruits pericarp is not differentiated into different parts.
Fruits
Ture fruit False fruits Parthenocarpic fruits
Ture fruit
Epicarp
Mesocarp
False fruits
e.g. – Apple, Pear, Cashew nut, and Strawberry.
Parthenocarpic fruits
Fruit formed without fertilization of ovary.
These are seedless fruits.
e.g. Grapes, banana.
Fruits
Simple Aggregate Composite
fruit fruits fruits
Simple fruit
Develop from monocarpellary or multicarpellary syncarpous
gynoecium
Aggregate fruits
Develop from bi to multicarpellary apocarpous gynoecium.
Composite fruits
Developed from whole inflorescence
Question Seed dormancy allows the plants to :-
(1) Overcome unfavourable climatic condition
(2) Develop healthy plants
(3) Reduce viability
(4) Prevent deterioration of seeds
Ans. (1)
Question The residual persistent part which forms the perisperm in the
seeds of beet is :-
(1) Calyx
(2) Endosperm
(3) Nucellus
(4) Integument
Ans. (3)
Question Perispermic and endospermic seeds are found in :-
(1) Castor
(2) Maize
(3) Wheat
(4) Rice
Ans. (1)
Introduction
To continue its own race, an organism by the process of reproduction,
produces offspring like its own.
Humans are sexually reproducing and viviparous.
GAMETOGENESIS
INSEMINATION
FERTILIZATION
BLASTULATION
IMPLANTATION
GESTATION
PARTURITION
The reproductive events in humans include:
❖ Gametogenesis formation of gametes, sperms in males and
ovum in females.
❖ Insemination transfer of sperms into the female genital tract.
❖ Fertilisation fusion of male and female gametes, leading to
formation of zygote.
❖ Blastulation formation and development of blastocyst.
❖ Implantation attachment of blastocyst to the uterine wall.
❖ Gestation further embryonic development.
❖ Parturition delivery of the baby.