Measurement

Physical quantities are properties of objects or phenomena that can be

quantified (e.g. length, mass, time)[Link]. A quantity’s value is given by a
number and a unit (e.g. 3 m, 5 s)[Link]. The International System of Units (SI)
defines seven base quantities and their [Link]: for example, length
(metre, m), mass (kilogram, kg), and time (second, s). All other units
are derived units formed by combining base [Link]. For
instance, area is measured in square metres (m²), volume in cubic metres
(m³), speed in metres per second (m/s), etc. Base and common derived units
are summarized in tables for quick reference:

Base quantity SI unit Symbol

length metre m

mass kilogram kg

time second s

electric current ampere A

temperature kelvin K

amount of substance mole mol

luminous intensity candela cd

(Other derived units (e.g. newton for force, joule for energy) are products of
powers of these base [Link].)

Scalars and Vectors

Quantities can be scalars or vectors. A scalar quantity has magnitude
only. Examples of scalars include distance, speed, time, mass, energy and
[Link]. A vector quantity has both magnitude and
direction; examples include displacement, velocity, acceleration, force and
[Link]. Scalars are added using ordinary arithmetic, but
vectors must be added tip-to-tail or by components. For two perpendicular
vectors, the resultant magnitude is found by the Pythagorean theorem. For
example, two forces of 3 N and 4 N at right angles combine to a resultant of
5 N (since √(3²+4²)=5). In general, if v₁ and v₂ are perpendicular vectors, the
resultant R has magnitude |R| = √(v₁² + v₂²). (CIE tasks include calculating or
drawing the resultant of two perpendicular vectors [Link].)

Measuring Length
To measure lengths, use a meter rule or similar ruler, and align it alongside
the object. Read the length at eye level to avoid parallax error (looking
straight on)[Link]. A meter rule is typically marked in centimetres and
millimetres, so it can measure to the nearest millimetre (0.1 cm) [Link]. For
example, if the ruler’s last visible mark before the object is 12.3 cm and the
object extends slightly beyond, one would estimate to the next millimetre.

Figure: A metre rule marked in cm and mm (created by Stephanie Cheks). A

standard meter rule has millimetre divisions. By reading to the nearest
millimetre, lengths can be measured with a precision of about
±0.5 [Link]. For greater precision, one may use a vernier caliper,
which has a sliding scale. A vernier caliper has two sets of jaws (for external
and internal measurements) and a depth [Link]. The main
(fixed) scale might be in cm or mm, and the vernier (sliding) scale divides
each millimetre into finer units. In the diagram above, the caliper reads
2.475 cm with an uncertainty of ±0.005 [Link]. In practice, one
closes the jaws on the object, reads the last main scale mark before the zero
of the vernier, then finds which vernier division aligns with a main-scale
mark. The sum of the main-scale reading and the vernier offset gives the
total. Typical vernier calipers have a least count of 0.05 mm (i.e. they resolve
to 0.05 mm)[Link]; more advanced ones can reach 0.02 [Link].

Figure: Illustration of a vernier caliper showing main and vernier scales (the
reading shown is 2.475 cm ± 0.005 cm)[Link]. In the example, the
main scale shows 2.47 cm and the vernier adds 0.005 cm. Vernier calipers
can also measure internal dimensions (using the smaller jaws) and depths
(with the thin rod at the end). They are widely used to measure small lengths
and diameters more accurately than a [Link].

Figure: A micrometer screw gauge (illustration). For even finer lengths (e.g.
wire diameter), use a micrometer screw gauge. This has an anvil and a
spindle moved by a fine screw. One complete turn of the thimble typically
moves the spindle by 0.5 mm, and the thimble is marked in 50 or 100 equal
parts, giving a least count of 0.01 mm. To measure, one opens the jaws,
places the object between, and gently turns the ratchet until the object is
gripped. The reading is taken from the linear sleeve scale (in whole mm and
half-mm) plus the circular thimble scale (each division = 0.01 mm). For
example, if the sleeve shows 7.00 mm and the thimble reads 23 (×0.01 mm),
the total is 7.23 mm. Micrometers typically resolve to 0.01 mm, allowing very
precise length measurement.

Worked Example (vernier caliper): A vernier caliper has a zero error of

+0.02 mm. An object measured shows a main scale reading of 1.25 cm and a
vernier alignment at 0.6 mm. The raw reading is 12.50 mm + 0.60 mm =
13.10 mm. Correcting the +0.02 mm error (subtracting) gives a true length of
13.08 mm.

Measuring Volume
To measure the volume of a liquid, use a graduated (measuring)
cylinder. Pour the liquid into the cylinder and let it settle. Read the height of
the liquid at the bottom of the meniscus (the curved surface) [Link].
Always view at eye level to avoid parallax. Graduated cylinders are
calibrated so each graduation corresponds to a fixed volume (e.g. each 1 mL
mark). Reading the meniscus yields the liquid volume (for example, a liquid
level at 37.0 mL). When high precision is needed, use narrower or larger
cylinders (which have finer or coarser scales) or pipettes/burettes, but for
IGCSE a basic cylinder suffices.

Figure: Graduated measuring cylinders of various volumes (photo by

Jeremyida002). Measuring cylinders allow reasonably accurate volume
readings by aligning the mark with the meniscus [Link]. For solid
objects: if they are regular shapes (cube, sphere, etc.), one can calculate
volume from measured dimensions. If irregular, use water displacement:
immerse the object in a filled Eureka can or overflow can and collect the
displaced water in a cylinder – the volume of water displaced equals the
object’s volume.

Measuring Time
Time intervals are measured with clocks or stopwatches. A stopwatch is
activated (start/stop) to time events, and a digital stopwatch typically reads
to 0.01 s. When timing (e.g. a pendulum), it is common to measure many
oscillations and find the average period (to reduce human reaction error). For
example, if 10 swings take 12.04 s, the period is 1.204 s (to 3 s.f.). Reaction
time can introduce a small error in each measurement, but repeating the
measurement can improve precision.

Figure: An analogue stopwatch (Seiko quartz), used to time events. Whether

analogue or digital, a stopwatch’s precision is usually 0.01–0.1 s. For longer
intervals, a wall clock or digital clock may be used (second hand or digital
seconds). Always note the least count (smallest division) of the timepiece.

Measuring Mass
Mass is measured with balances. A beam balance compares an unknown
mass to known standard masses; readings are typically to the nearest 0.1 g
or 0.01 g depending on the least count. An electronic (digital) balance
displays mass directly, often to 0.01 g or finer. Before use, ensure the
balance reads zero (taring out any container). Since these instruments are
calibrated against known masses, random error is low, but one must avoid
systematic error (e.g. by zeroing properly). Always record mass with
appropriate significant figures (e.g. 12.34 g on a 0.01 g balance).

Precision, Accuracy and Errors

No measurement is perfect. Precision refers to the closeness of agreement
among repeated [Link], while accuracy refers to how close a
measurement is to the true [Link]. (In other words, precision is
about consistency; accuracy is about correctness.) Random errors cause
fluctuations in measurements (affecting precision) – for example, tiny hand
tremors or readout [Link]. Systematic errors introduce a consistent
bias (affecting accuracy) – for example, a scale that is miscalibrated and
reads all masses 0.5 g too [Link].

 A random error causes readings to scatter unpredictably around the

true value. For instance, timing the same event repeatedly may give
slightly different results. Random errors can be reduced by repeating
measurements and averaging.
 A systematic error shifts all measurements in one direction. For
example, a thermometer stuck at +0.2 °C will make all readings too
large. Such errors do not average out and must be identified and
corrected (e.g. recalibrating the instrument)[Link].
In practice, one reports measurements with the correct number
of significant figures to reflect [Link]. Only digits known with
certainty and one uncertain digit are included [Link]. For example, if a
ruler reading is between 12.3 cm and 12.4 cm, we might record 12.35 cm
(four significant figures), indicating the last digit is estimated. All arithmetic
with measured values should obey significant-figure rules (e.g.
multiplication/division: match the result’s sig figs to the least in any factor;
addition/subtraction: match decimal places).

Summary of Key Concepts:

 Physical quantity: A property expressible by a number and a

[Link] (e.g. 7 m).
 Base units: SI defines seven (m, kg, s, A, K, mol, cd)[Link] from which
all units [Link].
 Scalar vs Vector: Scalar = magnitude only (time, mass, speed,
distance)[Link]; Vector = magnitude & direction (velocity,
force, displacement)[Link].
 Measuring tools:
 Meter rule: measures lengths (resolution ~1 mm)[Link].
 Vernier calipers: measure small lengths/diameters; least count
≈0.05 [Link] (some to 0.02 [Link]).
 Micrometer: measures thickness/diameter up to ~25 mm; least
count 0.01 mm.
 Measuring cylinder: measures liquid volumes; read at
[Link].
 Stopwatch: times intervals (digital usually 0.01 s resolution).
 Balances: measure mass (beam or electronic; typical accuracy
0.1–0.01 g).
 Precision vs Accuracy: Precision = repeatability of
[Link]; Accuracy = closeness to true [Link].
Random errors affect precision, systematic errors affect
[Link].
 Significant figures: Report all certain digits plus one
[Link]; use rules when doing calculations.