Computer Application Lecture 4
By Muhammad Ashraf Nazir
([Link]@[Link])
Networks
When two or more computers interconnect through a medium to share resources
(printers, scanners, files, data(Message)) then it is called a network.
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Types of Communication Networks
Local Area Network (LAN)
It is also called LAN and designed for small physical areas such as an office, group of buildings
or a factory. LANs are used widely as it is easy to design and to troubleshoot. Personal
computers and workstations are connected to each other through LANs. We can use different
types of topologies through LAN, these are Star, Ring, Bus, Tree etc.
LAN can be a simple network like connecting two computers, to share files and network among
each other while it can also be as complex as interconnecting an entire building.
LAN networks are also widely used to share resources like printers, shared hard-drive etc.
Applications of LAN
One of the computer in a network can become a server serving all the remaining
computers called clients. Software can be stored on the server and it can be used by the
remaining clients.
Connecting locally all the workstations in a building to let them communicate with each
other locally without any internet access.
Sharing common resources like printers etc. are some common applications of LAN.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
It is basically a bigger version of LAN. It is also called MAN and uses the similar technology as
LAN. It is designed to extend over the entire city. It can be means to connecting a number of
LANs into a larger network or it can be a single cable. It is mainly hold and operated by single
private company or a public company.
Wide Area Network (WAN)
It is also called WAN. WAN can be private or it can be public leased network. It is used for the
network that covers large distance such as cover states of a country. It is not easy to design and
maintain. Communication medium used by WAN are PSTN or Satellite links. WAN operates on
low data rates.
Components of Data Communication
1. Message : It is the information to be delivered.
2. Sender : Sender is the person who is sending the message.
3. Receiver : Receiver is the person to him the message is to be delivered.
4. Medium : It is the medium through which message is to be sent for example modem.
5. Modem (encoding /decoding) /Protocol: These are some set of rules which govern data
communication.
Transmission Modes in Computer Networks
Transmission mode means transferring of data between two devices. It is also called
communication mode. These modes direct the direction of flow of information. There are three
types of transmission mode. They are:
Simplex Mode
Half duplex Mode
Full duplex Mode
SIMPLEX Mode
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In this type of transmission mode data can be sent only through one direction i.e. communication
is unidirectional. We cannot send a message back to the sender. Unidirectional communication is
done in Simplex Systems.
Examples of simplex Mode is loudspeaker, television broadcasting, television and remote,
keyboard and monitor etc.
HALF DUPLEX Mode
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In half duplex system we can send data in both directions but it is done one at a time that is when
the sender is sending the data then at that time we can’t send the sender our message. The data is
sent in one direction.
Example of half duplex is a walkie- talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages
are sent in both the directions.
FULL DUPLEX Mode
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In full duplex system we can send data in both directions as it is bidirectional. Data can be sent in
both directions simultaneously. We can send as well as we receive the data.
Example of Full Duplex is a Telephone Network in which there is communication between two
persons by a telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at the same time.
Network Topologies
Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting various
nodes (sender and receiver) through lines of connection.
BUS Topology
Bus topology is a network type in which every
computer and network device is connected to
single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints,
then it is called Linear Bus topology.
Features of Bus Topology
1. It transmits data only in one direction.
2. Every device is connected to a single cable
Advantages of Bus Topology
1. It is cost effective.
2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
3. Used in small networks.
4. It is easy to understand.
5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
1. Cables fails then whole network fails.
2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more then performance of the network decreases.
3. Cable has a limited length.
4. It is slower than the ring topology.
RING Topology
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each
computer is connected to another computer, with the last one
connected to the first. Exactly two neighbors for each device.
Features of Ring Topology
1. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large
number of nodes, because if someone wants to send some
data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass
through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the
network.
2. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2 connections
between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
3. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite direction in
them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to keep the network up.
4. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to pass
through each node of the network, till the destination node.
Advantages of Ring Topology
1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only the nodes
having tokens can transmit data.
2. Cheap to install and expand
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.
STAR Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a
single hub through a cable. This hub is the central node and all
others nodes are connected to the central node.
Features of Star Topology
1. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.
2. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
3. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial
cable.
Advantages of Star Topology
1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
2. Hub can be upgraded easily.
3. Easy to troubleshoot.
4. Easy to setup and modify.
5. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
1. Cost of installation is high.
2. Expensive to use.
3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the hub.
4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity
MESH Topology
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the
network nodes are connected to each other. Mesh has n (n-1)/2
physical channels to link n devices.
There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology,
they are :
1. Routing
2. Flooding
Routing
In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network
requirements. Like routing logic to direct the data to reach the
destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing logic which has
information about the broken links, and it avoids those node etc. We can even have routing logic,
to re-configure the failed nodes.
Flooding
In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no routing logic is
required. The network is robust, and the its very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads to
unwanted load over the network.
Types of Mesh Topology
1. Partial Mesh Topology : In this topology some of the systems are connected in the same fashion
as mesh topology but some devices are only connected to two or three devices.
2. Full Mesh Topology : Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.
Features of Mesh Topology
1. Fully connected.
2. Robust.
3. Not flexible.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
1. Each connection can carry its own data load.
2. It is robust.
3. Fault is diagnosed easily.
4. Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
1. Installation and configuration is difficult.
2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Bulk wiring is required.
TREE Topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called
hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.
Features of Tree Topology
1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.
2. Used in Wide Area Network.
Advantages of Tree Topology
1. Extension of bus and star topologies.
2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
3. Easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection is easily done.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
1. Heavily cabled.
2. Costly.
3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
4. Central hub fails, network fails.
TCP/IP model
The TCP/IP Model is a specification for computer network protocls. TCP/IP defines a set of
rules to enable computers to communicate over a network. It specifies how data should be
formatted, addressed, shipped, routed and delivered to the right destination. There are 5 layers in
the TCP/IP Model.
The first layer is called the Physical Layer. This layer is responsible for encoding and
transmitting data over network communications media. It operates with data in the form of bits
which are sent from the Physical layer of the sending source and received at the Physical layer of
a destination source. When you hook up a computer using an Ethernet cable you are connecting
that computer on the Physical layer. This Physical layer is the lowest level of the TCP/IP Model.
The next layer is the Data link layer. This layer is used to move packets from the network layer
on two different hosts. The process of transmitting packets on a link layer can be controlled in
the software device driver for the network card and on firmware. Different protcols are used for
different types of networks. Broadband Internet access uses PPPoE(Point to Point Protocol over
Ethernet) as the protocol. For a local wired network, Ethernet is used. For local wireless network,
IEEE 802.11 is used.
The next layer is the Network layer. This layers gets data from a source network to the
destination network. This generally involves routing the packets across a network of networks
(also known as internetwork). This is where IP(Internet Protocol) comes in. IP performs the basic
task of getting packets of data from source to destination.
The next layer is the Transport layer. The transport layer’s responsibility is end-to-end message
transfer. There are 2 categories of end-to-end message transmission: connection-oriented (TCP)
or connectionless (UDP{User Datagram Protocol}). The transport layer provides this service of
connecting applications together through the use of ports. This layer offers reliability and error
control.
The fifth and final layer is the Application layer. This layer refers to higher-level protocols used
by most applications for network communication. An example of application layer protocol is
FTP (File Transfer Protocol). Data coded according to application layer protocols are then
encapsulated into one or more transport layer protocols which in turn use lower layer protocols
to effect actual data transfer.
IP Addresses
An IP address is a number given to a computer (a server or a personal computer) by the ISP. The
most commonly used IP address is a 32-bit (4 byte) address. It looks like this in the decimal
system: [Link] . This number is converted from binary because it tends to be easier for
humans to process decimal numbers. In binary the IP address looks something like this:
10101100.00010000.00000000.00000001 - the reason this is a 32-bit address is because in
binary there are 32 characters, and it’s 4 bytes because there are 4 groups of 8. These bytes are
also called octets.
ISO/OSI Model in Communication Networks
There are n numbers of users who use computer network and are located over the world. So to
ensure, national and worldwide data communication, systems must be developed which are
compatible to communicate with each other. ISO has developed this. ISO stands for
International organization of Standardization. This is called a model for Open System
Interconnection (OSI) and is commonly known as OSI model.
The ISO-OSI model is a seven layer architecture. It defines seven layers or levels in a complete
communication system.
Feature of OSI Model :
1. Big picture of communication over network is understandable through this OSI model.
2. We see how hardware and software work together.
3. We can understand new technologies as they are developed.
4. Troubleshooting is easier by separate networks.
5. Can be used to compare basic functional relationships on different networks.
Functions of Different Layers :
Layer 1: The Physical Layer :
1. It is the lowest layer of the OSI Model.
2. It activates, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
3. It is responsible for transmission and reception of the unstructured raw data over network.
4. Voltages and data rates needed for transmission is defined in the physical layer.
5. It converts the digital/analog bits into electrical signal or optical signals.
6. Data encoding is also done in this layer.
Layer 2: Data Link Layer :
1. Data link layer synchronizes the information which is to be transmitted over the physical layer.
2. The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error free from one node to
another, over the physical layer.
3. Transmitting and receiving data frames sequentially is managed by this layer.
4. This layer sends and expects acknowledgements for frames received and sent respectively.
Resending of non-acknowledgement received frames is also handled by this layer.
5. This layer establishes a logical layer between two nodes and also manages the Frame traffic
control over the network. It signals the transmitting node to stop, when the frame buffers are
full.
Layer 3: The Network Layer :
1. It routes the signal through different channels from one node to other.
2. It acts as a network controller. It manages the Subnet traffic.
3. It decides by which route data should take.
4. It divides the outgoing messages into packets and assembles the incoming packets into
messages for higher levels.
Layer 4: Transport Layer :
1. It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.
2. Functions such as Multiplexing, Segmenting or Splitting on the data are done by this layer
3. It receives messages from the Session layer above it, convert the message into smaller units and
passes it on to the Network layer.
4. Transport layer can be very complex, depending upon the network requirements.
Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are handled more
efficiently by the network layer.
Layer 5: The Session Layer :
1. Session layer manages and synchronize the conversation between two different applications.
2. Transfer of data from source to destination session layer streams of data are marked and are
resynchronized properly, so that the ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss
is avoided.
Layer 6: The Presentation Layer :
1. Presentation layer takes care that the data is sent in such a way that the receiver will
understand the information (data) and will be able to use the data.
2. While receiving the data, presentation layer transforms the data to be ready for the application
layer.
3. Languages(syntax) can be different of the two communicating systems. Under this condition
presentation layer plays a role of translator.
4. It perfroms Data compression, Data encryption, Data conversion etc.
Layer 7: Application Layer :
1. It is the topmost layer.
2. Transferring of files disturbing the results to the user is also done in this layer. Mail services,
directory services, network resource etc are services provided by application layer.
3. This layer mainly holds application programs to act upon the received and to be sent data.