1.1.7.

Writing Electron Configurations

❖ Orbital Diagrams: Uses arrows to show electron spins and follow the three
rules.

Figure 4: Orbital Diagram method for Electronic Configuration

❖ spdf Notation: Example – Al (Z=13): 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p¹.

❖ Noble Gas Notation: They can be used as a shorthand way of writing electron
configurations.

1
 Table 2: Electronic Configurations of Noble Gases

Examples:
Noble gas notation for Carbon (z=6) is [He] 2s2 2p2
Noble gas notation for Oxygen (z=8) is [He] 2s2 2p4
Noble gas notation for Aluminium (z=13) is [Ne] 3s2 3p1
Noble gas notation for Calcium (z=20) is [Ar] 4s2
Writing Electron Configurations for IONS

An example of an anion is the fluoride ion (F-): for F (z=9)

No of electrons distributed = [(Z = 9) + (charge =1)] = 10 e 1s2 2s2 2p6

An example of a cation is the calcium ion (Ca+2): for Ca (Z=20)

No of electrons distributed = [(Z = 20) – (charge = 2)] = 18 e

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

2
 Practice Questions
1. Where is the location of electrons within the atom?
a) Inside the nucleus
b) In shells around the nucleus.

2. Why does an atom become a cation when it loses one or more electrons
from its valence shell?
a) No. of protons = No. of electrons.
b) No. of protons > No. of electrons
c) No. of protons < No. of electrons
3. Which of the following particles has a negative charge?
a) a proton
b) a neutron
c) an electron
d) a cation
How many electrons are in a neutral atom of carbon-13 ?
13
a) 6 C
b) 18 6
c) 12
d) 7
4. Which of the following particles has a positive charge?
a) a proton
b) an electron
c) a neutron
d) an anion
5. Why are atoms neutral?
a) equal numbers of protons and neutrons
b) equal numbers of protons and electrons
c) equal numbers of neutrons and electrons
6. How many neutrons are in an atom with a mass number of 75 and an
atomic number of 35?
a) 40
b) 35
c) 75
d) 110

3
7. How many electrons can the p orbital hold?
a) 2
b) 6
c) 10
d) 14

8. How many electrons can the second shell (n=2) hold?

a) 2
b) 8
c) 16
d) 32

9. Give the values of the quantum numbers associated with the 5d subshell.
a) n = 5, ℓ = 0, mℓ = 0, ms = +1/2 or -1/2
b) n = 5, ℓ = 1, mℓ = –1, 0, 1, ms = +1/2 or -1/2
c) n = 5, ℓ = 2, mℓ = –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, ms = +1/2 or -1/2
d) n = 5, ℓ = 3, mℓ = –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ms = +1/2 or -1/2

10. Give the values of the quantum numbers associated with the 3s subshell.
a. n = 3, ℓ = 0, mℓ = 0, ms = +1/2 or -1/2
b. n = 3, ℓ = 1, mℓ = –1, 0, 1, ms = +1/2 or -1/2
c. n = 1, ℓ = 2, mℓ = –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, ms = +1/2 or -1/2
d. n = 1, ℓ = 3, mℓ = –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ms = +1/2 or -1/2

11. Which of the following is the correct orbital diagram for Oxygen (Z = 8)?

a. Diagram (a)
b. Diagram (b)
c. Diagram (c)
d. Diagram (d)

4
12. What is the electronic configuration for the Aluminum atom (Al), Z=13?
a. 1s2 2s2 2p6
b. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
c. 1s2 2s2 3p6 3s2
d. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

13. What is the electronic configuration for the Aluminum cation (Al3+), Z=13?
a. 1s2 2s2 2p6
b. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
c. 1s2 2s2 3p6 3s2
d. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

14. How many valence electrons are in the following electronic configuration
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1?
a. 1
b. 2
c. 5
d. 8

15. Which of the following options is the correct noble gas notation for Si (Z =
14)?
a. [Ne] 3s2 3p2
b. [He] 3s2 3p2
c. [Ar] 3s2 3p2
d. [Kr] 3s2 3p2

5
CHEMISTRY FOR MEDICINE
Electrons in Radiation Therapy

Administering high-energy particles or waves to target cancer cells within the

body. The electrons in the DNA of the cells absorb these particles or waves,
resulting in ionization. The electrons are displaced from their orbits, resulting in
DNA damage. Their accelerated division rate renders cancer cells more
susceptible to this damage, resulting in their favored destruction compared to
healthy cells.

6
1.2. Periodic Table
1.2.1. General Features of the Periodic Table
• The periodic table arranges elements by increasing atomic number.
• Periodic Law: Properties repeat periodically.
• Groups (columns): Elements in the same group have similar chemical and
physical properties due to identical valence electron numbers. There are 18
groups
• Periods (rows): Elements in the same period have the same principal energy
level. There are 7 periods

Figure 4: Group and Period

1.2.2. Classification of Elements

Elements in the periodic table can be classified in three ways:

❖ Based on Nature (Metallic Character)

❖ Based on Electronic Configuration
❖ Based on Properties
❖ Classification Based on Nature (Metallic Character)
Elements in the periodic table can be categorized as metals, nonmetals, or
metalloids based on their physical and chemical properties.

7
 Figure 5: Classification of Elements based on their Nature

1) Metals
• The largest category in the periodic table.
• Located mostly on the left and center (s-block, d-block, f-block and part of
p-block).
• Metals are generally solid, except for mercury (Hg), which is a liquid at
room temperature.
• Tend to lose electrons and form cations (+ ions) in reactions.
• Examples: Sodium (Na), Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu), Gold (Au).
Types of Metals:
1. Light Metals (e.g., Na, Mg) → Soft, low-density, very reactive.
2. Transition Metals (e.g., Fe, Ti) → Hard, high-density, less reactive.

2) Nonmetals
• Mostly found on the right side of the periodic table (p-block).
• Exist in various states:
o Gases (e.g., Oxygen (O), Nitrogen (N)).
o Solids (e.g., Sulfur (S), Iodine (I)).
o One liquid (Bromine, Br).
• Tend to gain or share electrons and form anions (- ions) in reactions.
• Examples: Oxygen (O), Chlorine (Cl), Sulfur (S), Carbon (C).

3) Metalloids (Semi-metals)
• Have properties intermediate between metals and nonmetals.
• Found along the stair-step line between metals and nonmetals in the
periodic table.
• Examples: Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge), Boron (B).

8
 • Uses: Silicon (Si) is widely used in electronics and computer chips.
❖ Classification Based on Electronic Configuration
Elements can also be grouped based on their electron configuration, which
determines their chemical behavior.

Figure 6: Classification of Elements based on Electronic Configuration

1) s-block Elements
• Located in Groups 1A and 2A.
• Have their outermost electrons in the s-orbital (ns1-2).
• Highly reactive metals.
• Examples:
o Group 1A (Alkali Metals): Na (Sodium), K (Potassium).
o Group 2A (Alkaline Earth Metals): Mg (Magnesium), Ca
(Calcium).
• Helium (He) is the only noble gas present in the s-block.

2) p-block Elements
• Located in Groups 3A to 8A (13–18).
• Their valence electrons are in p-orbitals (ns² np1-6).
• This block contains metals, nonmetals, and metalloids.
• Includes Noble Gases (Group 8A), Halogens (Group 7A), and most of
the representative elements.

3) d-block Elements (Transition Metals)

• Located in Groups 3B to 12 B.
• Electrons are added to d-orbitals (ns² (n-1)d1-10).
• Metals with multiple oxidation states (e.g., Fe²⁺, Fe³⁺).
• Examples: Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn), Gold (Au).

4) f-block Elements (Inner Transition Metals)

• Includes Lanthanides (4f series) and Actinides (5f series).
1-14
• Valence electrons are added to f-orbitals (ns² (n-2)f ).
9
 • Lanthanides: Soft, reactive metals (e.g., Neodymium (Nd) in magnets).
• Actinides: Mostly radioactive, used in nuclear energy (e.g., Uranium (U)).

Table 3: Summary Table for Periodic Table Blocks

Location in the Periodic
Classification Key Characteristics Examples
Table
s-block Elements Groups 1A & 2A Highly reactive metals, ns¹-² Na, Mg
Includes metals, nonmetals, metalloids,
p-block Elements Groups 3A–8A (13–18) Cl, Si, Pb
ns² np¹–⁶
Transition metals, variable oxidation
d-block Elements Groups 3B–12B Fe, Cu, Zn
states, ns² (n-1)d¹–¹⁰
Rare earth & radioactive elements, ns²
f-block Elements Lanthanides & Actinides U, Nd
(n-2)f¹–¹⁴

❖ Classification of Elements Based on Properties

Elements in the periodic table are classified into four main categories based on
their chemical and physical properties:
1) Representative Elements (Main Group Elements)
• Located in Groups 1A to 7A of the periodic table.
• Include metals, nonmetals, and metalloids.
• Include Solids, Liquids, and Gases.
• The number of valence electrons corresponds to the group number (e.g.,
Group 1A has 1 valence electron, Group 7A has 7 valence electrons).
• React readily to form stable compounds.
Examples of representative element families:

Alkali Metals Alkaline Earth Metals Halogens

Group 1A Group 2A Group 7A
✓ All end in ns1 ✓ All end in ns2 ✓ All end in ns2 np5
✓ All group 1A are ✓ Metals ✓ Halogens means
metals except ✓ Reactive metals “salt-forming”.
hydrogen. ✓ They lose two valence ✓ Very reactive
✓ Very reactive electrons to form divalent nonmetals.
metals. cations (M2+) ✓ They easily gain an
✓ They easily lose one electron to form a
valence electron to monovalent anion
form monovalent (X-).
cations (M+).

10
2) Noble Gases (Group 8A / 18)
• Also called inert gases because they are mostly non-reactive.
• Their outermost electron shell is completely filled with
electronic configuration ns2np6 (except helium, which has a
full 1s² configuration).
• Do not easily form compounds under normal conditions.
• Used in lighting, welding, and protective gas environments.
• Example: Neon (Ne) in neon lights, Argon (Ar) in welding.

3) Transition Elements (Transition Metals) – d-block Elements

• Found in Groups 1B to 8B, located in the middle of the periodic table.
• All are metals with multiple oxidation states (can lose different numbers of
electrons). They also form colorful compounds (used in dyes and
pigments).
• Examples: Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu), Gold (Au), Platinum (Pt).

Figure 7: Transition Metals and Inner Transition Metals

4) Inner Transition Elements – f-block Elements

• Also called rare-earth elements, located at the bottom of the periodic table.
• Divided into two series:
o Lanthanides (4f series): Soft, reactive metals, used in electronics and
magnets.
o Actinides (5f series): Radioactive elements, some used in nuclear
energy.
• Examples: Neodymium (Nd) and Uranium (U).

11
1.2.3. Atomic Properties
[Link] Atomic and Ionic Sizes

• Atomic radius:
o Increases down the group (due to more energy levels).
o Decreases across a period (due to higher nuclear charge, which pulls electrons
closer to the nucleus).

Figure 8: Periodic Trends for Atomic Size

• Ionic radius:
o Cations are smaller than their
neutral atoms (stronger attraction
due to increased nuclear charge).
o Anions are larger than their
neutral atoms (due to increased
electron repulsions).
Figure 9: Ionic Radii

12
[Link] Ionization Energy (IE)

• Definition: Energy required to remove an electron.

• Trends:
o Decreases down the group (more shielding, weaker attraction).
o Increases across the period (stronger nuclear attraction due to the
increase in the nuclear charge).
• Successive ionization energies increase, 3rd IE > 2nd IE > 1st IE, because it
is harder to remove more electrons due stronger nuclear charge.
[Link] Electron Affinity (EA)

• Definition: Energy change when an atom gains an electron.

• Trends:
o Decreases down the group (weaker attraction due to shielding).
o Increases across the period (stronger nuclear charge).
[Link] Electronegativity (EN)

• Definition: An atom’s ability to attract electrons in a bond towards itself.

Figure 10: Electronegativity difference between H and Cl

• Trends:
o Decreases down the group (larger atoms, weaker attraction).
o Increases across the period (smaller atoms, stronger attraction due to
the increase in the nuclear charge).

13
Note: Trends of atomic size are opposite to trends of the other atomic properties.
The figure below illustrates the Pauling scale, which shows the
electronegativities of the periodic table elements.

Figure 11: Pauling Scale

Notes:
➢ The electronegativity of fluorine (4.0) is higher than that of any other
element.
➢ Oxygen (3.5) is the second most electronegative element.
➢ Nitrogen and Chlorine (3.0) are the third most electronegative elements.
➢ The electronegativity of Cesium (0.7) is lower than that of any other
element.

Figure 12: Summary of atomic properties (Periodic Trends)

14
 Practice Questions
1. Which of the groups shown is commonly known as noble gases?
a) Group 1A
b) Group 2A
c) Group 7A
d) Group 8A

2. Which of the following is a halogen?

a) S
b) Ca
c) Fe
d) Cl

3. What is the trend of atomic size from top to down in a group of the
periodic table?
a) Increases
b) Decreases
c) Remains constant
d) Randomly changes

4. Which of the following blocks have their valence electrons in the (ns² np1-6)
configuration?
a) s-block
b) p-block
c) d-block
d) f-block

5. What is true about all the elements in the same vertical column in the
periodic table?
a) They possess the same number of energy levels
b) They have the same number of valence electrons
c) They are the same atomic size
d) They have the same electronegativity

15
CHEMISTRY FOR MEDICINE
Strontium-90

Elements within the same column

of the Periodic Table exhibit
analogous properties. An
interesting example is the
resemblance between strontium
(Sr) and calcium, as strontium is
positioned directly below calcium
in Group 2A. Calcium is a crucial
mineral for humans, as our bones
and teeth are predominantly
composed of calcium compounds. This mineral is essential for our daily diet,
primarily obtained from milk, cheese, and other dairy products.

Strontium-90 was one of the isotopes produced by nuclear test detonations in the
1950s and 1960s. The radioactive element strontium-90 was found in the fallout
from atmospheric nuclear test detonations. It was disseminated globally by winds
and subsequently deposited on the ground, where it was ingested by cattle and
other fauna. Strontium-90 was released into milk and subsequently permeated
human bodies. Due to its chemical similarity, some strontium-90 was incorporated
into bones and teeth (particularly in youngsters), exposing them to a low level of
radiation over prolonged durations.

In 1958, pathologist Walter Bauer examined the impact of nuclear fallout on

children. The research contributed to the implementation of a ban on above-
ground nuclear weapon testing in the early 1960s.
16
1.3. Molecular Forces
• Intramolecular Forces (Chemical Bonds): Strong forces that hold atoms
together within a substance, affecting the chemical properties of substances.
o Types: Ionic, Covalent, and Metallic Bonds.
• Intermolecular Forces: Weaker forces that exist between molecules,
affecting physical properties like boiling and melting points.
o Types: Dipole-Dipole Forces, Ion-Dipole Forces, Dispersion Forces,
and Hydrogen Bonding.

Figure 13: The difference between Molecular Forces

• Atoms bond to achieve a stable and lower-energy state.

• Bond Formation: Exothermic (releases energy).
• Bond Breaking: Endothermic (absorbs energy).
• Octet Rule: Atoms gain, lose, or share electrons to achieve 8 valence
electrons, like most of their nearest noble gases

• Duet Rule: Few atoms gain, lose, or share electrons to achieve 2 valence
electrons like the noble gas (He). Examples include Hydrogen (H), lithium
(Li), and Beryllium (Be).

17
 • Lewis Structures: Represent valence electrons as dots around the element
symbol.

Figure 14: Examples of Lewis Symbols

1.3.1. Types of Chemical Bonds

• Ionic Bonds:
o Formed by electron transfer from a metal to a nonmetal.
o Creates positive (cation) and negative (anion) ions, which are electrostatically
attracted to each other.
o Example: NaCl.

o Properties: High melting/boiling points, soluble in water, conduct electricity in

molten or dissolved form.

• Covalent Bonds:
o Electrons are shared between nonmetals.
o Can be single, double, or triple bonds.

18
 Figure 15: The Different Types of Covalent Bonds

Bond Pair: a pair of electrons

involved in covalent bonding.
Lone Pair: a pair of electrons not
involved in covalent bonding.

Figure 16: The Difference between Bond Pair and Lone Pair

19
 Table 3: Bond polarity depends on the electronegativity difference.

Nonpolar Polar
Ionic Bonds
Covalent Bond Covalent Bond

Non-metal atoms have Non-metal atoms have Metal and non-metal

no or little difference in a significant difference atoms with larger
electronegativity (EN). in electronegativity differences in
(EN). electronegativity (EN).

Electron pairs are shared Electron pairs are shared Electrons are completely
equally. unequally. They are transferred from metal to
drawn closer to the atom nonmetal atoms.
with a higher EN.
∆ EN ≤ 0.5 ∆ EN > 0.5 and <1.7 ∆ EN ≥ 1.7

Examples: NaCl, CaCl2,

Examples: H2, Cl2, CH4 Examples: H2O, HCl
KBr

• Metallic Bonds:
o Occur between metal atoms.
o Each atom of the metal crystal loses all
valence electrons, forming a pool of electrons
(sea of electrons)
o The sea of delocalized electrons allows high
electrical and thermal conductivity.
• Figure 17: Metallic Bond

20
1.3.2. Intermolecular Forces
• Dipole-Dipole Forces: Between polar
molecules.
o Example: HCl molecules.
Figure 18: HCl molecules (Dipole-Dipole Forces)

• Ion-Dipole Forces: Between ions and polar molecules

o Example: NaCl in water, aqueous solution of potassium chloride (KCl).

Figure 19: Interactions between Water Molecules and NaCl Ions

• Dispersion (London) Forces: Weakest force, present in all molecules,

dominant in nonpolar substances
o Example: molecules of CO₂, O₂, N₂, Noble gases.

Figure 20: Dispersion Forces between non-polar Cl2 Molecules

Hydrogen Bonding: A hydrogen bond occurs between a partially positive

hydrogen (H) of one molecule and a partially electronegative atom of another
molecule, mainly Nitrogen, Oxygen, and Fluorine atoms (N, O, F) (e.g., H₂O, HF,
NH₃).

Figure 21: Different Types of Hydrogen Bonds

21
1.3.3. Strength of Intermolecular Forces (Descending Order)
1. Ion-Dipole Forces (Strongest)
2. Hydrogen Bonds
3. Dipole-Dipole Forces
4. London Dispersion Forces (Weakest)

1.3.4. Boiling Point & Intermolecular forces

• The greater the intermolecular force between the particles of a substance,
the higher the boiling point of that substance (e.g., H₂O > CO₂).
• This is because more heat energy is required to overcome the
intermolecular forces to change the liquid into a gas.

Practice Questions
1- A covalent bond is formed by the . . . . . . . . ..
a. Transfer of electrons from the metal to non-metal.
b. Sharing of electrons between non-metal
c. Transfer of electrons from non-metal to another non-metal
d. Sharing of electrons between metals.
2- In an ionic compound, the bonding is between_____.
a. metals and non-metals
b. non-metals and non-metal
c. metals and metals
d. aqueous solutions
3- A triple covalent bond is present in _____.
a. O2
b. N2
c. H2
d. Cl2

22
4- What is the bond type between the atoms of chlorine molecules?
a. Ionic bond
b. Hydrogen bond
Cl Cl
c. Polar covalent bond
d. Non polar covalent bond
5- Which of the following bonds is characterized by unequal sharing of the
electron pairs?
a. Ionic bonds
b. Nonpolar covalent bonds
c. Polar covalent bonds
d. Hydrogen bonds.
6- Which of the following is the weakest intermolecular attractive force?
a. Ion dipole forces
b. Hydrogen bond
c. Dipole-dipole force
d. Dispersion forces

7- . What are the types of intermolecular forces in an aqueous solution of

NaCl?
a. Dispersion forces
b. Ion-dipole forces
c. Hydrogen bonds
d. Dipole-dipole forces

8- What type of bond is formed between silicon and carbon?

Silicon’s EN = 1.8, carbon's EN = 2.5
a) Ionic
b) Polar covalent
c) Nonpolar covalent
d) Metallic

23
CHEMISTRY FOR MEDICINE
Ionic Compounds in Medicine
Numerous ionic compounds possess medicinal uses, several of which are
illustrated in the table.

24