Module

Objectives

 At the end of this module you

will be able to describe stall
phenomena and factors involved
in it completely.

Time of this module:

00:45
 𝑪𝑳 &𝑪𝑫 𝒗𝒔 𝑨𝑶𝑨?

The coefficient of lift, 𝐶𝐿 , increases

with increasing angle of attack,
until 𝐶𝐿 reaches a maximum, at
about 16° angle of attack for the
type of wing used on most light
aircraft. Above this angle, 𝐶𝐿
decreases sharply.

An aircraft will stall when the

angle of attack reaches the
critical angle, regardless of
airspeed.
Cause of the Stall

A stall is caused by airflow separation. Separation

can occur when either the boundary layer has
insufficient kinetic energy or the adverse pressure
gradient becomes too great.

An aeroplane can be stalled at any airspeed or attitude

Separation

As angle of attack increases, the adverse

pressure gradient increases, reducing the kinetic
energy, and the boundary layer will begin to
separate from the surface at the trailing edge.

Further increase in angle of attack makes the

separation point move forward and the wing
area that generates a pressure differential
becomes smaller.
 Stall

Further increase in angle of

attack makes the separation
point move forward and the
wing area that generates a
pressure differential
becomes smaller.

When the separation point

occurs so far forward that
the majority of the aerofoil
is covered in turbulent
airflow, the wing is stalled.
There is a drastic reduction
in the lift generated by the
aerofoil and it is no longer
possible to maintain steady
level flight
Stall AOA

Reaching the stalling angle, or critical angle of attack,

causes the aerofoil to stall.
This occurs when the coefficient of lift reaches a
maximum value.

Beyond this point, the breakdown of the

airflow results in a marked reduction in
the coefficient of lift, and a rapid
increase in the coefficient of drag,
although lift is not totally lost upon
reaching this angle of attack
 Stall

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Stall Speed

𝑽𝑺 :

stalling speed or minimum steady-flight speed at which the aeroplane is controllable.

In straight flight, the stall occurs at an indicated airspeed which is defined in the Pilot’s Operating Handbook (POH) as
the stalling speed.
There must be an adequate safety margin between the minimum speed allowed for normal operations and the
stall speed.
1 2 𝑖𝑓: 𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿 𝑀𝑎𝑥 1 2
𝐿 = 𝜌𝑉 𝐶𝐿 𝑆 𝐿 = ( 𝜌𝑉 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆
2 2
1
𝑖𝑓: ( 𝜌𝑉 2 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 =𝐼𝐴𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 =𝐼𝐴𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐿≅𝑊 𝑊
2
𝐿 = (𝐼𝐴𝑆)𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐶𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆 (𝐼𝐴𝑆)𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 =
𝐶𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆

𝑖𝑓: (𝑉 2 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 =𝑇𝐴𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 =𝑇𝐴𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 1 2

𝐿≅𝑊 2𝑊
𝐿 = 𝜌(𝑇𝐴𝑆)𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐶𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆 (𝑇𝐴𝑆)𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 =
2 𝜌𝐶𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆
Stall

[Link]
Stall Recognition

The aeroplane is considered stalled when the behaviour of the

aeroplane gives the pilot a clear and distinctive indication of
an acceptable nature that the aeroplane is stalled.

Acceptable indications of a stall, occurring either individually Aircraft Behaviour Close to the Stall:
or in combination, are:
Stall characteristics vary with different types of
1. A nose-down pitch that cannot be readily arrested; aircraft.
However, for modern aircraft during most normal
2. Buffeting (or shaking), of a magnitude and severity that manoeuvres, the onset of stall is gradual. The first
is a strong and effective deterrent to further speed indications of a stall may be provided by any or all
reduction; or of the following:

3. The pitch control reaches the aft stop and no further • unresponsive flight controls,
increase in pitch attitude occurs when the control is held • aerodynamic buffet.
full aft for a short time before recovery is initiated. • a stall warning or stall prevention device,
 Stall Warning

Adequate stall warning may be provided by the

airflow separating comparatively early and
giving aerodynamic buffet by shaking the wing
and by buffeting the tailplane, perhaps
transmitted up the elevator control run and
shaking the control column, but this is not
usually sufficient, so a device which simulates
natural buffet is usually fitted to all aircraft.

Artificial stall warning on small aircraft is

usually given by a buzzer or horn. The artificial
stall warning device used on modern large
aircraft is a stick shaker, in conjunction with
lights and a noisemaker.
 Stall Warning

Flapper Switch (Leading Edge Stall Warning Vane):

As angle of attack increases, the stagnation point moves

downwards and backwards around the leading edge.
The flapper switch is so located that, at the appropriate
angle of attack, the stagnation point moves to its underside
and the increased pressure lifts and closes the switch.
 Stall Warning

The Angle of Attack Sensor:

Mounted on the side of the fuselage.

The stick shaker is activated at the appropriate angle

of attack.
Stall Warning Stick Shaker:

A stick shaker represents what it is replacing; it

shakes the stick and is a tactile warning.
If the stick shaker activates when the pilot’s
hands are not on the controls, when the aircraft
is on autopilot, for example, a very quiet stick
shaker could not function as a stall warning so a
noisemaker is added in parallel.

The stick shaker is a pair of simple electric

motors, one clamped to each pilot’s control
column, rotating an out of balance weight.
When the motor runs, it shakes the stick.

On some aeroplanes, where the buffet

preceding a stall is absent or could be confused
with turbulence, in particular heavy aeroplanes
with powered controls, a stick shaker is
incorporated to simulate the prestall buffet
effect of turbulent airflow over the elevators.
 To recover from a stall or prevent a full stall, the angle of attack must be
Stall Recovery decreased to reduce the adverse pressure gradient.

This may consist of merely releasing back pressure, or it may be necessary to

smoothly move the pitch control forward, depending on the aircraft design and
severity of the stall. (Excessive forward movement of the pitch control, however, may
impose a negative load on the wing and delay recovery).

For most modern jet

transport aircraft it is usually
sufficient to lower the nose
to the horizon or just below
while applying maximum
authorized power to
minimize height loss.
Stall Recovery
Allow airspeed to increase and recover lost altitude with moderate back pressure on
the pitch control.

Pulling too hard could trigger a secondary stall, or worse, could exceed the limit load
factor and damage the aircraft structure.

As angle of attack reduces below the critical angle, the adverse pressure gradient will
decrease, airflow will re-attach, and lift and drag will return to their normal values.
 Stall

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Wing Design Characteristics

The Effect of Aerofoil Section:

Shape of the aerofoil section will influence the

manner in which it stalls. With some sections, stall
occurs very suddenly and the drop in lift is very
marked. With others, the approach to stall is more
gradual, and the decrease in lift is less disastrous.

Features of aerofoil section design which affect

behaviour near the stall are:

• leading edge radius,

• thickness-chord ratio,
• camber, and particularly the amount of camber
near the leading edge, and
• chordwise location of the points of maximum
thickness and maximum camber.
Wing Design Characteristics

The Effect of Wing Planform:

Stalling does not necessarily occur simultaneously

over all sections of a wing due to their variation in
the coefficient of lift. In fact, each section
possesses its own individual coefficient of lift and
the wing stalls progressively as each section
reaches its maximum value.
Wing Design Characteristics

The Effect of Wing Planform:

On a rectangular wing, separation tends to begin at the root and spreads out towards the tip.
Reduction in lift initially occurs inboard near the aircraft CG, and if it occurs on one wing before the other, there is little
tendency for the aircraft to roll. The aircraft loses height, but in doing so it remains more or less wings level. Loss of
lift is felt ahead of the centre of gravity of the aircraft and the CP moves rearwards, so the nose drops and angle of
attack is reduced.
Wing Design Characteristics
Thus, there is a natural tendency for the aircraft to move away
from the high angle of attack which gave rise to the stall.

The separated airflow from the root immerses the rear fuselage
and tail area, and aerodynamic buffet can provide a warning of
the approaching stall. Being located outside of the area of
separated airflow, the ailerons tend to remain effective when
the stalling process starts. All of these factors give the most
desirable kind of response to a stall:

• aileron effectiveness,
• nose drop,
• aerodynamic buffet, and
• absence of violent wing drop.

Unfortunately, a rectangular wing has unacceptable wing

bending characteristics and is not very aerodynamically
efficient, so most modern aircraft have a tapered and/or swept
planform.
Wing Design Characteristics

The Effect of Wing Planform:

Separation tends to occur first in the region of the wing tips, reducing lift in those areas. If an actual wing were allowed to
stall in this way, stalling would give aileron buffet and perhaps violent wing drop. (Wing drop at the stall gives an
increased tendency for an aircraft to enter a spin).
There would be no buffet on the tail, no strong nose-down pitching moment and very little, if any, aileron effectiveness.
Wing Design Characteristics

To give favourable stall characteristics, a tapered wing

must be modified using one or more of the following:

• Geometric twist (washout), a decrease in

incidence from root to tip. This decreases the angle
of attack at the tip, and the root will tend to stall
first.

• The aerofoil section may be varied throughout the

span such that sections with greater thickness and
camber are located near the tip. The higher
CLMAX of such sections delays stall so that the
root will tend to stall first.

• Leading edge slots, towards the tip re-energize

(increase the kinetic energy of) the boundary layer.
They increase local CLMAX and are useful, both
for delaying separation at the tip and retaining
aileron effectiveness.
Wing Design Characteristics

• Another method for improving the stall

pattern is by forcing a stall to occur from
the root. An aerofoil section with a
smaller leading edge radius at the root
would promote airflow separation at a
lower angle of attack but decrease
overall wing efficiency. The same result
can be accomplished by attaching stall
strips (small triangular strips),to the wing
leading edge. At higher angles of attack,
stall strips promote separation, but they
will not effect the efficiency of the wing
in the cruise.

• Vortex generators, are rows of small, thin aerofoil shaped blades which project vertically
(about 2.5 cm) into the airstream. They each generate a small vortex which causes the free
stream flow of high energy air to mix with and add kinetic energy to the boundary layer.
This re-energizes the boundary layer and tends to delay separation.
Wing Design Characteristics

The Effect of Wing Planform:

A swept wing is fitted to allow a higher maximum speed, but it has an increased tendency to stall first near the tips. Loss
of lift at the tips moves the CP forward, giving a nose-up pitching moment.

Effective lift production is concentrated inboard and the maximum downwash now impacts the tailplane, adding to the
nose-up pitching moment.
Wing Design Characteristics

As soon as a swept wing begins to stall, both forward CP movement and increased downwash at the tailplane cause the
aircraft nose to rise rapidly, further increasing the angle of attack. This is a very undesirable and unacceptable response at
the stall and can result in complete loss of control in pitch from which it may be very difficult, or even impossible, to
recover. This phenomenon is known as pitch-up, and is a very dangerous characteristic of many high speed, swept
wing aircraft.
Wing Design Characteristics

The tendency of a swept-back wing to tip stall is due to the induced

spanwise flow of the boundary layer from root to tip. The following
design features can be incorporated to minimize this effect and give
a swept wing aircraft more acceptable stall characteristics:

• Wing fences (boundary layer fences), are thin metal fences

which generally extend from the leading edge to the trailing
edge on the top surface and are intended to prevent outward drift
of the boundary layer.

• Vortilons, are also thin metal fences, but are smaller than a full
chordwise fence. They are situated on the underside of the wing leading
edge. The support pylons of pod mounted engines on the wing also act in
the same way. At high angles of attack a small but intense vortex is shed
over the wing top surface which acts as an aerodynamic wing fence.
Wing Design Characteristics

• Saw tooth leading edges, will also generate a

strong vortex over the wing upper surface at high
angles of attack, minimizing spanwise flow of
the boundary layer. (Rarely used on modern high
speed jet transport aircraft).

• Vortex generators
Super Stall (Deep Stall)

Conventional straight-winged aircraft

with low tailplanes possess ideal stall
characteristics. Prior to the stall the
separated airflow from the wing causes
buffeting of the tail surfaces, and at the
stall the aircraft automatically pitches
nose-down, thereby reducing its angle of
attack. The tailplane also retains its
effectiveness at the stall because the
disturbed air passes above it.
Super Stall (Deep Stall)

Jet transport category aircraft with sweptback

wings, a high T-tail configuration, and rear
fuselage mounted engines do not behave in this
manner. They possess no pre-stall buffet
warning, because the separated airflow from
the wing does not pass over the tail surface,
and the progressive stalling of the wing-tips
causes the aircraft to pitch nose-up, thus
intensifying the stall. The whole of the
tailplane is covered in disturbed air,
compromising the pitching capability required
for recovery.
The resulting loss of lift and rapid increase in
drag also intensify the aircraft's rate of sink. In
this condition, the aircraft is considered to be
super-stalled. Since recovery is impossible, a
stick pusher is mandatory.
THE SWEPT-BACK WING IS THE MAJOR CONTRIBUTORY FACTOR.
Spin When an aircraft is accidentally or
deliberately stalled, the motion of the
aircraft may in some cases develop
into a spin. The important
characteristics of a spin are:

a) the aircraft is descending along a

steep helical path about a vertical
spin axis,
b) the angle of attack of both wings is
well above the stall angle,
c) the aircraft has a high rate of
rotation about the vertical spin axis,
d) viewed from above, the aircraft
executes a circular path about the
spin axis, and the radius of the
helix is usually less than the semi-
span of the wing, The spin is one of the most complex of all flight manoeuvres.
e) the aircraft may be in the “erect” or A spin may be defined as an aggravated stall resulting in
“inverted” position in the spin. autorotation, which means the rotation is stable and will
continue due to aerodynamic forces if nothing intervenes.
During the spin, the wings remain unequally stalled.
Causes of a Spin

A stall must occur before a spin can take

place. A spin occurs when one wing stalls more
than the other, The wing that is more stalled will
drop and the nose of the aircraft will yaw in the
direction of the lower wing.

If the correct stall recovery is not initiated promptly, the stall could
develop into a spin.

Co-ordinated use of the flight controls is important, especially

during flight at low airspeed and high angle of attack.

A spin may also develop if forces on the aircraft are unbalanced in

other ways, for example, from yaw forces due to an engine failure
on a multi-engine aircraft, or if the CG is laterally displaced by an
unbalanced fuel load.
Phases of a Spin

There are three phases of a spin:

1. The incipient spin is the first phase, and exists from the time the aeroplane
stalls and rotation starts until the spin is fully developed.

2. A fully developed spin exists from the time the angular rotation rates,
airspeed and vertical descent rate are stabilized from one turn to the next.

3. The third phase, spin recovery, begins when the anti-spin forces overcome
the pro-spin forces.

In a spin, the airplane is in motion about all three axes. In other words, lots of
things are happening in a spin! The airplane is:
• stalled
• rolling
• yawing
• pitching
• slipping
• rapidly losing altitude at a low airspeed (close to the stall speed).
Spin Recovery

When an aircraft is in a steep spin rotation it is

primarily in roll, whereas in a flat spin it is
primarily in yaw.

Recovery from a simple stall is achieved by reducing the

angle of attack which restores the airflow over the wing;
spin recovery additionally involves stopping the rotation.

The extremely complex aerodynamics of a spin may

dictate vastly different recovery procedures for different
aeroplanes, so no universal spin recovery procedure can
exist for all aeroplanes.
 The following is a general recovery procedure for erect spins.
Spin Recovery Always refer to the Flight Manual for the particular aircraft
being flown and follow the manufacturer’s recommendations.

1. Move the throttle or throttles to idle. This minimizes

altitude loss and reduces the possibility of a flat spin
developing. It also eliminates possible asymmetric thrust in
multi-engine aeroplanes. Engine torque and gyroscopic
propeller effect can increase the angle of attack or the rate of
rotation in single-engine aeroplanes, aggravating the spin.

2. Neutralize the ailerons. Aileron position is often a

contributory factor to flat spins, or to higher rotation rates in
normal spins.

3. Apply full rudder against the spin. Spin direction is most

reliably determined from the turn co-ordinator. Do not use
the ball in the slip indicator; its indications are not reliable
and may be affected by its location within the flight deck.

4. Move the elevator control briskly to approximately the

neutral position. Some aircraft merely require a relaxation
of back pressure, while others require full forward pitch
control travel.
Spin

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THANKS !
and

Good Luck

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