Module

Objectives

 At the end of this module you will

be able to explain how an airplane
can be controllable clearly.

Time of this module:

00:45
 Why Control?

Control:
All aircraft are fitted with a control system to
enable the pilot to manoeuvre and trim the
aircraft in flight about each of its three axes.

Flight control surfaces:

Aircraft flight control surfaces are aerodynamic
devices allowing a pilot to adjust and control the
aircraft's flight attitude.
Aeroplane Axes and The three axes of an aeroplane intersect at the centre of gravity (CG)
and are those about which an aeroplane moves in flight.
Planes of Rotation If the forces about any axis are not balanced (i.e. the total moments
about the axis is not zero) there will be an angular acceleration and
the aeroplane will rotate about that axis.

The Longitudinal or Roll Axis

The horizontal straight line joining the most
forward point of the fuselage of the aeroplane,
the centre of the nose, to the centre of the most
rearward point of the aeroplane’s fuselage is
the longitudinal axis.

The Lateral or Pitch Axis

The lateral axis is a horizontal straight line
passing from one side of the aeroplane to the
other, through the CG, at right angles to the
longitudinal axis.

The Normal or Yaw Axis

The normal axis of an aeroplane is the vertical
straight line passing through the CG.
Angles Yaw Angle: The angle between the aircraft longitudinal axis and the relative airflow.

Pitch Angle: The angle between the aircraft longitudinal axis and the horizon.

Roll Angle: The angle between the aircraft lateral axis and the horizon.
Attitude

[Link]
How it Works? The moment around an axis is produced by
changing the aerodynamic force on the
appropriate aerofoil.
The magnitude of the force is a product of the
dynamic pressure ( 𝐼𝐴𝑆 2 ) and the angular
displacement of the control surface.
Aerodynamic force can be changed by:

• adjusting the camber of the aerofoil.

• changing the incidence of the aerofoil.
• decreasing lift and increasing drag by
“spoiling” the airflow.

Changing the camber of any aerofoil (wing, tailplane or fin)

will change its lift. Deflecting a control surface effectively
changes its camber. Figure shows the effect on 𝐶𝐿 of
movement of a control surface.
 Primary Control
Surface

The primary control surfaces are the elevators,

ailerons, and rudder.

Elevator for control in pitch about the lateral axis

(longitudinal control).

Rudder for control in yaw about the normal axis

(directional control).

Ailerons for control in roll about the longitudinal axis

(lateral control).
 Elevator

The primary effect of elevators is to provide pitch control about the

lateral axis.

Pushing the control column forward causes the elevator to move

downward. This produces an aerodynamic force acting on the tailplane
in an upward direction causing the aircraft to pitch nose-down.
Pulling the control column rearward has the reverse effect, and causes
the aircraft to pitch nose-up.

The elevators produce no real secondary effect on an aircraft although

changes in pitch attitude change the angle of attack and thus airspeed.
 Stabilator

Some designers combine the horizontal stabilizer and elevator into one airfoil and have the whole tailplane movable. A
combined horizontal stabilizer/elevator combination is called a stabilator. Other terms include all-moving tail, all-flying tail
and slab tail.
When the control column is moved the entire slab moves. Forward movement of the control column increases the angle of
attack of the stabilator, thereby generating a force that causes the tail to rise).
Rudder The primary effect of the rudder is to provide yaw control about the normal axis

Moving the left rudder pedal forward moves the rudder to the left. In flight, this produces
an aerodynamic force on the fin and the aircraft yaws to the left. Moving the right rudder
pedal forward reverses the action, and the aircraft yaws to the right.
Rudder
The secondary effect of rudder is roll in the same direction as yaw.

This occurs because the outer wing travels faster than the inner wing, thereby generating
more lift.
 The primary effect of ailerons is to provide roll control about the longitudinal axis.
Ailerons
Moving the control column to the right deflects the right aileron upward and the
left aileron downward. This locally alters the shape of the wing where the ailerons
are attached. In flight, this produces a downward aerodynamic force on the right
wing and an upward aerodynamic force on the left wing, causing the aircraft to roll
to the right. Moving the control column to the left causes the reverse effect.
Ailerons
A downward movement of the aileron causes an increase in the effective angle
of attack and a corresponding increase in lift, whilst an upward movement of
the aileron causes a reduction in the effective angle of attack and a decrease in
lift. The difference in lift between the two wings produces the necessary
rolling moment.
In addition to changes in lift, the deflection of the ailerons also causes
variations in drag. Induced drag increases on the downward-deflected aileron,
while the upward-deflected aileron produces more profile drag. At slow
airspeeds, the increase in drag is greater on the downward deflected aileron,
and the aircraft yaws in the opposite direction to the roll.
This is the secondary effect of ailerons, and is known as adverse aileron yaw.
Control Surface

[Link]

[Link]
Adverse Yaw Equalising the drag produced by the ailerons helps to compensate for adverse
aileron yaw. Adverse yaw effect can be reduced by differential ailerons, Frise-type
ailerons, or interconnecting the rudder to the ailerons.

Differential Ailerons:
The aileron linkage causes the up-going aileron to move through a larger angle than the down-going aileron. This
increases the drag on the up aileron and reduces it on the down aileron, and so reduces the difference in drag
between the two wings.
Adverse Yaw

Frise ailerons:

These have an asymmetric leading edge. The

leading edge of the up-going aileron protrudes
below the lower surface of the wing, causing high
drag.
The leading edge of the down-going aileron remains
shrouded and causes less drag.

Some aircraft combine the two methods to form

Differential/Frise type ailerons.
Adverse Yaw

Aileron-rudder coupling (or Interconnected Ailerons and Rudder):

In this system the aileron and rudder controls are interconnected, so that when the ailerons are deflected, the rudder
automatically moves to counter the adverse yaw.
Adverse Yaw

[Link]
 Ailerons are normally situated at the wing tips to give the greatest rolling moment for the force
Ailerons produced. However, this means they are also able to generate the maximum twisting loads on the
wing.
The low-speed ailerons are conventional ailerons fitted to the outboard trailing edge of the wings.
The moment arm is therefore maximized and will give a high rate of roll at low airspeeds.

The high-speed ailerons have a smaller surface area than that of conventional ailerons and are
fitted inboard of the conventional ailerons.
 Combined surfaces

The effect of two of these controls may be combined in a

single set of control surfaces:

Elevons: combine the effects of elevator and aileron.

Ruddervator: (‘V’ or butterfly tail) combines the effects of

rudder and elevator.

Tailerons: slab horizontal tail surfaces that move either

together, as pitch control, or independently for control in roll.
Hinge Moments

The airflow over a deflected control surface will attempt to move the control surface back to a neutral position.
The perpendicular distance of the control surface centre of pressure (CP) from the hinge-line is the arm (D), which when
multiplied by the lifting force (F) of the control surface produces the hinge moment of the control surface.

To move the control surface to the required angular displacement and maintain it in that position the pilot has to
overcome, then balance, the hinge moment by applying a force (stick force) to the cockpit control. The stick force will
therefore depend on the size of the hinge moment.
Control Balancing

The aerodynamic force on the controls will depend on the area of the control surface, its angular displacement and the
IAS. For large and fast aircraft the resulting aerodynamic force can give hinge moments / stick forces which are too high
for easy operation of the controls.

The pilot will require assistance to move the controls in these conditions, and this can be done either by using (hydraulic)
powered flying controls or by using some form of aerodynamic balance.
Aerodynamic Balance

The primary function of any aerodynamic control surface balancing method is to reduce the force required to operate the
control. The most common methods employed to achieve this aim and reduce the manoeuvre stick force are:

 the hinge balance

 the horn balance
 the internal balance
 the balance tab
 the antibalance tab
 the servo-tab
 the spring tab
Aerodynamic Balance

Inset Hinge:

If the distance (d) is reduced, the hinge moment will

be reduced.
The smaller the hinge moment, the smaller the stick
force and the easier it will be for the pilot to move the
controls.

Setting the hinge back does not reduce the

effectiveness of the control, only the hinge moment.

If the centre of pressure moves ahead of the hinge line.

the resulting hinge moment no longer opposes the
movement of the control surface, but instead assists
[Link] is known as control surface overbalance.
In this condition, the control surface will automatically
move toward full deflection. To stop this, the pilot
must reverse the control input. This is known as
control reversibility.
Aerodynamic Balance

Horn Balance:

any of the control surfaces can be aerodynamically balanced by

designing a portion of the control surface to be ahead of the hinge-
line; this is the horn balance.
When the control surface is deflected the horn balance will produce
an opposing moment to the hinge moment, which reduces the
amount of force required to operate the control surface.
Aerodynamic Balance

Internal Balance:

The aerodynamic balance of a control surface can be achieved

internally without incurring any additional drag.

Movement of the control causes pressure changes on the

aerofoil, and these pressure changes are felt on the balance area.

For example, if the control surface is moved down, pressure

above the aerofoil is reduced and pressure below it is increased.
The reduced pressure is felt on the upper surface of the balance
‘panel’, and the increased pressure on the lower surface.

The pressure difference on the balance therefore gives a hinge

moment which is the opposite to the hinge moment on the main
control surface, and the overall hinge moment is reduced.
Aerodynamic Balance

Balance Tab:

The balance tab provides a force acting on the control surface trailing edge opposite to
the force on the main control surface. The balance tab moves in the opposite direction to
the control surface. The pilot moves the surface, the surface moves the tab.

Unlike the previous types of balance, the balance tab will give some reduction in control
effectiveness, as the tab force is opposite to the control force.
Aerodynamic Balance

Anti-balance Tab:

Because the hinge moment on some aeroplanes is too small, often as the result
of the CP being too close to the hinge-line of the control surface, it is too easy
to deflect the control surface against the aerodynamic load. Consequently,
there is little control column load and there is a lack of feel to the controls.
This could lead to excessive deflection of the control surface and result in
serious overstressing of the airframe.

The anti-balance tab moves in the same

direction as the control surface and
increases control effectiveness, but it will
increase the hinge moment and give
heavier stick forces.
The pilot moves the surface, the surface
moves the tab.
Aerodynamic Balance

Servo Tab:

The force required to operate the primary control surfaces, even using balance tabs, is often too great to be
acceptable. To relieve the pilot of the need to apply so much force to operate the controls servo-tabs are fitted to carry
out this function. The servo-tab is a small tab hinged on the trailing edge of the primary control surface and linked
directly to the control column. There is no direct link between the control column and the primary control surface.

Pilot control input deflects the servo tab only.

The disadvantage of the servo tab is reduced

control effectiveness at low IAS.
Aerodynamic Balance

Spring Tab:

The spring tab is a modification of the servo tab, such that tab movement is proportional to the applied stick force.
Maximum tab assistance is obtained at high speed when the stick forces are greatest.

High dynamic pressure will prevent the surface from moving, so the spring is compressed by the pilot input and the tab
moves the surface. The spring is not compressed at low IAS, so the pilot input deflects the control surface and the tab,
increasing the surface area and control effectiveness at low speed.
Aerodynamic Balance

Mass Balance:

Mass balance is a WEIGHT attached to the control surface forward of

the hinge. Most control surfaces are mass balanced.
The purpose of this is to prevent control surface flutter.
Flutter is an oscillation of the control surface which can occur due to
the bending and twisting of the structure under load.
If the control surface CG is behind the hinge line, inertia will cause the
surface to oscillate about its hinge line. The oscillations can be
divergent and cause structural failure.
(Hydraulic) Powered Flying
Controls

Power assisted flying control:

If the required assistance for the pilot to

move the controls cannot be provided by the
preceding types of aerodynamic balance,
then power assisted or fully powered
controls have to be used.

With a power assisted flying control, only a

certain proportion of the force required to
oppose the hinge moment is provided by the
pilot; the hydraulic system provides most of
the force.
(Hydraulic) Powered Flying
Controls

Fully powered flying control:

For bigger and/or faster aircraft, hinge moments are

so large that fully powered controls must be used.
In a fully powered control system, none of the force
to move the control surface is
supplied by the pilot. The only force the pilot supplies
is that required to overcome system friction and to
move the servo valve; all the necessary power to
move the control surface is supplied by the aircraft’s
hydraulic system.

Aerodynamic loads on the control surface are unable

to move the cockpit controls, so powered flying
controls are known as “irreversible” controls.
(Hydraulic) Powered Flying
Controls

Artificial Feel (‘Q’ Feel):

With a fully powered flying control the pilot is unaware of

the aerodynamic force on the controls, so it is necessary to
incorporate “artificial” feel to prevent the aircraft from
being overstressed.

Pitot pressure is fed to one side of a chamber and static

pressure to the other, which moves a diaphragm under the
influence of changing dynamic pressure with airspeed and
causes “regulated” hydraulic pressure to provide a
resistance or ‘feel’ on the pilot’s input controls
proportional to IAS2, just as in a manual control.
In addition, stick force should increase as stick
displacement increases.
Powered Flying
Controls

Fly By Wire (FBW)

is a system that replaces the conventional

mechanical or manual flight controls of
an aircraft with an electronic interface.

Many modern aeroplane designs

incorporate a method of controlling the
primary control surfaces by actuators
operated by electrical signals sent by a
transmitter activated by movement of the
pilot’s control column. This is fly-by-
wire.

The movements of flight controls are

converted to electronic signals
transmitted by wire .
Trim

With a simple control system, full rudder pedal

movement will provide full rudder deflection. With
high speed aircraft, while it is necessary to have
large rudder deflections available at low speed,
when flying at high speed, full rudder deflection
would cause excessive loads on the structure.
To prevent this occurring, a gear change system
can be incorporated into the rudder control system.
This may be a single gear change which gives a
smaller rudder deflection for full pedal movement
above a certain speed, or a progressive gear change
which gives a decreasing rudder deflection with
full pedal movement as speed increases
Trimming

An aeroplane is trimmed when it will maintain its

attitude and speed without the pilot having to apply
any load to the cockpit controls.

If it is necessary for a control surface to be deflected

to maintain balance of the aircraft, the pilot will need
to apply a force to the cockpit control to hold the
surface in its deflected position.

This force may be reduced to zero by operation of

the trim controls.
Trim Tab

A trim tab is a small adjustable surface set into the trailing edge of a main control surface.
To maintain the primary control surface in its required position, the tab is moved in the opposite direction to the
control surface until the tab moment balances the control surface hinge moment.
Trim Tab

Fixed Tabs
Some trim tabs are not adjustable in flight
but can be adjusted on the ground, to
correct a permanent out of trim condition.

Moveable trim tabs:

Its deflection is controlled by a trim wheel
or electrical switch in the cockpit, usually
arranged to operate in an instinctive sense.

For example, consider the operation of an

elevator trim tab
Tabs
 Trimming

Variable Incidence (Trimming) Tailplane:

This system of trimming may be used on manually operated and

power operated controls. To trim, the tailplane incidence is adjusted
by the trim wheel until the tailplane load is equal to the previous
elevator balancing load required, Stick force is now zero.

The main advantages of a variable incidence (trimming) tailplane are:

 the drag is less in the trimmed state as the aerofoil is more streamlined.
 trimming does not reduce the effective range of pitch control as the elevator remains approximately neutral
when the aircraft is trimmed.
 it is very powerful and gives an increased ability to trim for larger CG and speed range.

The disadvantage of a variable incidence (trimming) tailplane is that it is more complex and is heavier than a
conventional trim tab system.
Control on the Ground

Directional control on the ground is

achieved by use of the rudder,
nosewheel steering (which may be
connected to the rudder pedals),
power, and brakes.
Airflow over the rudder increases its
effectiveness.
THANKS !
and

Good Luck

Does anyone have any questions?