Research Methods

Research Process
Definition:
The systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources to establish facts and
reach new conclusions.
Research is "creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge." It
involves unbiased information collection, organization, and analysis to increase
understanding of a topic or issue. A research project may be an expansion of past work in the
field. For example, research may replicate elements of previous projects or the project as a
whole to test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments.
The primary purposes of basic research (as opposed to applied research) are documentation,
discovery, interpretation, and research and development (R&D) methods and systems for
advancing human knowledge. Research approaches depend on epistemologies (the
philosophical study of human knowledge's nature, origin, and limits), varying considerably
within and between humanities and sciences. There are several forms of research: scientific,
humanities, artistic, economic, social, business, marketing, practitioner research, life,
technological, etc. The scientific study of research practices is known as meta-research.

Forms of research
Original Research:
Original research, also called primary research, is research that is not exclusively based on a
summary, review, or synthesis of earlier publications about research. The original research
aims to produce new knowledge rather than to present the existing knowledge in a new form
(e.g., summarized or classified).
Original research can be in various forms, depending on the discipline it pertains to. For example,
experimental work typically involves direct or indirect observation of the researched subject(s), e.g.,
in the laboratory or field, documents the methodology, results, and conclusions of an experiment or
set of experiments, or offers a novel interpretation of previous results. In analytical work, some new
(for example) mathematical results are produced or a new way of approaching an existing problem.
Finally, in some subjects which do not typically carry out experimentation or analysis of this kind, the
originality is in the particular way existing understanding is changed or re-interpreted based on the
outcome of the researcher's work.

1
 Research Methods

The degree of originality of the research is among the primary criteria for articles to be
published in academic journals and is usually established through peer review. Graduate
students are commonly required to perform original research as a dissertation.
Scientific Research:
Scientific research is a systematic way of gathering data and harnessing curiosity. This
research provides scientific information and theories to explain the world's nature and
properties. In addition, it makes practical applications possible. Scientific research is funded
by public authorities, charitable organizations, and private groups, including many
companies.
Generally, research is understood to follow a particular structural process. Though step order
may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following steps are usually part
of most formal research, both basic and applied:
1) Observations and formation of the topic: Consists of one's interest and follows that
subject area to conduct subject-related research. The subject area should not be
randomly chosen since it requires reading a vast amount of literature on the topic to
determine the gap in the literature the researcher intends to narrow. Therefore, a
keen interest in the chosen subject area is advisable. The research must be justified by
linking its importance to existing knowledge about the topic.
2) Hypothesis: A testable prediction designates the relationship between two or more
variables.
3) Conceptual definition: Description of a concept by relating it to other concepts.
4) Operational definition: Details regarding defining the variables and how they will be
measured/assessed in the study.
5) Data gathering consists of identifying a population and, selecting samples, gathering
information from or about these samples using specific research instruments. The
instruments used for data collection must be valid and reliable.
6) Analysis of data: This involves breaking down the individual pieces of data to
conclude it.
7) Data Interpretation: This can be represented through tables, figures, and pictures and
then described in words.
8) Test, revising of hypothesis
9) Conclusion, reiteration if necessary

2
 Research Methods

A common misconception is that a hypothesis will be proven (see, instead, null hypothesis).
Generally, a hypothesis is used to make predictions that can be tested by observing the
outcome of an experiment. If the outcome is inconsistent with the hypothesis, then the
hypothesis is rejected (see falsifiability). However, if the outcome is consistent with the
hypothesis, the experiment is said to support the hypothesis. This careful language is used
because researchers recognize that alternative hypotheses may also be consistent with the
observations. In this sense, a hypothesis can never be proven but rather only supported by
surviving rounds of scientific testing and, eventually, becoming widely thought of as true.
A valid hypothesis allows prediction, and the prediction will be verified within the accuracy
of observation of the time. As the accuracy of observation improves with time, the hypothesis
may no longer provide an accurate prediction. In this case, a new hypothesis will arise to
challenge the old, and to the extent that the new hypothesis makes more accurate predictions
than the old, the new will supplant it. Researchers can also use a null hypothesis, which states
no relationship or difference between the independent or dependent variables.

Research in the humanities:

Research in the humanities involves different methods, such as for example hermeneutics and
semiotics. Humanities scholars usually do not search for the ultimate correct answer to a
question but instead explore the issues and details surrounding it. Context is always important
and can be social, historical, political, cultural, or ethnic. An example of research in the
humanities is historical research, which is embodied in the historical method. Historians use
primary sources and other evidence to systematically investigate a topic and then write
histories in the form of past accounts. Other studies aim to merely examine the occurrence of
behaviors in societies and communities without particularly looking for reasons or
motivations to explain these. These studies may be qualitative or quantitative and can use a
variety of approaches, such as feminist theory.

Steps in conducting research:

Research is often conducted using the hourglass model structure of research. The
hourglass model starts with a broad spectrum for research, focusing on the required
information through the method of the project (like the neck of the hourglass), then expands
the research in the form of discussion and results. The significant steps in conducting
research are:

3
 Research Methods

Research design and evidence

Research cycle:
Research is often conducted using the hourglass model structure of research. The hourglass
model starts with a broad spectrum for research, focusing on the required information through
the method of the project (like the neck of the hourglass), then expands the research in the
form of discussion and results. The significant steps in conducting research are:
1) Identification of research problem
2) Literature review
3) Specifying the purpose of the research
4) Determining specific research questions
5) Specification of a conceptual framework, sometimes including a set of hypotheses
6) Choice of a methodology (for data collection)
7) Data collection
8) Verifying data
9) Analyzing and interpreting the data
10) Reporting and evaluating research

4
 Research Methods

11) Communicating the research findings and, possibly, recommendations

The steps generally represent the overall process; however, they should be viewed as an ever-
changing iterative process rather than a fixed set of steps. Most research begins with a general
statement of the problem or the purpose for engaging in the study.
The literature review identifies flaws or holes in previous research, which justifies the study.
Often, a literature review is conducted in each subject area before a research question is
identified. As identified by a researcher, a gap in the current literature then produces a
research question. The research question may be parallel to the hypothesis.
The hypothesis is the supposition to be tested. First, the researcher(s) collects data to test the
hypothesis. The researcher(s) then analyses and interprets the data via various statistical
methods, engaging in what is known as empirical research. The results of the data analysis
in rejecting or failing to reject the null hypothesis are then reported and evaluated. In the end,
the researcher may discuss avenues for further research.
However, some researchers advocate for the reverse approach: starting with articulating
findings and discussing them, moving "up" to identifying a research problem that emerges in
the findings and literature review. The reverse approach is justified by the transactional
nature of the research endeavor, where research inquiry, research questions, research method,
relevant research literature, and so on are not fully known until the findings have emerged
and been interpreted.
Rudolph Rummel says, "... no researcher should accept any one or two tests as definitive.
Only when a range of tests are consistent over many kinds of data, researchers, and methods
can one have confidence in the results.
Plato in Meno talks about an inherent difficulty, if not a paradox, of doing research that can
be paraphrased in the following way, "If you know what you're searching for, why do you
search for it?! [i.e., you have already found it] If you don't know what you're searching for,
what are you searching for?

Research methods:
The research process aims to produce new knowledge or deepen understanding of a topic or
issue. This process takes three primary forms (although, as previously discussed, the
boundaries between them may be obscure):
Exploratory research helps to identify and define a problem or question.
Constructive research tests theories and proposes solutions to a problem or question.

5
 Research Methods

Empirical research tests the feasibility of a solution using empirical evidence.

There are two major types of empirical research design: qualitative research and
quantitative research. Researchers choose qualitative or quantitative methods according to
the nature of the research topic they want to investigate and the research questions they aim
to answer:

Qualitative research:
Qualitative research refers to the much more personal non- quantitative use of different
methods of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data for meanings, definitions,
characteristics, and metaphors.
Qualitative research is further classified into the following types:
Ethnography: This research mainly focuses on the culture or a group of people, which
includes share attributes, language, practices, structure, values, norms, and material things,
and evaluating human lifestyle.
Ethno: people, Grapho: This discipline may include ethnic groups, ethnogenesis,
composition, resettlement, and social welfare characteristics.
Phenomenology: It is a compelling strategy for demonstrating methodology to health
professions education and is best suited for exploring challenging problems in health
professions education.

Quantitative research:
This involves a systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena
and their relationships by asking a narrow question and collecting numerical data to analyze it
utilizing statistical methods. The quantitative research designs are experimental, correlational,
and survey (or descriptive). Statistics derived from quantitative research can be used to
establish associative or causal relationships between variables. Quantitative research is linked
with the philosophical and theoretical stance of positivism.
The quantitative data collection methods rely on random sampling and structured data
collection instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response categories.
These methods produce results that can be summarized, compared, and generalized to larger
populations if the data are collected using proper sampling and data collection strategies.
Quantitative research is concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory or being able
to estimate the size of a phenomenon of interest.

6
 Research Methods

If the research question is about people, participants may be randomly assigned to

different treatments (this is the only way a quantitative study can be considered an actual
experiment). If this is not feasible, the researcher may collect data on participant and
situational characteristics to statistically control for their influence on the dependent or
outcome variable. The researcher will employ probability sampling to select participants if
the intent is to generalize from the research participants to a larger population.
The researcher(s) may collect primary or secondary data in either qualitative or quantitative
research. Primary data is collected specifically for the research, such as through interviews
or questionnaires. Secondary data is data that already exists, such as census data, which can
be re-used for the research. It is good ethical research practice to use secondary data wherever
possible.

Mixed-method research:
Research that includes qualitative and quantitative elements, using both primary and
secondary data, is becoming more common. This method has benefits that using one method
alone cannot offer. For example, a researcher may conduct a qualitative study and follow it
up with a quantitative one to gain additional insights.
Big data has brought significant impacts on research methods, so now many researchers do
not put much effort into data collection; furthermore, methods to analyze readily available
massive amounts of data have also been developed.

Types of Research Method:

1. Observatory Research Method
2. Correlation Research Method

Non-empirical research:
Non-empirical (theoretical) research is an approach that involves the development of
theory as opposed to using observation and experimentation. As such, non-empirical research
seeks solutions to problems using existing knowledge as its source. This, however, does not
mean that new ideas and innovations cannot be found within the pool of existing and
established knowledge. Non-empirical research is not an absolute alternative to empirical
research because they may be used together to strengthen a research approach. Neither one is
less effective than the other since they have their particular purpose in science. Typically,

7
 Research Methods

empirical research produces observations that need to be explained; then theoretical research
tries to explain them generating empirically testable hypotheses; these hypotheses are then
tested empirically, giving more observations that may need further explanation; and so on.
See Scientific method.
A simple example of a non-empirical task is the prototyping of a new drug using a
differentiated application of existing knowledge; another is the development of a business
process in the form of a flow chart and texts where all the ingredients are from established
knowledge. Much of cosmological research is theoretical in nature. Mathematics research
does not rely on externally available data; instead, it seeks to prove theorems about
mathematical objects.

Research ethics:
Research ethics is concerned with the moral issues that arise during or as a result of research
activities, the conduct of individual researchers and the implications for research
communities. Historically, scandals such as Nazi human experimentation and the Tuskegee
syphilis experiment led to the realization that clear measures are needed for the ethical
governance of research to ensure that people, animals, and environments are not unduly
harmed by scientific inquiry. However, the management of research ethics is inconsistent
across countries, and there is no universally accepted approach to how it should be addressed.
Research ethics committees have emerged as one governance mechanism to ensure research
is conducted responsibly.
When making moral judgments, we may be guided by different values. Therefore,
philosophers commonly distinguish between approaches like deontology, consequentialism,
Confucianism, virtue ethics, and Ubuntu ethics, to list a few. Regardless of approach,
applying ethical theory to specific contexts is known as applied ethics, and research ethics
can be viewed as a subfield of applied ethics because an ethical theory is applied in real-
world research scenarios.
Ethical issues may arise in designing and implementing human or animal experimentation
research. There may also be consequences for the environment, society, or future generations
that need to be considered. Research ethics is most developed as a concept in medical
research, with typically cited codes being the 1947 Nuremberg Code, the 1964 Declaration of
Helsinki, and the 1978 Belmont Report. Informed consent is a critical concept in research
ethics, thanks to these codes. Research in other fields such as social sciences, information

8
 Research Methods

technology, biotechnology, or engineering may generate different types of ethical concerns

for those in medical research.
In countries such as Canada, mandatory research ethics training is required for students,
professors, and others who work in research, while the US has legislated how institutional
review boards operate since the 1974 National Research Act.
Nowadays, research ethics is commonly distinguished from research integrity, which includes
issues such as scientific misconduct (e.g., fraud, data fabrication, or plagiarism).
====================================================================