1.

Introduction to Metrology

Metrology Basics

Introduction:
Metrology is a science of measurements. It involves a number of
theoretical as well as practical problems related with measurements. These
problems are units of measurements and their standards, method of
measurement and measuring instruments etc. In other words, metrology is not
a science, which deals in only with measurements, but it is also related with
industrial inspection and its various techniques. Inspection also includes
checking of products at various stages of manufacturing and it is carried out
with gauges. Metrology includes design, manufacturing and testing of gauges of
all kinds.
Now-a-days, there is a great awareness about quality. Industries are
adopting approach of 'Total Quality Management' (T.Q.M.). We will be dealing
with this in next chapters. In broader sense, it can be said that metrology is
mainly concerned with:-
1. Establishing the units of measurements. These units are then reproduced
in the form of standards by which the uniformity in measurement is obtained.
2. Different methods of measurements are developed.
3. Accuracy of different methods, measurements and analyse causes of
errors are found out and efforts are made to eliminate them.
It is experienced that due used to mass production, it is not possible
used to measure the various elements of components by conventional methods.
So gauges and comparators will be necessary used to measure all the
products. Inspection of few products will be sufficient using Statistical Quality
control.
Legal metrology
According to a definition from the International vocabulary on legal
metrology, it is a section of metrology (science on measurements) that refers
to activities which arise from legal requirements and which refer to
measurements, measuring units, measuring methods and which are
performed by competent bodies. Subject covered by legal metrology may differ
in each country. Competent bodies which are responsible for operation of legal
metrology or for part of its activities and often named legal metrology service.
The main subject of legal metrology is providing uniformity of measurements.
Legal Metrology "concerns activities which result from statutory
requirements and concern measurement, units of measurement, measuring
instruments and methods of measurement and which are performed by
competent bodies".
Legal metrological control (legal metrology) covers measuring
instruments which are used in specific applications. Regulation of Measures
in Article 8 point 1 defines these applications:
- in health care, life and environment protection,
- in protection of public safety and order,
- in protection of consumer rights,
- on collection of payments, fees, taxes, non-taxed budget fees, on
determination of discounts, fines, revenues and compensations, and also on
determination and collection of charges and renders,
- on custom control,
- in trade.
In regulations on measuring instruments, the requirements are more
specifically described in relation to a specific measuring instrument. In case
of non-automatic measuring instruments, regulation of Ministry on
Economy, Labour and Social Policy of 3rd October 2003 specifies the
requirements for determination of mass:
- in trade
- which is basis for calculation of trade charges, customs, taxes, bonuses,
discounts, fines, revenues, compensations and other similar forms of
payments,
- on application of other legal regulations and opinions of experts and issued
in court trials
- in medical practice on weighing patients for the purpose of monitoring,
diagnosis and treatment,
- on preparation of medicines on prescription in chemists and analysis
conducted in medical and pharmaceutical laboratories,
- which is basis for calculation of fares in direct trade and in packaging of
goods.
Scientific and technological metrology.
Apart from legal metrology, operators of measuring instruments have contact
with metrology which is not concerned with legal regulations. It is commonly
known as “scientific and technological metrology”. Basic activity which refers
to this kind of metrology is calibration process.

Differences between legal metrology and scientific and technological

metrology, based on requirements form commonly known norms are
presented on below table:
Need of Inspection:
Inspection is necessary for the following aspects:-
1. To ensure that product is as per desired standards.
2. By inspection the shortcomings in the manufacturing processes are
found out. These shortcomings are informed to production department, so that
they can remove these weak links.
3. It helps to judge the efficiency of purchase department so as used to know
that the raw material purchased was as per specifications.
4. It helps to reject the defective products, which will protect the interest of
customer.
5. It helps to coordinate the functions of quality control, production, purchase
and other departments in the organization.
6. Its helps in manufacturing of interchangeable parts.
7. It helps to introduce the spirit of competition, which ultimately improves
quality of the product.
To precise, the inspection will let you know how close the
measurements of a product are with the standard values. It will also help to
decide the acceptability of the product. The efficiency and usefulness of
inspection will depend upon the reliability, precision and accuracy of the
measuring instruments used for inspection.

Concept of Mass production:

Mass production is manufacturing of a product on a large scale. The
product should have quality with close tolerance limit. The productivity
is obtained in mass production.

Interchange ability:
In mass production, a large number of identical articles are produced but
in-spite of advanced mechanism and tooling, the equipment need not be
specially designed for this type of article alone.
An interchangeable part is one, which can be substituted, for similar
part manufactured to the same drawing.
Interchangeability is possible only when certain standards are strictly
followed. Universal interchangeability is always desired. It means the parts
drawn from any two altogether different manufacturing sources are put together
for mating purpose. For this it is essential that all should follow a common
standard and all standards used by various manufacturing units should be
traceable to a single source i.e, international standards. When all parts to be
assembled are made in the same manufacturing unit, local standards may
also be traceable to international standards.
The required fit in an assembly can be obtained in two ways. They are
1. Universal or full interchangeability and
2. Selective assembly
In universal or full interchangeability it is expected that any component
will mat with any other mating component without classifying manufactured
components in subgroup or without carrying out any minor alterations, for
mating purpose. This system is not feasible many times, as it requires
machines capable of very high accuracy. This is not the case with selective
assembly,
Selective Assembly:
Today's market is customers' market. Customer wants quality, precision
and trouble free products at reasonable prices. This is only possible by
adopting automatic gauging for selective assembly, whereby parts
manufactured in wide tolerances, fit and function as though they were
precisely manufactured in precision laboratory to a very close tolerance. In
selective assembly, the components are classified into several groups according
to size. This is done both for hole and shaft size and then corresponding
groups are made to match properly.

Concept of Precision and Accuracy:

Precision:
In concept of precision, single reading has no meaning. It is a repeatability
of a measuring process. It exists only when a set of measurements is carried
out on the same quantity under identical conditions by same observer, with
same instrument and in short intervals of time. The precision will determine
how well these performed measurements agree with each other. For any set of
measurements, the individual results will vary slightly from the mean or
average value. The lesser the variation in the measurements more is the
precision. For example, consider a component having true length of 40mm. A
student of metrology takes number of readings for a measurement of length of
this component, with some instrument and at short intervals of time. The
readings obtained are 39.001, 39.002, 39, 38.999, 38.998mm. Though these
reading are not accurate, they are precise because the variations in the readings
above or below the mean value 3 9.00mm are very small.
In most of the measurements, very often precision is required. In fact,
precision is the main criterion by which the quality of the work is judged.

Accuracy:
Accuracy means closeness of measured value to the true value, taking
into accounts both bias and precision. Bias is equal to the difference between
true value and the limiting mean. It is a constant behaving not similar to
standard deviation used as on index of precision.
The bias and standard deviation are used in the form of uncertainty or
limits of error as an index of accuracy.
Following figure differentiate clearly between accuracy and precision.
Readability and Repeatability:

Sensitivity:
Sensitivity is the term associated with measuring instrument to detect
small variations, in a quantity being measured. Higher the ability of measuring
instrument, more sensitive it is. But if the instruments are made more sensitive
then easily affected by external effects such as temperature variations,
vibrations etc. This affects the accuracy and precision of the measurement. If
an instrument is more sensitive then it becomes more difficult for operator to
obtain a reliable reading.

Readability:
This is also the term associated with measuring instrument and not with
measuring process. Readability is the ease with which the reading of a
measuring instrument can be read. It is the susceptibility of measuring
instrument to have its indication covered into meaningful number.
For example, to make micrometer, more readable they are provided with
vernier scale. Readability and hence accuracy of measurement can also be
improved by use of proper magnifying devices.

Repeatability:
It is the ability of measuring systems to reproduce the same results for
the measurement of same quantity, when the measurements are carried out
by same observer, with same instrument, under the same conditions and in
short interval of time used.

Magnification or Amplification:
Magnification is increasing the magnitude of output signal of
measuring instrument many times to make it more readable.
It is necessary to improve the accuracy of measurement, small variation
in the quantity being measured, be easily detected by measuring instrument
and its reading should also be easily readable. For this purpose, the output
signal from a measuring instrument is to be amplified or magnified.
Magnification obtained in a measuring instrument may be mechanical,
electrical, electronic; optical or pneumatic.
Electrical magnification is obtained by means of gear or lever trains.
Generally the mechanical magnification method is grouped with other type of
magnification method to increase their merits.
Electrical magnification is based on sensing change in inductance or
capacitance, which is measured by a Whetstone bridge.
Electronic method of Magnification is more reliable and accurate
Optical magnification uses principle of reflection.
Pneumatic magnification makes use of compressed air for amplifying
the output of the measuring instrument. This method is suitable for internal
measurements.
Errors in Measurements:

Sources of errors:
In any measurement, there is always a degree of uncertainty resulting
from measurement error. This error is the difference between the indicated
and actual values of measurement. The error is expressed either as on
absolute error or on a relative scale as a percentage of full scale. It is important
in measurement to find the root causes of these errors and to find ways to
reduce or eliminate these errors. However, the fact must be borne in mind, that
on matter how experienced and skillful operator is there and the instrument is
sophisticated, the errors will always be there.

Measurement of Errors:
Inspite of taking all types of care and precautions it is not possible to
eliminate all types of errors completely. We can only minimize the errors. It is
said that errors are inherent in the process of measurement. Therefore it is
essential to study different types of errors as a step in finding ways of reducing
them.
Errors arise from different sources and are broadly classified as:

Gross Errors (Human Errors):

This class of errors mainly covers human mistakes in reading
instrument, in recording and calculating measurement results. The
responsibility of the mistakes wholly lies with the experimenter.
Gross errors are further classified into two types:
1. Observational errors
2. Operational errors

[Link] errors:
There are many sources of observational errors. As an example, the
pointer of a voltmeter rests slightly above the surface of the scale. Thus an error
on account of parallax will be incurred unless the line of vision of the exactly
above the pointer. To minimise parallax errors, highly accurate meters are
provided with mirrored scale.
When the pointer's image appears hidden by the pointer, observer’s eye
is directly in line with the pointer. Although a mirrored scale minimises parallax
error an error is necessarily present through it may be very small.
Since the parallax errors arise on account of pointer and the scale not
being in the same plane. We can eliminate this error by having the pointer and
the scale in the same plane as shown in fig.
a) Wrong reading taken: The experimenter may misread the scale. For an
example he may, due to an oversight or hurry, read the temperature as 64.5° C
while the actual reading may be 65.4°C. He may transpose the reading while
recording. For example, he may read 18.7° C and record 17.8°C instead.

b) Tendency to read high or to read low: Few people have tendency to read
high and few people have tendency to read low. Consider an example of
temperature measurement by using thermometer. Suppose the mercury has
crossed line 53.4°C and it is very near to the line 53.5°C. In this case few people
will note down temperature 53.4°C and few people will note down 53.5°C
depending upon their tendencies.

c) Lack of experience: Suppose a new operator is handling vernier first time;

he can not recognize clearly with a line on main scale. At a time, he may observe
2-3 lines matching. This may cause an error.

d) Parallax Errors: If the line of vision of the observer is not matching exactly
with the pointer then an error called parallax error can occur. Following figure
shows clearly the parallax error.

e) Individual Limitations: Poor eyesight of a experimenter carelessness, lack

of knowledge etc. may add errors in measurement. And these may vary person
to person.
Remedies: The above errors can be avoided by adopting following means:
1. Great care should be taken in reading and recording the data.
2. Two three or even more readings should be taken for the quantity
under measurement.
3. Parallax errors can be minimised by adopting following means:
(i) By providing the scale and the pointer in one plane only.
(ii) By providing mirror below the scale.
(iii)By matching the line of vision of the observer exactly above the pointer
(i.e. at 90°)

2. Operational Errors:
Quite often errors are ca by poor operational techniques. There is an
old saying that instruments are better than the people who use them. Too
often the errors ca in measurements are due to the fault of the operator than
that of the instrument. A good instrumentusedin an unintelligent way gives
erroneous results. For example:
a) Misalignment errors: Following figure shows clearly the error introduced
during the measurement of a diameter by micrometer due to misalignment of
the axis.

b) Excessive pressure: Many size measuring instrument have to be brought in

contact with a workpiece. A force is necessary to do this. If somebody gives
excessive pressure, it may cause deformation of the workpiece. At the same time
slight bending of the vernier member may take place. Ultimately we get low
value of the diameter d.

Remedy: The operational errors can be avoided by taking following

precautions:
1. Always align the axis of workpiece with the axis of instrument.
2. Don't apply excess pressure.
3. While measuring temperature by using thermometer immerse the bulb
sufficiently.
4. While measuring pressure by using bourdon pressure gauge expose it to
the pressure which is to be measured.

Systematic Errors:
1. Instrumental Errors
2. Environmental Errors
1.) Instrumental Errors: These errors arise due to the following reasons:

(a) Due to inherent shortcomings in the instrument.

Inherent shortcomings in the instrument: These errors are
inherent in instruments because of their mechanical structure. They may be
due to construction, calibration or operation of the instruments or measuring
devices. These errors may cause the instrument to read too low or too high.
For example, if the spring used for measurement mass in a spring balance;
has become weak, the spring balance will always read high. Errors may be ca
because of friction, or even gear backlash.
While making precision measurement we must recognize the possibility
of such errors as it is often possible to eliminate them or attest reduce them
to a great extent.
(b) Zero Error: In ideal condition for zero input the pointer of the measuring
system(say bourdon gauge) should show zero reading .But in actual practice
it dose not happen all the times. In few cases the pointer crosses the zero
known as positive error and the experimenter has to subtract the error from the
reading. Similarly in few cases the pointer lags behind the zero, known as
negative error and the experimenter has to add the error in the reading.
Figure shows clearly the difference between positive and negative error.

Remedy: Before stating measurement always considers zero error.

(c) Calibration error: These errors are occured if wrong calibration is done. This
means if an instrument is not properly calibrated then it will give readings. For
example a slip gauge of size 1.006 if wrongly calibrated as 1.005, it will always
give an error of 0.001 mm (i.e. one micron). Also wrongly calibrated thermometer
will always give wrong readings.
Remedy: After a certain periodical interval after say every six months
calibrate all the measuring instruments from standard laboratories.

2. Environmental Errors: These errors are due to conditions external to the

measuring device i.e. in the area surrounding it. These may be effects of
temperature, pressure, humidity, dust, vibrations or presence of external
magnetic or electro static fields.
Consider mercury in glass thermometer being used for the
measurement of air temperature. The instrument will be located wrongly if
during measurements the sun happens to be shining on the thermometer bulb.
Also, if the thermometer is placed too close to a window then the bulb would
indicate an effect of heat radiation due to window. In the above case the
thermometer will give a spurious temperature reading.
Following methods have been suggested to minimise the environmental
errors:
(i) Use the instrument under the conditions for which it is
calibrated. This may involve control of temperature, pressure and humidity.
(ii) Employing techniques which eliminate the effects of these
disturbances. For example, the effect of humidity, dust etc. can be entirely
eliminated by hermetically sealing the equipment.
(iii) In case it is suspected that external magnetic or electrostatic fields
can affect the reading of the instruments, magnetic or electrostatic shields
may be provided.
Random Errors:
Even after removing all the systematic errors measurement results
show variation from one reading to another. The quantity being measured
is affected by many factors throughout the universe. Out of these much factors
we are aware about very few factors. The factors about which we are unaware
are known as "Random or Residual" and the errors occur due to these factors
are called "Random or residual errors".

Difference between Systematic Errors and Random Errors:

Systematic Error Random Error

1. These errors are of constant and 1. Random Sources give rise to
similar in form. They are repetitive in these errors. They are non-
nature. consistent.

2. Improper conditions or 2. The errors are inherent in the

procedure cause these errors. measuring systems

3. These errors can be controlled in 3. Knowledge of measuring

magnitude and sense. Only personal system or conditions of
errors can not be controlled. measurement cannot decide the
specific cause, magnitudes and
sense of these errors

4. These errors can be reduced or 4. These errors are difficult to

even eliminated if proper analysis of eliminate, but results obtained can
these errors can be controlled. be corrected

5. These errors can be enlisted 5. These errors are :

such as : calibration errors, errors changes in position of setting
due to changes in contact pressure, standards and work piece, errors due
parallax, misalignment errors etc. to displacement of lever joints of
instruments, errors resulting from
backlash, friction etc
Standards

Introduction:
Measurements are restricted to measurement of length and angle in
mechanical engineering field. The other quantities would be expressed in
linear or angular terms are also measurable. For every quantity to be measured
there must be a unit to express the result of measurement. There must also be
a standard to permit the measurements. A standard is a physical or material
presence of a unit. In mass production, different parts are made on different
machines at different places and then assembled together. It is therefore
necessary to make measuring process precise and accurate. For linear
measurement imperial standard Yard and Meter have been used as
standards.

The Imperial Standards:

In 1120 AD, Henry I of England defined the Imperial standard Yard, as
the distance from tip of his nose to end of thumb when his arm is fully
stretched. Then in 1305, Edward-I established a standard, made of Iron. It
was called as 'Iron Ulna'. In course of time many changes took place and new
standards were published. The act of 1624 provided the restoration by the
length of simple pendulum beating seconds in London.
However, this proved to be unsatisfactory. Finally a fresh standard of
Imperial Yard was established. It is made
of bronze, consisting of 16 parts of copper,
2.5 parts tin and 1 part Zinc. This is in
the form of a bar, which is 38 inches long
and is of 1 inch square cross section.
Gold plugs are inserted in holes at the
base of each counter bores ½ inch
diameter and ½ inch deep at 36 inch
center, 1 inch from each end of bar. The
faces of gold plugs are flush with the
bushes of the counter bores, so that they
lie in neutral place of the bar where
bending effects were minimized, when
the bar is resting on supports. The gold
plugs (1/10)” in diameter and have three lines engraved transversely and two
lines longitudinally. Thus the 'YARD' is defined as the distance between two
central transverse lines of the plugs at 62°F. The bending of bar should keep
neutral axis unaffected and that is why gold plugs lines are kept in neutral axis.
The gold plugs are in counter bores so that they are protected from
accidental damages. International standard Yard is kept in safe custody at
Severs neat Paris (Frans).

Meter was originally defined as equal to one ten millionth part of the
earth's meridian quadrant passing through observatory in Paris. To implement
this decision the distance between Dunkirt and Montgrich in Spain was
measured by classical cross section. Meter was then defined as the distance
between its end faces. This was legalized standard of France in 1799. It was
then known as 'Meter Des Archives'.
Afterwards due to many discrepancies in geodetic survey, the above
definition as abandoned and then meter was defined as distance between end
surfaces of 'Meter Des Archives'. This standard was then used by many other
European countries by middle of nineteenth century. Afterwards in 1875, the
meter conventions was signed by 20 nations for manufacture of more suitable
standard, as original standard was found unsatisfactory. The International
Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIWM) at Severs near Paris defined the
international prototype meter as, the distance at 0°C between the centre
portions of pure Platinum-Iridium alloy (90% Platinum and 10% Iridium) of
102 cm total length and having a cross section
as shown in figure. The meter is supported by
roller of 1 cm diameter at a distance of 75 mm.
The relation between Yard and Meter is
as given below-
1 meter = 39.37014”,
1 yard = 0.91439841 m
Thus, meter (m) is the fundamental
unit of length. The international meter is
defined as the shortest distance (at 00C)
between the two parallel lines, engraves
upon the polished surface of a Platinum-
Iridium bar (90% Platinum and 10% Iridium)
kept at the international bureau of weights and measures at Severs, near
Paris. The distance between these marks was to be 1m.

Wave Length Standards:

A considerably difficulty is faced in comparing and verifying the sizes of
gauges. This is because the working standard is derived from a physical
standard. Also for establishing the size of a working standard, successive
comparisons must be made which lead to errors of unacceptable order of
magnitude. Using wavelengths of monochromatic light, which is natural and
invariable unit of length, the working standard is not at all depending upon
physical standard. Thus for all practical purposes, the use of phenomenon of
the 'interference of light' waves to provide working standard is accepted as
ultimate.
When light is made to interfere, it produces a pattern of dark bands,
which corresponds to a very accurate scale of elevations. The unit value of this
scale is exactly one half wavelength of light. This wavelength is accepted
as international standard of length, because it is constant. All wavelengths of
light are known exactly in terms of Krypton. It is possible to select any
convenient wavelength. It will be constant and accurate. It can be
internationally accepted for universal interchangeability.
Thus, the meter is redefined as the length equal to 1650763.73
wavelength of light emitted in vacuum by the atom of Krypton-86 on its
transition between the level 2P10 and 5d5.
The advantages of wavelength standards are
1. It is not material standard. It is not influenced by effect of environmental
conditions such as temperature, pressure, humidity and also aging.
2. It is not destroyed and so need not be stored under any security.
3. This standard is easily transferred to other standards.
4. It can be produced at any time, at any place, giving a constant length.
5. It is available at all places i.e. anywhere in laboratory, industry or any
desired place.
6. It is used for comparison purposes for higher accuracy.

Angular Standards:
For angular measurements, right angle is the basic unit. It is defined
as the angle between two lines, which intersect so as to make the adjacent angle
equal. The angle is also defined in terms of 'Radian' which is the angle subtended
at the center by an arc of a circle of length equal to its radius. For engineering
units are divided as degree, minutes and seconds. The following angle gauges
are used as standards -
Degrees: 1, 3, 9, 27, 41
Minutes: 1, 3, 9, 27
Seconds: 3, 9, 27
These are end standards, which include the required angle between
their highly polished end surfaces, which are within 0.00025 mm accuracy.
Any required angle is obtained by adding or subtracting these gauges and the
required angle is produced insteps of 3 second upto 810 48’ 39”

Sub - Division of Standards:

The Imperial standard Yard and International prototype meter,
mentioned earlier, considered to be perfect or master standards. They are not
used for general purpose. Depending upon accuracy required and the
importance of work, the standards are sub-divided into four grades.

1. Primary Standards:
For accurate definition of unit, there should be only one material
standard. This is known as primary standard. It is preserved under most
careful conditions. It is used only at rare intervals. It is mainly used for
comparison purpose with secondary standards.

2. Secondary Standards:
These are made very alike as primary standards. At occasions, they are
compared with primary standards and records of their deviation are noted down.
These standards are sent to different places for safe custody. Occasionally,
they are compared with tertiary standards.
3. Tertiary Standards:
These are first standards to be used for reference purpose in
workshop and laboratories. The primary and secondary standards are used
as final control at rare intervals Tertiary standards are to be maintained as a
reference for comparison at intervals with working standards.

4. Working Standards:
These are the standards of daily use in workshop and laboratories. They
should also uniform and accurate with comparison of higher standards. But
low grade of material is used for their manufacture considering the cost and overall
economy.

Line Standards:
Material standards Yard and Meter were 'Line Standards'. They are
made in this from because greater accuracy was attainable in their use and
manufacture, than an ‘End Standard'. Line standards are calibrated by
comparing the given standard with a master scale in an optical comparator.
Special Features of Line Standards:
1. The scale is quick to read and easy to use over a wide range.
2. Scales are accurately engraved.
3. The scale markings are not subjected to wear.
4. Scale ends are subjected to wear and make it undersize.
5. Scales are subjected to parallax error.
6. Scales do not have 'built in datum'.
7. Scales are not convenient for close tolerance length measurement.

End Standards:
These standards are defined as the distance between the end surface of
material surfaces. For all practical purposes, end standards are commonly
used in engineering workshops and laboratories. Micrometer anvils, slip
gauges are the examples of end standards. They can be manufactured to
a high degree of accuracy. In all meteorological laboratories, slip gauges,
which is best example of end standard are frequently . They are made of high
grade cast steel, hardened and stabilized throughout. Slip gauges in
combination of slip makes it possible to measure in the range of 0.0025 to
100 mm.
 End Bars

Special Features of End Standards:

1. These standards are highly accurate and are very suitable for
measurement of close tolerance.
2. They require more time to measure.
3. At one time, only one dimension is obtained.
4. Their measuring faces are subjected to wear.
5. Dimensional tolerance of 0.0005 mm is obtained which is comparatively
small.
6. Group or blocks wrung together while measuring which leads to damage.
7. They have built in datum.
8. No parallax error is obtained while reading.

Comparison between Line Standard and End Standard:

Point Line Standard End Standard
1. Measurement Upto ± 0.2 mm Upto ± 0.001mm.
accuracy microscope is used for Thus highly accurate.
high accuracy in
combination.
2. Time requirement for Easy and quick. More time
measurement required.
3. Uses Scale markings Measuring faces
are not subjected to get worn out. So pieces
wear. But end of scale are hardened to take
gets worn, so it is care of this. Built in
difficult to assume zero datum provided.
of scale as datum.

4. Errors Parallax error is Not properly

possible. wringing of slip gauges
produce error. Change
in temperature also
gives some error.
5. Manufacture Simple. Complex.
6. Cost Low. High.
7. Example Yard, Metre. Length bar and
slip gauges.
Calibration of Line Standards:
The calibration of line standard is done by comparison with a master
scale in a comparator. Eight sets of observations corresponding to eight
possible arrangements are done, for comparison of unknown scale with the
master. Thus the calibration is done.

Slip Gauges
Slip gauges or precision gauge blocks are used for precision
measurement of parts. They are also used for verifying measuring tools such
as micrometers, comparator and various limit gauges.
Slip gauges are often called as 'JOHANNSEN GAUGES' after their originator.
They are rectangular blocks made of alloy steel having a cross section of
about 32 mm by 9 mm. They are hardened and finished to a high degree of
accuracy. They are also carefully manufactured so that they are
independent of any variation in shape or size. The distance between two
opposite faces determines the size of the gauge.
The slip gauges are made in the following four grades in the ascending
order of work accuracy.
1. Workshop or Production grade
2. Inspection grade
3. Calibration grade
4. Reference grade

Further slip gauges are classified according to their guaranteed

accuracy.
AA :- Master slip gauges
A :- Reference gauges
B :- Workshop gauges
According to ISS slip gauges are classified as Grade-0, Grade-I and Grade-II.
Slip gauges are made of high grade steel having thermal expansion (11.5 ±
1.5) × 10-6 per °C between 10° to 30 °C. The slip gauges are supplied in sets
of suitable grade sizes so a number of may be obtained. Commonly used
sets are M105, M78, M17 and M9 pieces respectively. To build a required
size, the blocks are brought together with a sliding action. The process is
known as Wringing.

Wringing: It is the process when two clean and very accurately flat surfaces
are slide together under pressure. They adhere firmly. There will be no air
film at the junction and pieces are held by atmospheric pressure on the
opposite ends.
Precautions while using slip gauges:
 Utmost care is necessary while using slip gauges, as they are very
precision measuring devices.
 After use, all polished surfaces must be protected from atmospheric
corrosion by applying petroleum jelly or any other suitable anti
corrosion agent.
 Gauges are always kept in case which are always kept closed.
 Gauges are not touched by hand to avoid corrosion.
 They are always handled by using piece of charmois leather or tags
made from a strip of paper.
 After wringing, the surfaces are wiped with solvent to remove finger
marks.
 For removing grease, a clean rag soaked in petrol is first used.
 Then dry and soft cloth is used. Finally charmois leather is used for
final cleaning.

Normal Set (M45)

Care of slip gauges:-

1. All surfaces are protected by applying anti-corrosive jelly.
2. They are prevented from dust and dirt.
3. When not in use they should be kept at proper place
4. It is to be used in air-conditioning room which protect them from
thermal expansion.
5. Gauges are to be demagnetized for avoiding attract of metal dust.
6. Gauges should be handled as minimum as possible.
7. Handling should be done using hand gloves.
8. Gauges should not be kept on working surfaces.
9. After use of gauges remove finger marks and wiped gauges are placed
in box.
10. Gauges are not kept in wrung position for unnecessary length of time.

Length of End Bars:

The length of end bars is available in four grades of accuracy. They are:-
1. Reference grade.
2. Calibration grade.
3. Inspection grade and
4. Workshop grade
The inspection and workshop grades are internally threaded ends. They
can be used within combination with the help of standard stud.
The end bars are made in sizes from 10 mm to 1200 mm. They are made
of high quality tool steel. They are hardened and made as per specification. The
end faces are lapped. The hardness of end faces is of the order of 62 Rockwell
(HRC). The end bars having length less than 100 mm are known as 'Slip
Gauges'.
When end bars are used in combination it becomes necessary to
calculate 'Airy Points'. These points are marked when the end bars are used
in horizontal position as supports. Airy points are marked either by two raised
bands or by engraved markings.