Chapter 7
Block Diagram Algebra and Transfer Functions
of Systems
7.1 INTRODUCTION
It is pointed out in Chapters 1 and 2 that the block diagram is a shorthand, graphical representation
of a physical system, illustrating the functional relationships among its components. This latter feature
permits evaluation of the contributions of the individual elements to the overall performance of the
system.
In this chapter we first investigate these relationships in more detail, utilizing the frequency domain
and transfer function concepts developed in preceding chapters. Then we develop methods for reducing
complicated block diagrams to manageable forms so that they may be used to predict the overall
performance of a system.
7.2 REVIEW OF FUNDAMENTALS
In general, a block diagram consists of a specific configuration of four types of elements: blocks,
summing points, takeoff points, and arrows representing unidirectional signal flow:
Fig. 7-1
The meaning of each element should be clear from Fig. 7-1.
Time-domain quantities are represented by lowercase letters.
EXAMPLE 7.1. r = r( t ) for continuous signals, and r( t k ) or r( k ) , k = 1,2,. . . , for discrete-time signals.
Capital letters in this chapter are used for Laplace transforms, or z-transforms. The argument s or z
is often suppressed, to simplify the notation, if the context is clear, or if the results presented are the
same for both Laplace (continuous-time system) and z-( discrete-time system)transfer function domains.
EXAMPLE 7.2. R = R ( s ) or R =R(z).
The basic feedback control system configuration presented in Chapter 2 is reproduced in Fig. 7-2,
with all quantities in abbreviated transform notation.
154
CHAP. 71 BLOCK DIAGRAM ALGEBRA AND TRANSFER FUNCTIONS OF SYSTEMS 155
Fig. 7-2
The quantities G,, G,, and H are the transfer functions of the components in the blocks. They may
be either Laplace or z- transform transfer functions.
EXAMPLE 7.3. G, = U / E or U = G,E.
It is important to note that these results apply either to Laplace transform or to z-transform
transfer functions, but not necessarily to mixed continuous/discrete block diagrams that include
samplers. Samplers are linear devices, but they are not time-invariant. Therefore they cannot be
characterized by an ordinary s-domain transfer function, as defined in Chapter 6. See Problem 7.38 for
some exceptions, and Section 6.8 for a more extensive discussion of mixed continuous/discrete systems.
7.3 BLOCKS IN CASCADE
Any finite number of blocks in series may be algebraically combined by multiplication of transfer
functions. That is, n components or blocks with transfer functions G,, G,, . . . , G, connected in cascade
are equivalent to a single element G with a transfer function given by
n
G = G l . G 2 * G 3* * * G,= n G i
i=l
The symbol for multiplication "-" is omitted when no confusion results.
EXAMPLE 7.4.
Fig. 7-3
Multiplication of transfer functions is commutative; that is,
GiGj = GjGi
for any i or j .
EXAMPLE 7.5.
Fig. 7-4
Loading effects (interaction of one transfer function upon its neighbor) must be accounted for in
the derivation of the individual transfer functions before blocks can be cascaded. (See Problem 7.4.)
156 BLOCK DIAGRAM ALGEBRA AND TRANSFER FUNCTIONS OF SYSTEMS [CHAP. 7
7.4 CANONICAL FORM OF A FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEM
The two blocks in the forward path of the feedback system of Fig. 7-2 may be combined. Letting
G = GIG,, the resulting configuration is called the canonical form of a feedback control system. G and
H are not necessarily unique for a particular system.
The following definitions refer to Fig. 7-5.
Fig.7-5
Definition 7.1: G = direct transfer function = forward transfer function
Definition 7.2 H = feedback transfer function
Definition 7.3: GH loop transfer function open-loop transfer function
Definition 7.4: C / R = closed-loop transfer function control ratio
Definition 7.5 E/R = actuating signal ratio error ratio
Definition 7.6 B/R primary feedback ratio
In the following equations, the - sign refers to a positive feedback system, and the + sign refers to
a negative feedback system:
C G
- --- (7.3)
R 1fGH
E 1
-=-
(7.4)
R 1kGH
B GH
- --- (7.5)
R 1kGH
The denominator of C / R determines the characteristic equation of the system, which is usually
determined from 1 & GH = 0 or, equivalently,
DGH k NGH = 0 (7.6)
where D c H is the denominator and NGHis the numerator of GH, unless a pole of G cancels a zero of H
(see Problem 7.9). Relations (7.1) through (7.6) are valid for both continuous (s-domain) and discrete
(z-domain) systems.
7.5 BLOCK DIAGRAM TRANSFORMATION THEOREMS
Block diagrams of complicated control systems may be simplified using easily derivable transforma-
tions. The first important transformation, combining blocks in cascade, has already been presented in
Section 7.3. It is repeated for completeness in the chart illustrating the transformation theorems (Fig.
7-6). The letter P is used to represent any transfer function, and W, X , Y, 2 denote any transformed
signals.
CHAP. 71 BLOCK DIAGRAM ALGEBRA AND TRANSFER FUNCTIONS OF SYSTEMS 157
Fig. 7-6
158 BLOCK DIAGRAM ALGEBRA AND TRANSFER FUNCTIONS OF SYSTEMS [CHAP. 7
Fig. 7-6 Continued
7.6 UNITY FEEDBACK SYSTEMS
Definition 7.7: A unity feedback system is one in which the primary feedback b is identically equal
to the controlled output c.
EXAMPLE 7.6. H = 1 for a linear, unity feedback system (Fig. 7-7).
Fig. 7-7
Any feedback system with only linear time-invariant elements can be put into the form of a unity
feedback system by using Transformation 5.
EXAMPLE 7.7.
Fig. 7-8
CHAP. 71 BLOCK DIAGRAM ALGEBRA AND TRANSFER FUNCTIONS OF SYSTEMS 159
The characteristic equation for the unity feedback system, determined from 1 & G = 0, is
DG$NG=O (7.7)
where DG is the denominator and NG the numerator of G.
7.7 SUPERPOSITION OF MULTIPLE INPUTS
Sometimes it is necessary to evaluate system performance when several inputs are simultaneously
applied at different points of the system.
When multiple inputs are present in a linear system, each is treated independently of the others.
The output due to all stimuli acting together is found in the following manner. We assume zero initial
conditions, as we seek the system response only to inputs.
Step 1: Set all inputs except one equal to zero.
Step 2 Transform the block diagram to canonical form, using the transformations of Section 7.5.
Step 3: Calculate the response due to the chosen input acting alone.
Step 4: Repeat Steps 1 to 3 for each of the remaining inputs.
Step 5: Algebraically add all of the responses (outputs) determined in Steps 1 to 4. This sum is the
total output of the system with all inputs acting simultaneously.
We reemphasize here that the above superposition process is dependent on the system being linear.
EXAMPLE 7.8. We determine the output C due to inputs U and R for Fig. 7-9.
Fig. 7-9
Step 1: Put U = 0.
Step 2 The system reduces to
Step 3: By Equation (7.3), the output C, due to input R is C, = [G1G2/(1 + GlG2)]R.
Step4a: Put R = 0 .
Step 4 b Put - 1into a block, representing the negative feedback effect:
Rearrange the block diagram:
160 BLOCK DIAGRAM ALGEBRA AND TRANSFER FUNCTIONS OF SYSTEMS [CHAP. 7
Let the - 1block be absorbed into the summing point:
Step 4c By Equation (7.3), the output C , due to input U is C , = [G2/(1 + G1G2)]U.
Step 5: The total output is
C=C,+C,= [ ~ 1+ G 2 G 2 ] + [ A][ A]= IGIR +
7.8 REDUCTION OF COMPLICATED BLOCK DIAGRAMS
The block diagram of a practical feedback control system is often quite complicated. It may include
several feedback or feedforward loops, and multiple inputs. By means of systematic block diagram
reduction, every multiple loop linear feedback system may be reduced to canonical form. The
techniques developed in the preceding paragraphs provide the necessary tools.
The following general steps may be used as a basic approach in the reduction of complicated block
diagrams. Each step refers to specific transformations listed in Fig. 7-6.
Step 1: Combine all cascade blocks using Transformation 1.
Step 2 Combine all parallel blocks using Transformation 2.
Step 3: Eliminate all minor feedback loops using Transformation 4.
Step 4: Shift summing points to the left and takeoff points to the right of the major loop, using
Transformations 7, 10, and 12.
Step 5: Repeat StepsJ to 4 until the canonical form has been achieved for a particular input.
Step 6 Repeat Steps 1 to 5 for each input, as required.
Transformations 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, and 11 are sometimes useful, and experience with the reduction
technique will determine their application.
EXAMPLE 7.9. Let us reduce the block diagram (Fig. 7-10) to canonical form.
Fig. 7-10
Step 1:
CHAP. 71 BLOCK DIAGRAM ALGEBRA AND TRANSFER FUNCTIONS OF SYSTEMS 161
Step 2
Step 3:
Step 4: Does not apply.
Step 5
Step 6 Does not apply.
An occasional requirement of block diagram reduction is the isolation of a particular block in a
feedback or feedforward loop. This may be desirable to more easily examine the effect of a particular
block on the overall system.
Isolation of a block generally may be accomplished by applying the same reduction steps to the
system, but usually in a different order. Also, the block to be isolated cannot be combined with any
others.
Rearranging Summing Points (Transformation 6) and Transformations 8, 9, and 11 are especially
useful for isolating blocks.
EXAMPLE 7.10. Let us reduce the block diagram of Example 7.9, isolating block H I .
Steps 1 and 2
162 BLOCK DIAGRAM ALGEBRA AND TRANSFER FUNCTIONS OF SYSTEMS [CHAP. 7
We do not apply Step 3 at this time, but go directly to Step 4, moving takeoff point 1 beyond block G2 + G,:
We may now rearrange summing points I and 2 and combine the cascade blocks in the forward loop using
Transformation 6 , then Transformation 1:
Step 3:
Finally, we apply Transformation 5 to remove l/(G2 + G,) from the feedback loop:
Note that the same result could have been obtained after applying Step 2 by moving takeoff point 2 ahead of
+
G2 + G3, instead of takeoff point I beyond G2 G,. Block G2 + G, has the same effect on the control ratio C/R
whether it directly follows R or directly precedes C.