Experiment-7
Objective: Study of Models pertaining to folds, faults, unconformities, and joints
Theory:
Folds may be defined as undulations or bends, or curvatures developed in the rocks of the crust
as a result of stresses to which these rocks have been subjected from time to time in the past
history of the Earth.
Parts of a Fold:
In a series of folds, it is evident like waves. They consist of alternate crests and troughs. The crest
of the fold is termed as anticline while the trough is called syncline. An anticline and syncline
constitute a fold.
Figure 1: A diagram showing a fold’s structural elements.
Limbs
These are the sides or flanks of a fold. An individual fold will have a minimum of two limbs but
when the folds occur in groups, as they very often do, a middle limb will be common to two
adjacent folds.
Hinge
In a folded layer, a point can be found where the curvature is maximum and one limb ends, and
the other limb starts from that point. When rocks occur in a sequence and their all hinge points
are joined together, they make a line, called the hinge line.
Axial plane
The axial plane is the imaginary plane that passes through all the points of maximum curvature
inclined or horizontal in nature.
Plunge of a fold
The angle of inclination of the fold axis with the horizontal as measured in a vertical plane is
termed the plunge of the fold.
1. Anticlines are defined as those folds in which the strata are up arched, that is, these become
CONVEX UPWARDS.
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2. Synclines the strata are down arched, that is, these become CONVEX DOWNWARDS.
Types of fold
a) Anticline and Syncline
1) Anticlines-unfolded forms, result in older rocks becoming enclosed within younger strata
2) Synclines-down folded forms, result in younger rocks becoming enclosed within older strata.
Figure 2: Anticline and Syncline folds
b) Symmetrical and Asymmetrical folds
3) Symmetrical folds- both limbs of the fold dipping at the same angle away from the fold axis
4) Asymmetrical folds- both limbs of the fold not dipping at the same angle away from the fold
axis
Figure: 3 Symmetrical and Asymmetrical folds
(5) Overturned folds- a condition in which one limb of the fold has been tilted beyond
vertical
Figure 4: Overturned folds
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(6) Plunging folds- the axis of the fold is tilted
Figure 5: Plunging folds
(7) Domes- More or less circular equivalent of anticline, oldest rocks exposed in the center of
the dome
Figure 6: Dome formation
(8) Structural Basin- more or less circular equivalent of the syncline, youngest rocks exposed
in the center of the dome (not to be confused with the depositional basin).
Figure 8: Structural Basin
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Definition of a Fault:
Faults are fractures along which movement of one block with respect to others has taken place.
This movement may vary from a few centimetres to many kilometres depending on the nature
and magnitude of the stresses and resistance offered by the rocks.
Parts of fault:
• The plane along which the rock blocks are displaced is called fault plane.
• The angle between the fault plane and horizontal plane is termed as fault dip.
• Uppermost block of a fault is called upthrown side
• Lowermost block of a fault is called downthrown side.
• Upper wall of a fault is known as hanging wall.
• The steep wall-like slope caused by faulting of the crustal rocks is called as fault scarp.
Figure 9: Different parts of the Fault
Faults are classified into three types by the direction in which their blocks move:
1. The “normal fault” is generated by the traction with vertical motion with respect to the “fault
plane”, which typically has an angle of 60° from the horizontal plane, and which generates a
“hanging wall” and a “foot wall” where rocks on one side of the fault sink over rocks from
the other side of the fault.
Figure 10: Normal Fault
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2. Reverse Faults are formed due to the movement of both the fractured rock blocks towards
each other
Figure 11: Reverse Fault
3. Strike-slip Faults are formed when the rock blocks are displaced horizontally along the fault
plane due to horizontal movement.
Figure 12: Strike-slip Faults
3. Step Faults are a series of faults occur in any area in such a way that the slopes of all the
fault planes of all the faults are in the same direction.
Figure 13: Step Faults
Unconformity: an unconformity is a break in time in an otherwise continuous rock record.
Unconformities are a type of geologic contact—a boundary between rocks—caused by a
period of erosion or a pause in sediment accumulation, followed by the deposition of
sediments anew.
Types of Unconformities:
There are mainly three types of unconformities.
1. Disconformity: The rock beds on opposite sides of a disconformity are parallel
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2. Angular Unconformity: The rock beds on the opposite side of an angular unconformity
are not parallel.
3. Nonconformity: When the older rock formation is made up of plutonic igneous rocks and
is overlain by unconformably sedimentary rocks, the structure is called ‘Nonconformity’.
Figure 14: Types of Unconformities
Joints: A joint is a break (fracture) of natural origin in the continuity of either a layer or body of
rock that lacks any visible or measurable movement parallel to the surface (plane) of the fracture.
Although they can occur singly, they most frequently occur as joint sets and systems.
Figure 15: Types of Joints
(A) On the basis of the origin joints may be classified into two groups.
1. Tension joints:
Tension joints are those, which are formed as a result of tension forces. These joints are
relatively open and have rough and irregular surfaces.
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2. Shear joints:
Shear joints are those, which are due to shearing stresses involved in folding and faulting of
rocks. These joints are rather clear-cut and tightly closed. Shear joints occur in two sets and
intersect at a high angle to form a “conjugate joint system
(B) On the basis of their altitude and geometry they may be classified as follows:
1. Strike Joints:
Joints that are parallel to the strike of rocks are called ‘Strike Joints’.
2. Dip Joints:
Joints that are parallel to the dip of rocks are called ‘Dip Joints’.
3. Oblique Joints:
Joints, which run in a direction that lies between the strike and dip direction of the rock beds,
are called ‘Oblique Joints’.