SCUOLA DI INGEGNERIA INDUSTRIALE E

DELL’INFORMAZIONE

Lab 1: Mechanical tests

Professore: Prof. A. GRUTTADAURIA

Matteo GUIDI
Sabino ZAZZARO
Lorenzo MARCHESI

Anno Accademico 2024/25

 1. Aim of the Work

The aim of this work is to investigate the effects of various heat treatments on the mechanical
properties of a medium-carbon steel. The material was subjected to five different conditions: Annealed
(R), Normalized (N), Quenched & Tempered (B), Hardened (T), and Hardened & Tempered (TR). The
mechanical properties analyzed include hardness, tensile strength (resistance), and impact energy
(resilience). Through these tests, we aim to understand how these treatments influence the material’s
performance and behavior under different loading conditions, determining the optimal treatment for
balancing toughness and strength for the correct application.

2. Materials and Methods

Material
Given the sample values and considering valuable material references, the material could be a medium-
carbon steel like AISI 1045. The reason for this is by simply comparing the data with the material
properties provided by the Alloy Digest by ASM International, displaying features such as:

• R (Annealed Condition): Exhibits low hardness on the Rockwell C (HRC) scale, moderate impact
energy, and lower tensile strength due to its soft, ductile state.
• T (Hardened Condition): Demonstrates high hardness and reduced toughness, with very high
tensile strength but significant brittleness, typical of martensitic steels.
• B (Quenched & Tempered) and TR (Hardened & Tempered): Show a balanced combination of
hardness, impact resilience, and tensile strength.

AISI 1045 (typically contains 0.43-0.50% carbon, 0.60-0.90% manganese, with traces of sulfur and
phosphorus) is a common steel known for its balance of strength and ductility, used in applications such
as shafts, bolts, and machinery parts.

Sample conditions
1. R – Annealed: The sample was heated to approximately 800-850°C and cooled slowly in a
furnace. This softened the material and relieved internal stresses, producing a coarse pearlite-
ferrite structure.
2. N – Normalized: Heating happens at around 900°C, followed by air cooling. This process refines
the grain structure, resulting in a finer pearlite structure than annealing.
3. B – Quenched and Tempered: Temperature reaches 850°C, then rapidly cooled in oil
(quenching), and then tempered at 400°C, resulting in a martensitic structure tempered to
improve toughness.
4. T – Hardened: The sample was heated to 850°C and rapidly quenched in oil, producing a
martensitic structure without tempering, maximizing hardness but leaving the material brittle.
5. TR – Hardened and Tempered: The sample was quenched as in the T condition but tempered at
200°C to reduce brittleness while maintaining a high hardness.
Testing Methods:
The mechanical tests were performed to assess the material's hardness, tensile strength, and impact
energy following standard testing protocols:

• Hardness Test (ASTM E18)

The Rockwell C hardness test was conducted to measure the hardness of each heat-treated sample.
Using a diamond cone indenter:
• A minor load of 10 kgf was applied, followed by a major load of 150 kgf.
• The depth of penetration under the major load was measured to determine hardness, expressed
as an HRC value.
• Each specimen was polished to ensure a smooth testing surface, and measurements are taken
multiple times for consistency.

• Tensile Test (ASTM E8)

To determine the material’s tensile strength (resistance), a uniaxial tensile test was performed:
• Samples were prepared according to the standard geometry with a gauge length suitable for
testing.
• The test speed was set at 2 mm/min, and the specimens were pulled until fracture to measure
ultimate tensile strength (UTS), yield strength and elongation.
• The test was conducted at room temperature, and stress-strain curves were generated to
interpret material behavior under tension.

• Charpy V-Notched Impact Test (ASTM E23)

This test was conducted to measure the resilience of the material by determining the energy absorbed
during fracture:
• V-notched specimens were prepared and tested at two temperatures: 0°C and room
temperature (20°C).
• A pendulum impacted each specimen, and the energy absorbed by the material was measured
from the pendulum’s swing before and after impact.
• Post-test, the fracture surfaces were examined to assess the failure mode (ductile or brittle).
Each test followed the respective ASTM standards to ensure accuracy, reproducibility, and comparability
across the five heat-treated conditions.
 3. Results and Discussion
The hardness (HRC) and resilience (Kv) results for each heat treatment are summarized below:

Condition Hardness Resilience (Kv) at 0°C Resilience (Kv) at RT

(HRC) [J] [J]
R – Annealed 11 26 46
N – Normalized 17 40 62
B – Quenched & Tempered 23 42 50
T – Hardened 57 3 3
TR – Hardened & Tempered 31 75 76
AISI 1045 (Typical) ~20-30 ~30-40 ~50-60

Meanwhile, the results of the tensile tests executed are reported on tables like the one below:

Time (s) Crosshead Extensometer Extension Load (kN) Strain Stress

(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm/mm) (MPa)
0.100 0.000 -0.000120 -0.00012 0.003 -0.000005 0.09
0.150 0.000 -0.000087 -0.000087 0.002 -0.000003 0.09
… … … … … … …
167.300 4.650 5.554748 4.272074 21.824 0.137877 779.65
167.350 4.685 5.541163 4.307642 20.947 0.138989 748.33
Tensile strength (resistance)
The tensile test results provide insights into the ultimate tensile strength (UTS), yield
strength, elongation (A%), and reduction in area (Z%) for different heat-treated conditions. These
values help assess the material's strength under tensile loads.

• Annealed (R) Condition

• UTS: ~625 MPa

• Yield Strength: ~420 MPa
• Elongation (A%): 29.75%
• Reduction in Area (Z%): 33.36%

In the annealed condition, the material displays moderate UTS and yield strength, typical of soft
pearlitic-ferritic structures. The high elongation and reduction in area reflect excellent ductility,
allowing significant plastic deformation before fracture. This makes the material well-suited for
forming operations. SEM images confirm ductile fracture with large dimples, showing substantial
plastic deformation before failure.

• Normalized (N) Condition

• UTS: ~690 MPa

• Yield Strength: ~450 MPa
• Elongation (A%): 32.55%
• Reduction in Area (Z%): 32.92%

The normalized condition shows reasonable UTS and yield strength, which is typical of refined
pearlitic microstructures. The high elongation value reflects a good balance between strength and
ductility. Normalizing improves toughness while maintaining strength, making this condition
suitable for structural applications. The dimples observed in SEM images confirm the material's
ductile nature.
 • Quenched & Tempered (B) Condition

• UTS: ~900 MPa

• Yield Strength: ~660 MPa
• Elongation (A%): 16.38%
• Reduction in Area (Z%): 30.10%

In the quenched and tempered condition, the material shows high UTS and yield strength, with
moderate elongation. Quenching forms a martensitic structure, and tempering restores some
ductility. This condition offers a balance between strength and toughness, reflected by
smaller dimples in the SEM images, which show a mixture of brittle and ductile fracture.

• Hardened (T) Condition

• UTS: ~1500 MPa

• Yield Strength: ~2200 MPa
• Elongation (A%): 0.49%
• Reduction in Area (Z%): 26.94%
In the hardened condition, the material exhibits very high UTS and yield strength, with almost no
elongation, indicating extreme brittleness. The lack of ductility makes this condition highly prone
to brittle fracture, as confirmed by the cleavage planes visible in the SEM images. This condition is
suitable for high-strength applications where deformation is minimal but the material is at risk of
brittle failure.

• Hardened & Tempered (TR) Condition

• UTS: ~930 MPa

• Yield Strength: ~850 MPa
• Elongation (A%): 19.95%
• Reduction in Area (Z%): 31.30%

The hardened and tempered condition provides high UTS and yield strength, with improved
elongation compared to the hardened condition. Tempering reduces brittleness while retaining
much of the strength. The presence of dimples in the SEM images indicates a ductile fracture with
good energy absorption. This condition offers a good balance between strength and toughness,
suitable for demanding applications requiring both resilience and durability.
Impact Energy (Resilience)
The Charpy impact test results show a significant variation in impact energy absorption depending
on the heat treatment condition and test temperature:

• Annealed (R) and Normalized (N) conditions exhibited moderate impact energy values at
both 0°C and room temperature, with an increase in energy absorbed at room
temperature due to more ductile behavior at higher temperatures.
• The Hardened (T) condition displayed very low energy absorption (3 J) at both
temperatures, indicating brittle fracture due to the formation of a martensitic structure.
This is typical for hard but brittle materials with minimal capacity to absorb energy.
• Hardened & Tempered (TR) and Quenched & Tempered (B) conditions showed high
resilience, with TR absorbing the most energy (75-76 J), suggesting it has a well-balanced
structure that combines toughness with strength.

These results are also consistent with the materials' microstructures observed in SEM images:

Annealed (R)

R at T0 R at Troom

- At 0°C:
The fracture surface shows small dimples mixed with some flat areas, indicating a
partially brittle fracture with reduced ductility at lower temperatures.
- At TROOM:
Larger, well-formed dimples dominate the surface, suggesting a ductile
fracture with significant plastic deformation, reflecting higher impact toughness.
 Normalized (N)

N at T0 N at TROOM

- At 0°C:
A mix of dimples and smooth areas is present, showing a balance between ductile
and brittle behavior, with the material absorbing some energy but still
exhibiting limited toughness at low temperatures.
- At TROOM:
The fracture surface is filled with large, deep dimples, indicating
excellent ductility and high energy absorption, characteristic of a ductile fracture.

Quenched & Tempered (B)

B at T0 B at TROOM

- At 0°C:
The SEM image shows smaller dimples and some cleavage regions, indicating a
tougher material compared to annealed or normalized conditions but still affected
by lower temperatures. There is ductile behavior but with some brittle tendencies.
- At TROOM:
The fracture surface is predominantly ductile, with deep, well-formed dimples. This
suggests that the tempered martensitic structure retains high toughness at room
temperature, absorbing more impact energy before fracturing.
 Hardened (T)

T at T0 T at TROOM

- At 0°C:
The fracture surface is primarily brittle, dominated by cleavage planes with little to
no evidence of plastic deformation. The absence of dimples suggests that the
material fractures almost immediately upon impact, with minimal energy
absorption.
- At TROOM:
Even at room temperature, the SEM shows brittle fracture characteristics with
cleavage features. The hardened material remains highly brittle, absorbing very
little impact energy even at higher temperatures.

Hardened & Tempered (TR)

TR at T0

T at TROOM

- At 0°C:
The fracture surface shows a mix of small dimples and some flat areas, indicating a
balance between toughness and hardness. While the material absorbs less energy
at low temperatures, it still shows some degree of ductility.
- At TROOM:
The SEM reveals a fully ductile fracture surface with large, deep dimples, confirming
significant plastic deformation. This indicates high toughness and excellent energy
absorption at room temperature, making this condition the most resilient.
Hardness
AISI 1045 material properties serve as a baseline for comparison, showing that heat treatments
can significantly alter mechanical properties. The trend shows that as the intensity of heat
treatment increases (from annealing to quenching), the hardness of the material also increases:

The annealed (R= 11 HRC) and normalized (N= 17 HRC) conditions exhibited lower hardness.
Tempering after hardening/quenching (TR = 31 HRC/B = 23 HRC) results in a decrease in hardness
compared to the fully hardened state (T = 57 HRC), but it significantly improves resilience and
toughness. There is a trade-off where high hardness (as seen in the hardened condition) leads to
lower toughness, while treatments like tempering can optimize both hardness and toughness. This
can be explained through the microstructures after the heat treatments:
• Annealed steel consists of coarse pearlite and ferrite, leading to low hardness and
moderate toughness.
• Normalized steel shows a finer pearlite structure, improving both hardness and toughness.
• Hardened steel produces martensite, which increases hardness but reduces toughness
significantly.
• Tempering following quenching/hardening helps relieve stresses, resulting in improved
toughness at the cost of slightly lower hardness.

4. Conclusions
The mechanical properties of medium-carbon steel are strongly influenced by heat treatments.
The annealed (R) condition provides low hardness, moderate resilience, and high ductility, making
it suitable for applications requiring formability. Normalizing (N) improves hardness, resilience,
and tensile strength, offering a balanced material for general use. The quenched & tempered
(B) condition strikes a good balance between hardness, toughness, and resistance, making it ideal
for applications where both strength and moderate ductility are required. The hardened
(T) condition maximizes hardness and tensile strength but suffers from poor resilience and
extreme brittleness, limiting its use to static, wear-resistant applications. Finally, the hardened &
tempered (TR) condition offers the best compromise, combining high hardness, impact resistance,
and tensile strength, making it suitable for demanding applications requiring durability and
toughness.
In conclusion, selecting the appropriate heat treatment depends on the need to
balance hardness, tensile strength, and resilience, ensuring optimal performance based on specific
application requirements.