Chapter 2
Control Systems Terminology
2.1 BLOCK DIAGRAMS: FUNDAMENTALS
A block diagram is a shorthand, pictorial representation of the cause-and-effect relationship
between the input and output of a physical system. It provides a convenient and useful method for
characterizing the ‘functional relationships among the various components of a control system. System
components are alternatively called elements of the system. The simplest form of the block diagram is
the single block, with one input and one output, as shown in Fig. 2-1.
The interior of the rectangle representing the block usually contains a description of or the name of
the element, or the symbol for the mathematical operation to be performed on the input to yield the
output. The arrows represent the direction of information or signal flow.
EXAMPLE 2.1
The operations of addition and subtraction have a special representation. The block becomes a
small circle, called a summing point, with the appropriate plus or minus sign associated with the arrows
entering the circle. The output is the algebraic sum of the inputs. Any number of inputs may enter a
summing point.
EXAMPLE 2.2
Fig. 2-3
15
16 CONTROL SYSTEMS TERMINOLOGY [CHAP. 2
Some authors put a cross in the circle: (Fig. 2-4)
Fig. 2-4
This notation is avoided here because it is sometimes confused with the multiplication operation.
In order to have the same signal or variable be an input to more than one block or summing point,
a takeoff point is used. This permits the signal to proceed unaltered along several different paths to
several destinations.
EXAMPLE 2.3
t x
Takeoff Point
(a) x *x
Takeoff Point
-
Fig. 2-5
2.2 BLOCK DIAGRAMS OF CONTINUOUS (ANALOG) FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEMS
The blocks representing the various components of a control system are connected in a fashion
which characterizes their functional relationships within the system. The basic configuration of a simple
closed-loop (feedback) control system with a single input and a single output (abbreviated SISO) is
illustrated in Fig. 2-6 for a system with continuous signals only.
Fig. 2-6
We emphasize that the arrows of the closed loop, connecting one block with another, represent the
direction of flow of control energy or information, which is not usually the main source of energy for the
system. For example, the major source of energy for the thermostatically controlled furnace of Example
CHAP. 21 CONTROL SYSTEMS TERMINOLOGY 17
1.2 is often chemical, from burning fuel oil, coal, or gas. But this energy source would not appear in the
closed control loop of the system.
2.3 TERMINOLOGY OF THE CLOSED-LOOPBLOCK DIAGRAM
It is important that the terms used in the closed-loop block diagram be clearly understood.
Lowercase letters are used to represent the input and output variables of each element as well as the
symbols for the blocks g,, g,, and h . These quantities represent functions of time, unless otherwise
specified.
EXAMPLE 2.4. r = r( t )
In subsequent chapters, we use capital letters to denote Laplace transformed or z-transformed
quantities, as functions of the complex variable s, or z , respectively, or Fourier transformed quantities
(frequency functions), as functions of the pure imaginary variable j w . Functions of s or z are often
abbreviated to the capital letter appearing alone. Frequency functions are never abbreviated.
EXAMPLE 2.5. R ( s ) may be abbreviated as R , or F ( z ) as F. R(jo)is never abbreviated.
The letters r , c, e, etc., were chosen to preserve the generic nature of the block diagram. This
convention is now classical.
Definition 2. I : The plant (or process, or controlled system) g 2 is the system, subsystem, process, or
object controlled by the feedback control system.
Definition 2 . 2 The controlled output c is the output variable of the plant, under the control of the
feedback control system.
Definition 2.3: The forward path is the transmission path from the summing point to the controlled
output c.
Definition 2.4 The feedforward (control) elements g, are the components of the forward path that
generate the control signal U or m applied to the plant. Note: Feedforward elements
typically include controller(s), compensator( s) (or equalization elements), and/or
amplifiers.
Definition 2.5 The control signal U (or manipulated variable rn) is the output signal of the
feedforward elements g, applied as input to the plant g,.
Definition 2 . 6 The feedback path is the transmission path from the controlled output c back to the
summing point.
Definition 2.7: The feedback elements h establish the functional relationship between the con-
trolled output c and the primary feedback signal b. Note: Feedback elements
typically include sensors of the controlled output c, compensators, and/or con-
troller elements.
Definition 2 . 8 The reference input r is an external signal applied to the feedback control system,
usually at the first summing point, in order to command a specified action of the
plant. It usually represents ideal (or desired) plant output behavior.
18 CONTROL SYSTEMS TERMINOLOGY [CHAP. 2
Decfinition 2.9: The primary feedback signal b is a function of the controlled output c, algebraically
summed with the reference input r to obtain the actuating (error) signal e , that is,
r f b = e. Note: An open-loop system has no primary feedback signal.
Defiition 2.10: The actuating (or error) signal is the reference input signal r plus or minus the
primary feedback signal b. The control action is generated by the actuating (error)
signal in a feedback control system (see Definitions 1.5 and 1.6). Note: In an
open-loop system, which has no feedback, the actuating signal is equal to r.
Defiition 2.11: Negative feedback means the summing point is a subtractor, that is, e = r - b.
Positive feedback means the summing point is an adder, that is, e = r + b.
2.4 BLOCK DIAGRAMS OF DISCRETE-TIME (SAMPLED-DATA, DIGITAL) COMPONENTS,
CONTROL SYSTEMS, AND COMPUTER-CONTROLLED SYSTEMS
A discrete-time (sampled-data or digital) control system was defined in Definition 1.11as one having
discrete-time signals or components at one or more points in the system. We introduce several common
discrete-time system components first, and then illustrate some of the ways they are interconnected in
digital control systems. We remind the reader here that discrete-time is often abbreviated as discrete in
this book, and continuous-time as continuous, wherever the meaning is unambiguous.
EXAMPLE 2.6. A digital computer or microprocessor is a discrete-time (discrete or digital) device, a common
component in digital control systems. The internal and external signals of a digital computer are typically
discrete-time or digitally coded.
EXAMPLE 2.7. A discrete system component (or components) with discrete-time input U( t , ) and discrete-time
output y ( t k ) signals, where t, are discrete instants of time, k = 1,2,. . . , etc., may be represented by a block
diagram, as shown in Fig. 2-7.
Fig. 2-7
Many digital control systems contain both continuous and discrete components. One or more
devices known as samplers, and others known as holds, are usually included in such systems.
Decfinition 2.12 A sampler is a device that converts a continuous-time signal, say u ( t ) , into a
discrete-time signal, denoted u*(t), consisting of a sequence of values of the signal
at the instants t,, t,, . . . , that is, u ( t l ) , u ( t 2 ) ., . ., etc.
Ideal samplers are usually represented schematically by a switch, as shown in Fig. 2-8, where the
switch is normally open except at the instants t,, t,, etc., when it is closed for an instant. The switch also
may be represented as enclosed in a block, as shown in Fig. 2-9.
CHAP. 21 CONTROL SYSTEMS TERMINOLOGY 19
EXAMPLE 2.8. The input signal of an ideal sampler and a few samples of the output signal are illustrated in Fig.
2-10. This type of signal is often called a sampled-data signal.
Fig. 2-10
Discrete-data signals u ( t k ) are often written more simply with the index k as the only argument,
that is, u ( k ) , and the sequence u ( t l ) ,u ( t 2 ),..., etc., becomes u(l), u ( 2 ) , . .., etc. This notation is
introduced in Chapter 3. Although sampling rates are in general nonuniform, as in Example 2.8,
uniform sampling is the rule in this book, that is, t k + l - t , = T for all k .
Defiition 2.13: A hold, or data hold, device is one that converts the discrete-time output of a
sampler into a particular kind of continuous-time or analog signal.
EXAMPLE 2.9. A zero-order hold (or simple hold) is one that maintains (i.e., holds) the value of u ( t k ) constant
until the next sampling time t k + l , as shown in Fig. 2-11. Note that the output y H O ( t )of the zero-order hold is
continuous, except at the sampling times. This type of signal is called a piecewise-continuoussignal.
Fig. 2-12
Definition 2.14 An analog-to-digital (A/D) converter is a device that converts an analog or
continuous signal into a discrete or digital signal.
20 CONTROL SYSTEMS TERMINOLOGY [CHAP. 2
Definition 2.15 A digital-to-analog (D/A) converter is a device that converts a discrete or digital
signal into a continuous-time or analog signal.
EXAMPLE 2.10. The sampler in Example 2.8 (Figs. 2-9 and 2-10) is an A/D converter.
EXAMPLE 2.1 1. The zero-order hold in Example 2.9 (Figs. 2-11 and 2-12) is a D/A converter.
Samplers and zero-order holds are commonly used A/D and D/A converters, but they are not the
only types available. Some D/A converters, in particular, are more complex.
EXAMPLE 2.12. Digital computers or microprocessors are often used to control continuous plants or processes.
A/D and D/A converters are typically required in such applications, to convert signals from the plant to digital
signals, and to convert the digital signal from the computer into a control signal for the analog plant. The joint
operation of these elements is usually synchronized by a clock and the resulting controller is sometimes called a
digitalfilter, as illustrated in Fig. 2-13.
Fig. 2-13
Definition 2.16: A computer-controlled system includes a computer as the primary control element.
The most common computer-controlled systems have digital computers controlling analog or
continuous processes. In this case, A/D and D/A converters are needed, as illustrated in Fig. 2-14.
Fig. 2-14
The clock may be omitted from the diagram, as it synchronizes but is not an explicit part of signal
flow in the control loop. Also, the summing junction and reference input are sometimes omitted from
the diagram, because they may be implemented in the computer.
2.5 SUPPLEMENTARY TERMINOLOGY
Several other terms require definition and illustration at this time. Others are presented in
subsequent chapters, as needed.
CHAP. 21 CONTROL SYSTEMS TERMINOLOGY 21
Definition 2.17: A transducer is a device that converts one energy form into another
For example, one of the most comrnon transducers in control systems applications is the poten-
tiorneter, which converts mechanical position into an electrical voltage (Fig. 2-15).
+
0
Arm
2, Position
Reference
Voltage +
I +
Source Voltage
I output
- -
0 0
Schematic Block Diagram
Fig. 2-15
DeJinition 2.18: The command U is an input signal, usually equal to the reference input Y. But when
the energy form of the command U is not the same as that of the primary feedback
b, a transducer is required between the command U and the reference input r as
shown in Fig. 2-16( a).
Fig. 2-16
DeJinition 2.19: When the feedback element consists of a transducer, and a transducer is required at
the input, that part of the control system illustrated in Fig. 2-16(b) is called the
error detector.
DeJinition 2.20: A stimulus, or test input, is any externally (exogenously) introduced input signal
affecting the controlled output c. Note: The reference input Y is an example of a
stimulus, but it is not the only kind of stimulus.
DeJinition 2.21: A disturbance n (or noise input) is an undesired stimulus or input signal affecting
the value of the controlled output c. It may enter the plant with U or m ,as shown in
the block diagram of Fig. 2-6, or at the first summing point, or via another
intermediate point.
DeJinition 2.22 The time response of a system, subsystem, or element is the output as a function of
time, usually following application of a prescribed input under specified operating
conditions.
DeJinition 2.23: A multivariable system is one with more than one input (multiinput, MI-), more than
one output (multioutput, -MO), or both (multiinput-multioutput, MIMO).
22 CONTROL SYSTEMS TERMINOLOGY [CHAP. 2
Definition 2.24 The term Controller in a feedback control system is often associated with the
elements of the forward path, between the actuating (error) signal e and the control
variable U. But it also sometimes includes the summing point, the feedback
elements, or both, and some authors use the term controller and compensator
synonymously. The context should eliminate ambiguity.
The following five definitions are examples of control laws, or control algorithms.
Definition 2.25 An on-off controller (two-position, binary controller) has only two possible values at
its output U , depending on the input e to the controller.
EXAMPLE 2.13. A binary controller may have an output U= + 1 when the error signal is positive, that is, e > 0,
and U = -1 whenerO.
Definition 2.26 A proportional (P) controller has an output U proportional to its input e , that is,
U = Kpe, where K , is a proportionality constant.
Definition 2.27: A derivative (D) controller has an output proportional to the derivative of its input
e , that is, U = KD de/dt, where KD is a proportionality constant.
Definition 2.28 An integral (I)controller has an output U proportional to the integral of its input e,
that is, U = K , / e ( t ) dt, where K , is a proportionality constant.
Definition 2.29: PD, PI, DI, and PID controllers are combinations of proportional (P),derivative
(D), and integral (I)controllers.
EXAMPLE 2.14. The output U of a PD controller has the form:
de
upD = K p e + K,-
dt
The output of a PID controller has the form:
2.6 SERVOMECHANISMS
The specialized feedback control system called a servomechanism deserves special attention, due to
its prevalence in industrial applications and control systems literature.
Definition 2.30: A servomechanism is a power-amplifying feedback control system in which the
controlled variable c is mechanical position, or a time derivative of position such as
velocity or acceleration.
EXAMPLE 2.15. An automobile power-steering apparatus is a servomechanism. The command input is the
angular position of the steering wheel. A small rotational torque applied to the steering wheel is amplified
hydraulically, resulting in a force adequate to modify the output, the angular position of the front wheels. The
block diagram of such a system may be represented by Fig. 2-17. Negative feedback is necessary in order to return
the control valve to the neutral position, reducing the torque from the hydraulic amplifier to zero when the desired
wheel position has been achieved.
CHAP. 21 CONTROL SYSTEMS TERMINOLOGY 23
Fig. 2-17
2.7 REGULATORS
Definition 2.31: A regulator or regulating system is a feedback control system in which the reference
input or command is constant for long periods of time, often for the entire time
interval during which the system is operational. Such an input is often called a
setpoint.
A regulator differs from a servomechanism in that the primary function of a regulator is usually to
maintain a constant controlled output, while that of a servomechanism is most often to cause the output
of the system to follow a varying input.
Solved Problems
BLOCK DIAGRAMS
2.1. Consider the following equations in which xl, x2,. . . , x, are variables, and a,, a2,.. ., U , are
general coefficients or mathematical operators:
(a) xg = alxl + a2x2- 5
(b) x, = a,x,+ a2x2 + - * +a,-,x,-,
Draw a block diagram for each equation, identifying all blocks, inputs, and outputs.
(a) In the form the equation is written, x3 is the output., The terms on the right-hand side of the equation
are combined at a summing point, as shown in Fig. 2-18.
The alxl term is represented by a single block, with x1 as its input and alxl as its output.
Therefore the coefficient a, is put inside the block, as shown in Fig. 2-19. a, may represent any
mathematical operation. For example, if a, were a constant, the block operation would be “multiply
the input x, by the constant a,.” It is usually clear from the description or context of a problem what
is meant by the symbol, operator, or description inside the block.
-5
+-
Fig. 2-18 Fig. 2-19