REPRODUCTION

For every organism the reason for leaving is to pass its genes to the next generation, and this is
only possible through reproduction

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 FORMS OF REPRODUCTION
There two forms of reproduction and these are asexual and sexual reproduction.

1. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
This is the type of reproduction that results in the production of genetically
identical offsprings from one parent. There is no fusion of gametes in this form of
reproduction. Asexual reproduction is common in single cellular organisms and
some plants.

ADVANTAGES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

 Reduce variability in a population, and therefore maintain a good breed.

 Production is rapid/fast
 No need for two parents
 The new organism will be already adapted or familiar with the
environment if its not moved

DISADVANTAGES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

 The organism may be easily wiped out by natural disasters such as drought
and diseases if they are not resistant

METHODS OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

There are different methods of asexual reproduction which occur in different organisms.

a) Binary fission: This involves the division of a single parent cell into two identical
daughter cells. There is equal division of the nucleus, cytoplasm and other cell
organelles. Some organisms that reproduce this way are bacteria and amoeba.

Fig. 1: A cell divides into 2 identical cells

b) Budding: In this method, the organism develops a bud or buds in swelling form
which later develop into a complete organism. The bud may fall off, or may
remain attached to the parent organism. Example is yeast.

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 c) Spore formation: Some organisms reproduce by means by means of spores.
Spores are small particles made of one or more cells and they are produced in a
tough casing called a sporangium. Once it‟s ripe, the sporangium breaks open
and releases the spores which will be carried away by wind. When they land on a
suitable surface they develop into new organisms. An example is Fungi.

d) Parthenogenesis: In this method, the ovum/ovule develops into a new organism

without being fertilized. Examples are bees, aphids and bananas.

APPLICATIONS OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

In these applications, vegetative parts of plants like stems, roots and tubers are used to
produce new plants.

 Cuttings:
A Branch or stem is cut and planted separately. It then develops roots and grows
as an independent plant. Examples are mulberry, grapes.

 Budding (Bud grafting):

A growing bud is cut and attached to another plant of the same genus. They will
then grow together as one plant. This application is often used in ornamental
plants.

 Grafting (stem grafting):

In this application, a branch is cut and attached/grafted to the stem of another
plant of the same genus. They then grow together as one plant. The branch is
referred to as the scion, and the stem as the stock. The application is often used
is often used in production of citrus plants e.g. oranges.

Fig. 2: Stem grafting

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 2. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
This method involves the fusion of the male and female nuclei to produce a
zygote. The offsprings produced are genetically different.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

The main structure of reproduction in flowering plants is the flower.

Fig. 3: Vertical section through a flower.

PARTS OF A FLOWER AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

1. SEPALS: Usually greenish in colour. Their function is to protect the flower while
still in the bud.

2. PETALS: These are usually brightly coloured in insect pollinated flowers so as to

attract insects to the flower. Their colours are dull in wind pollinated flowers.
Petals also enclose carpels and stamens in insect pollinated flowers.

3. CARPELS: These are the female parts of a flower, made up by the ovary, the
style and the stigma.

a) Stigma: Receives pollen grains during pollination.

b) Style: A tube that holds the stigma and connects it to the ovary. A pollen
tube develops through the style during fertilization.
c) Ovary: Contains ovules, and it is where fertilization takes place.

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 4. STAMEN: The male reproductive parts of a flower made up by the filament and
the anther.
a) Anther: Its function is to produce pollen grains.
b) Filament: A stalk that holds the anther.

POLLINATION

Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma for fertilization
purposes.
There are two types of pollination, namely cross pollination and self pollination.

SELF POLLINATION
This is the transfer of pollen grains from any anther to any stigma on the same plant (not
necessarily the same flower). This type of pollination results in fewer varieties of
offspring than cross pollination. It is common in cereal crops and grasses.

CROSS POLLINATION
This is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther on one plant to the stigma on another
plant of the same species. Cross pollination results in a greater variety of organisms.

METHODS OF POLLINATION
There are two main methods of pollination. Some flowers are pollinated by wind while
others are pollinated by insects.

 Insect Pollinated Flowers:

These usually have large brightly coloured petals that enclose the carpels and
stamens. The petals have nectarines at their bases. The flowers produce few
pollen grains which are either rough or sticky. Their filaments are short and stiff
ensuring that the anthers and stigmas are within the petals so that the insects brush
against the anthers and stigmas as they go into the corolla tube to collect nectar.
By so doing they pollinate the flowers.

Fig. 4: Vertical section of a flower showing bee pollination.

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  Wind Pollinated Flowers:
The flowers have small petals that are dull coloured (green or grey). They have no
nectarines and they produce lots of pollen grains which are usually smooth and
light in weight. The filaments and styles of wind pollinated flowers are usually
long, lanky and grow out of or above the petals. This ensures that the anthers
swing in the blowing wind and throw out the pollen grains. These will then land
on the exposed stigma, ensuring pollination.

Fig. 5: A wind pollinated flower showing anthers hanging out of petals.

A COMPARISION OF WIND AND INSECT POLLINATED FLOWERS

FEATURE WIND POLLINATION INSECT POLLINATION

PETALS  Dull coloured  Brightly coloured
 Unscented  Scented
 No nectar  Often have nectar
 Small and don‟t enclose  Large and enclose
stamens & carpels stamens & carpels
STAMEN  Have long filaments that grow  Stiff short filaments that
out of or above petals are with the petals
 Large anthers that are exposed  Anthers are within the
to the wind petals.
POLLEN  Large quantities are produced  Small quantities are
 Small, dry and light in weight produced
 Either rough or sticky
CARPEL  Large stigma exposed to the  Small stigma which is
wind enclosed
 Have long style  Have a short style

FERTILISATION
This is the fusion of the nucleus of pollen grain and nucleus of ovule to form a zygote.
When the pollen grains land on the stigma, they absorb some moisture from the stigma.
This results in a microscopic tube known as a pollen tube growing from the stigma down
the style. The tube grows on and enters the ovary, and then the ovule through a small
opening called the micropyle.

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Fig. 6: Section through a carpel at fertilization. Note the pollen tube and the pollens of a
different species which are not germinating.

NB Only the ovule of the right species will lead to the development of a pollen tube, and
each ovule is fertilized by a different pollen grain.
After fertilization, an embryo develops in the ovule. The ovule develops into a seed while
the ovary develops into the fruit in „true fruits‟.

SEED STRUCTURE, DISPERSAL AND GERMINATION

1. SEED STRUCTURE

A. Non-endospermic seeds: These are seeds that store their food in the
cotyledons. They are dicotyledonous seeds. Like all other seeds, non-
endospermic seeds have an embryo. The embryo is made of the radicle
(root) and the plumule (shoot). The seed is covered by a testa (seed coat).
The cotyledons form the first leaves after germination.

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Fig. 7: A non-endospermic seed (Broad bean seed)

B. Endospermic seeds: They have the same features as non-endospermic

seeds. They however store their food in the endosperm, and cotyledons are
small and don‟t emerge to form first leaves during germination.

Fig. 8: An endospermic seed (maize grain)

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2. SEED AND FRUIT DISPERSAL

Dispersal of seeds or fruits is when they are carried away from their parent plant.
Dispersal provides plants with means of colonizing new areas. It also reduces the
problem of overcrowding and competition for resources like light and water.

There are different agents of seed/fruit dispersal, and these include wind, animals and
water. Different seeds/fruits have adaptation features that make it easy for the different
agents to disperse them.

[Link] DISPERSAL

This is the type of dispersal where wind is the agent. There are seeds with
different features that are dispersed by wind.

a) “Parachute” Fruits or Seeds: These are seeds/fruits that have feathery hairs
projecting from them. These hairs increase the surface area of the seeds/fruits
making it easy for them to be carried away by wind e.g. the dandelion shown on
fig 7

b) “Winged” Fruits or Seeds: These are seeds/fruits that have wing-like projections
growing from them. When the seeds/fruits fall from the tree, they spin in the wind
because of the “wings”. This spinning increase the chance of them being carried
further away from the parent plant e.g. the sycamore shown on fig 7.

Fig. 9: Fruits and seeds dispersed by different agents

[Link] DISPERSAL

In this method, animals are agents, and there are different seeds/fruits with different
features that make it easy for animals to disperse them.

a) Hooked Fruits/Seeds: This is whereby the fruit/seed have projections that form
hooks (thorns). These hooks catch onto the fur/hair of passing animals (and even

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 people‟s clothes). They will eventually fall off as the animals move about, some
distance away from the parent plant e.g. the bur fruit shown on fig 7.

b) Succulent Fruits: These are the fleshy fruits that are eaten by animals (birds and
mammals). Animals eat these fruits together with their seeds. The seeds are
usually contained in hard coats (pips) that are not easily digested as they pass
through the digestive system. The seeds will then come out with the animal
droppings away from the parent plant e.g. blackberry fruits shown on fig 7.

c) Sticky Fruits/Seeds: This is when fruits/seeds are coated with a sticky/adhesive

substance. The substance enables them to stick onto the fur, feathers and even
people‟s clothes to be carried away from the parent plant.

[Link] DISPERSAL

This is when seeds are carried away from the parent plant by rain water or by rivers and
streams. The seeds usually have very hard coats (stones) and are light in weight. These
may float for a long period of time. They will then land on the river bank and germinate.

[Link]/MECHANICAL DISPERSAL

Some plants bear pods that explode when ripe and dry. As the pods split and explode,
they flick out their seeds, which are sent a distance away from the parent plant. This is
common in the bean family.

Fig. 10: From left to right, an animal dispersed, wind dispersed and mechanically
dispersed seed

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3. SEED GERMINATION

Fig. 11: Seed germination and emergence

Germination is when the embryo begins to grow. After absorbing water, the seed swells.
After a period of about 3 to 4 days, the radicle bursts through the testa and grows down
into the soil.
Apart from water, there are other environmental conditions necessary for seed
germination. All these have a special role to play during germination.

 WATER: Water is first absorbed into the cotyledons or endosperm and it

activates enzymes and growth of the embryo. It is also used for: building new
cytoplasm, enlarging cell vacuoles so that the cells are expanded for division,
acting as a solvent, transporting food (mainly glucose) from the
cotyledons/endosperm to the embryo.

 OXYGEN: This like water comes from the soil. Oxygen is needed for the process
of respiration in the cells of the germinating embryo. The energy is needed for
various processes that take place in the cells, e.g. cell division.

 SUITABLE TEMPERATURE: Very high temperatures will denature enzymes in

the seed and prevent germination. Very low temperatures will inactivate the
enzymes and also prevent germination. Germination is controlled by enzymes as
they are responsible for converting the stored food to their usable form, e.g.
starch stored in the cotyledons converted to glucose.

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 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN MAMMALS

PARTS OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Oviduct Uterus

Ovary Uterus wall

Vagina Cervix

Fig. 12: Front view of the female reproductive system

1. OVARIES: These are located inside the female‟s body cavity in the lower
abdomen. Their main functions are to produce ova and the female sex hormones
e.g. oestrogen and progesterone. A woman is born with all the ova she needs her
whole life, and these start maturing at puberty. The ovaries will then normally
release an ovum every 28 days until menopause.

2. OVIDUCTS: These are tubes in which the ovum moves from the ovary to the
uterus. The ovum usually meets the sperm in the oviduct, and fertilization occurs
there.

3. UTERUS: This is a muscular sac in which an embryo develops during pregnancy.

The uterus is very small when there is no embryo developing in it, with a volume
of about 5cm³. The volume however increase to about 5000 to 7000cm³ as the
embryo develops.

4. CERVIX: This is a wring of muscles that closes the lower end of the uterus,
separating it from the vagina. It prevents entry of foreign bodies into the uterus.

5. VAGINA: It‟s a tunnel that leads to the outside of the female reproductive
system. An erect penis is inserted in the vagina during copulation, and sperms are
deposited there. The vaginal opening to the outside is covered by a set of “lips”
known as the labia (labia minora and labia majora). The labia together with the
vaginal opening and the clitoris form the vulva.

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PARTS OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Urinary bladder

Seminal vesicle

Prostate gland
Sperm duct
Urethra Testis

Penis Epididymis

Fig. 13: The male reproductive system

1. TESTES: They produce sperms and the male sex hormone testosterone. Sperm
production begins at puberty and will continue throughout one‟s life. Testes are
contained in a sac known as the scrotum outside the main body cavity. The reason
for this is because sperm production takes place at a temperature slightly lower
than the normal body temperature.

2. EPIDIDYMIS: This is a long coiled tube next to the testes where sperms are
stored.

3. SPERM DUCT: This is a small but muscular tube that carries sperms from the
Epididymis to the urethra during ejaculation. Contractions of this tube help to
push sperms along.

4. PROSTATE GLAND, COWPER‟S GLAND AND SEMINAL VESICLE: These

are located where the sperm duct joins the urethra. The glands secrete fluids
collectively called seminal fluid.

5. URETHRA: This is a tube that carries urine out of the body during ejaculation.
The urethra runs through the penis.

6. PENIS: This is the male organ that is inserted into the vagina for semen
deposition during copulation. For it to penetrate into the vagina, the penis has to
be erect. It is therefore made of a lot of erectile tissues and has lots of blood
vessels.

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THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE

Safe Most likely days

Period of ovulation

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

Menstrual Fertile period Safe period

Period

Fig. 14: Periods of the menstrual cycle

The cycle of producing and releasing the mature ova is called the menstrual cycle. Like
all cycles, the menstrual cycle has a number of periods. The most observable period is the
menstrual period which is characterized by loss of blood through the vagina. The cycle is
controlled by hormones released by the pituitary gland (Follicle stimulating hormone and
luteinising hormone) and some released by the ovaries (Oestrogen and Progesterone).

The cycle takes an average of 28 days. It is a continous process, so it doesn‟t really have
a beginning but the first day of menstruation is usually called day 1. During menstruation
the uterus lining is shed, and blood and fragments of tissue leave the body through the
vagina.

Inside the woman‟s ovaries are many of the cells that could develop into mature eggs.
Every month one of these grows into a ball of cells called a follicle. This is why the
pituitary hormone which switches on the growth of the follicle is called the follicle
stimulating hormone (FSH). At the middle of the cycle (about day 14) the follicle moves
towards the edge of the ovary and the egg is released. This is called ovulation

While this is going on, the lining of the uterus has been repaired after menstruation, and
has thickened. This change has been brought about the hormone oestrogen, which is
secreted b the ovaries in response to FSH. Oestrogen also slows down production of FSH,
while stimulating secretion of luteinising hormone (LH). It is the peak of LH that causes
ovulation.

After the egg has been released, whats left of the follicle forms a structure in the ovary
called corpus luteum (yellow body) which makes the hormone progesterone.
Progesterone completes the development of the uterus lining and also inhibits the release
of LH and FSH. If the egg is not fertilised the corpus luteum breaks down and stops
making progesterone. The lining of the uterus is now shed during mentruation. If ,
however the egg is fertilised, the corpus luteum carries on producing progesterone until
the role is taken by the placenta later on in pregnancy.

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EXAMPLE OF PERIODS OF THE CYCLE
Refer to fig 14

Assuming that one‟s menstrual period begins on the first day of the month, this will go on
up to the firth day. The period from day 6 up to day 10 of the month is referred to as the
safe period. It is referred to thus because it is assumed that during this time, there is no
ovum in any of the oviducts. This means chances of the sperms meeting the ovum (if
copulation is practiced) and fertilization occurring are none existent.

CAUTION: This period can be as long as five days, and only as short as only a few
hours. This is because of a number of factors that will be discussed later. It is therefore
not safe to completely rule out the possibility of fertilization occurring should
unprotected sex be practiced.

The period from day 11 to day 17 of the month is known as the fertile period of the
cycle. It is called so because this is around the time when ovulation occurs. Chances are
therefore high that a live ovum is present in one of the oviducts. Therefore if unprotected
sex is practiced, chances are high that fertilization may occur.
The period from day 18 to day 28 of the month is also known as the safe period of the
month. During this safe period, it is assumed that the ovum is dead and is slowly moving
along the oviduct towards the uterus where it will disintegrate together with the lining of
the uterus and come out through the vagina as blood.

The periods of the cycle are calculated basing partly on the following:
 Ovulation may occur anytime from the 13th to the 15th day (2 weeks) from
the beginning of the previous menstrual period.
 An ovum leaves for about 24 to 48 hours after ovulation
 Sperms can survive for up to 3 days in the female reproductive tract.

FACTORS THAT MAY INFLUENCE CHANGES IN THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE

1. DIET:
The type of food one eats may make one develop faster and start her menstrual periods at
a younger age. Food may also affect the amount of blood lost during menstruation, e.g.
cause a heavy or light flow.

2. EMOTIONAL STATE:
The emotional state of an individual may also affect the periods of her menstrual cycle.
This is because emotion may change the hormonal balance in the body, e.g. someone
under great shock for a prolonged period of time may experience her menstrual period
earlier than expected.

3. DRUGS:
Some drugs (both medicinal and non-medicinal) may also change the hormonal balance
in the body, thereby altering the occurrence of some of the periods of the cycle.

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4. ILL HEALTH:
Some diseases e.g. measles and mumps can also change the occurrence of some periods
of the cycle. This is because they affect the hormonal balance in the body or change the
emotional state of an individual.

5. PHYSICAL STRESS:
Prolonged intensive physical exercise can bring forth the occurrence of the menstrual
period of the cycle.

FERTILISATION AND EARLY DEVELOPMENT

After being deposited in the vagina, sperms swim up through the uterus to the oviducts. If
there is a live ovum in any of the oviducts, then one sperm out of the millions deposited
will fertilize the ovum. Immediately after the penetration of the successful sperm, then
the outer membrane of the ovum (zona pellucida) becomes impenetrable to any other
sperm. The nucleus of the sperm will fuse with that of the ovum i.e. fertilization (is the
fusion of the nuclei of the sperm and the ovum to produce a zygote) and the whole thing
is now known as a zygote. The zygote then undergoes cell division, forming 2, 4,8,16
cells until it forms a ball of cells known as a blastula (or blastocyst). This happens as the
zygote is moving along the oviduct towards the uterus. As cell specialization begins and
the specialized cells regroup, the structure is now referred to as an embryo. Upon
reaching the uterus, the embryo becomes embedded into the thickened lining of the uterus
wall. This is known as implantation.

Fig. 15: Development of a zygote from a blastula

After implantation, some villi will grow from the embryo into the uterus. These will not
form part of the embryo, but will contribute towards the formation of the placenta and
umbilical cord. These two structures are responsible for the nourishment of the embryo.

PLACENTA
- exchange of soluble materials such as foods, wastes and oxygen between mother and
fetus
- physical attachment of the fetus to the wall of the uterus
- protection

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 1. of fetus from the mother‟s immune system
2. against dangerous fluctuations in mother‟s blood pressure
- secretion of hormones which maintain the lining of the uterus as corpus luteum
breaks down by third month

UMBILICAL CORD
Contain blood vessels which carry materials for exchange between mother and fetus.
-umbilical artery which carries blood rich in carbon dioxide containing wastes such as
urea away from fetus to placenta.
-umbilical vein which carries oxygenated blood with a high concentration of soluble
foods such as glucose , amino acids, vitamins and iron from placenta to fetus.

As different body organs become distinct, the embryo now becomes a foetus. Within the
uterus, the foetus is surrounded by a sac known as an amnion (or amniotic sac).The
amnion is a thick jelly-like fluid known as an amniotic fluid. The main functions of the
fluid are to cushion the foetus against changes in temperature and changes in pressure.

Placenta

Umbilical cord

Fig. 16: Section through uterus

There is no direct contact between maternal blood and fetal blood- they are separated by
a membrane which can to some extent, select the materials that cross it. Alcohol, carbon
monoxide from tobacco smoke and some viruses e.g the rubella virus which causes
measles and the HIV can cross and affect the fetus.

The time taken for development of a baby from an implanted zygote is called the
gestation period. The developing fetus needs a stable environment which is provided by
the placenta. The fetus is attached to the placenta by the umbilical cord and is surrounded
by the amniotic sac filled with amniotic fluid.

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DEVELOPMENT OF TWINS. (for pure biology students )

1. IDENTICAL TWINS
A single ovum is released from the ovary and it is fertilised by one sperm. The zygote
divides to form an embryo and the embryo dives to form two identical embryos. Each
embryo completes its own development.
The twins contain copies of the same set of genes.

2. NON-IDENTICAL / FRATERNAL TWINS

Two ova are released from the ovary at the same time and each is fertilised by a different
sperm. Each zygote forms an embryo and each embryo completes its own development.
The twins contain different seta of genes.

METHODS OF BIRTH CONTROL

There are different methods that people can use to avoid falling pregnant. The methods
can be grouped into natural, mechanical/physical, chemical/hormonal and surgical.
In the surgical methods, a minor surgery is performed on the „patient‟, in the
mechanical/physical, a device is used top prevent pregnancy, in the chemical/hormonal
some chemicals or synthetic hormones are used while in natural no device is used.

Fig. 17: Contraceptives. A = Pills, B = IUDs, C = Condom, D = Diaphragm

1. NATURAL METHODS:

a) Withdrawal: In this method, the male withdraws the penis from the vagina just
before he ejaculates. In this case, ejaculation is done outside the vagina to avoid
sperms being deposited there and swimming up to the uterus to meet the ovum.
This method is however not reliable as the lubricating fluid released from the
penis before ejaculation may contain some sperm. Ejaculation is also a reflex and
pleasurable process, thus making it difficult for the male to stop if waits just too
long.
b) Rhythm: This is a method in which unprotected sexual intercourse is practiced
only during the „safe‟ periods of the menstrual cycle. The method is also not
reliable because it is very difficult to determine exactly when the „safe‟ periods
begin or end. Other factors that make the method unreliable are that sperms can

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 survive for up to 3 days in the female reproductive tract after being deposited, and
that the ovum can survive for about 2 days (24hrs) after ovulation.

2. MECHANICAL/PHYSICAL METHODS:

a) Condom: This is a rubber sheath shaped like the finger of a glove. It is worn by
males over an erect penis. The condom has a small tit at the end in which semen
collects, prevent it from being deposited into the vagina. If used properly and
proper care is taken of it, the condom is a reliable contraceptive. It is also reliable
in preventing the spread of STDs. See fig. 17 C
b) Diaphragm: This is a dome shaped piece of rubber (cap) with a metal spring
around the edge. The diaphragm is inserted into the vagina and fits over the
cervix. It stops the passage of sperms from the vagina to the uterus, and ultimately
to the uterus where they will meet the ovum. The diaphragm is not very reliable as
sperms may find their way around it. To increase its reliability, it is often used
with spermicides. See fig. 17 D
c) Intrauterine Devices (IUDs): These are devices made of plastic and/or metal that
are fitted into the uterus. IUDs prevent the implantation of the zygote in the
thickened lining of the uterus. Two common IUDs are the Loop and Cooper T.
IUDs have to be fitted by a qualified medical practitioner, and they are reliable
contraceptives. See fig. 17 B

3. CHEMICAL/HORMONAL METHODS:

a) Spermicides: These are chemicals that kill sperms. They are available in the form
of creams, sprays and pessaries. If in the form of pessaries, they dissolve in the
vaginal secretions to form foam. Spermicides must be put as far up the vagina as
possible, and this must be done not more than ten minutes before sexual
intercourse. Spermicides are on there own not very reliable as some sperms may
manage to pass through them. They are often used with the diaphragm to increase
the reliability.
b) The Pill: This is a tablet taken/swallowed by females (oral contraceptive). The pill
inhibits maturation of the ova in the ovaries, and therefore prevents ovulation. The
pill contains hormones which are the ones that prevent ovulation. One pill has to
be taken daily throughout the menstrual cycle. The pills have to be prescribed by
a medical practitioner, and taken strictly according to instructions. If taken
properly, the pill is a reliable contraceptive.
c) The injection: These are chemicals (hormones) injected into the female‟s body to
prevent ovulation. The injection has to be prescribed and administered by a
qualified medical practitioner. Some injections can prevent pregnancy for a period
of 3 months e.g. depo provera while others are effective over periods of several
years.

4. SURGICAL METHODS:
a) Sterilization: This can be done in both males and females.

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 In males, the sperm ducts are cut and tied. This prevents sperms from passing to
the urethra during ejaculation. Ejaculation however still occurs, but the semen
contains no sperms. This process is known as vasectomy.
In females, the oviducts are cut and tied. This prevents the passage of ova to the
uterus or sperms to the oviducts. One still experiences menstrual flows from the
disintegrating lining of the uterus. Cutting of the oviducts is known as tubal
ligation.
Sterilization is a very reliable method; the problem is that it is very difficult to
reverse.

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES

1. GONORRHEA:
The disease is caused by a bacterium; Neisseria gonorrhea. It is transmitted by having
unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected person.

In males, the first symptoms of the disease are:

 A burning sensation when urinating
 Discharge of pus from the urethra
If not treated, it may lead to blockage of the urethra and ultimately sterility.

In females the symptoms may be:

 A burning sensation when urinating
 Discharge of pass puss from the vagina

Sometimes no symptoms appear at all in females. A pregnant woman may pass the
bacteria to her child during birth. The bacteria may invade the child‟s eyes and cause
blindness.
Gonorrhea can be treated using antibiotics e.g. penicillin, but treatment need to be done
early.

2. SYPHILIS:
This disease is caused by a bacterium called Treponema palladium. It is transmitted by
having unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected person.

The first stage of the disease is the appearance of a sore on the penis or the vulva in
females. This sore appears about one week to three months after infection. The sore is
usually painless and will heal without treatment in six weeks time.
The second stage is the development of body rash, fever high temperatures, swollen
lymph nodes. These symptoms may however vary from one individual to another.
In the third stage, the bacteria infect most of the body‟s organs like the heart, blood
vessels and the brain. The stage may result in paralysis and insanity.

Syphilis can also be treated with antibiotics like penicillin, provided this is done during
the early stages of the disease.

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3. ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFFIENCY SYNDROME (AIDS):

a) Cause:
It is caused by the Human Immuno Deficiency Virus (HIV).

b) Transition:
 Having unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected person
 From mother to child during pregnancy or during birth
 Sharing unsterilised piercing or sharp objects with infected people
 Blood transfusion using infected blood

c) Signs and symptoms:

The virus prevents the white blood cells from protecting the body against diseases. A
person with AIDS becomes very vulnerable to infections by other pathogens. Eventually,
one these infections cause death. Some of the common symptoms include:
 Loss of appetite
 Excessive loss of weight
 Loss of hair
 Persistent coughing for over a month (which is sometimes TB)
 Skin rash or sores
 Diarrhea which runs for a long time
 Persistent fever which runs for a long time
 Swollen lymph nodes

d) Treatment:
Currently there is no cure for AIDS

e) Prevention:
 Abstinence
 Proper use of condoms
 Being faithful to one partner
 Avoid sharing of unsterilised piercing/cutting objects

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