RESPIRATION………Prof SG Jonathan

Respiration is a process of oxidation of food (substrate) in living cells bringing about the release
of energy for the maintenance and development of the living organism.
C6H12O6 +6O2 6CO2 + 686,000 cal. Energy
The chemical energy released is used basically for types of work done by living organism: 1.
1. Chemical Work: Done by all cells to maintain themselves during active growth. For
biosynthesis of proteins, lipids, nucleic acids and polysaccharides and for synthesis of
new protoplasm.
2. Osmotic work: Done to absorb, accumulate and transport essential mineral salts and
organic solutes from the environment. Conversely unwanted and poisonous substances
are removed from cells into the environment. Energy is also used for active transport of
ions and molecules across membranes.
3. Mechanical work: Done during cytoplasmic streaming and contraction of skeletal
muscles, cilia, and flagella in motile cells. In motile organisms, much energy us used for
locomotion.
The usual substrate for respiration is glucose and its complete oxidation involves three distinct
processes. The first, glycolysis is a series of reactions called Embden-Meyerhoff-Parnass (EMP)
pathway (in remembrance of the scientists who first discovered the pathway). The EMP pathway
converts a molecule of hexose to 2 molecules of pyruvic acid. In the second main process, called
Kreb cycle or Tricarboxylic acid or Citric acid, the two molecules of pyruvic acid are then
decarboxylated and the remaining two-carbon fragments are completely oxidized. The third
process is the electron transport chain which occurs in mitochondria along with Krebs cycle.
Mitochondrion
A mitochondrion (plural, mitochondria) is similar to chloroplast although functionally they are
quite different. It deserves a special mention because it is a self-contained chemical factory. Each
mitochondrion is formed mainly by division of a pre-existing organelle and it contains genetic
information in its DNA to produce a small percentage of its enzymes. Each mitochgondrion is
surrounded by two membranes, the inner one convoluted inwardly into folds called cristae
(singular, crita) (Fig 5.1). Within the innermost compartment surrounding the cristae, is a dense
solution containing enzymes, coenzymes, water, phosphates, and other molecular compounds
involved in respiration. The outer membranes allows most small molecules to move in or out
freely but the inner one only permits the passage of specific molecules to move in or out freely
but the inner one only permits the passage of specific molecules such as pyruvate and ATP. The
enzymes of the krebs cycle are found in the protein-rich matrix between the cristae. The enzymes
and other components of the electron transport chain are built into the surfaces of the cristae.
Glycolysis is the first part of respiration. It involves the breaking down of organic matter, the
hexoes sugar, into smaller 3-cabon compound-pynuvate. Assume glucose as the initial substrate,
glycolysios proceeds through a number of phosphorylation and oxidation reaction to form
pyruvate. At the beginning of glycolysis, the glucose is energized by ATO to form glucose-6-
phosphate under the influence of the enzyme glucokinase. Under the influence of
phisphohexoisomerase, the glucose-6-phosphate Isomerises to fructose-6-phosphate which
becomes energized by ATP to form fructose-1, 6-diphosphate. This hexose diphoshate. Each of
these triose molecule can isomerise into the other under the influence of the enzyme triose
phosphate isomerae. These triose phosphates will undergo dehydrogenetation reaction to form
phosphoglyceric acid using orthophosphate as the phosphate donor. Subsequently, this
diphosphoglyceric acid loses a phosphate molecule to ADP in a kinase reaction to form ATP and
3-phosphoglyceric acid. The 3- phosphoglyceric acid latter undergo a mutase reaction during
which the phosphate group changes position to form 2- phosphoglyceric acid (2-PGA). Finally
the 2-PGA undergoes dehydration to form phosphoenolpyruvate which forms pyruvate o
dephosphorylatiob. The formation of ATP that is phosphorylation during glycolysis is known as
substrate phosporylatiob.
Decarboxylation
Gloycolysis ends with formation of pyruvate. During the oxidative decarboxylation, the pyruvate
is decarboxylated to acetate thereby releasing carbon dioxide. The acetate formed undergoes a
reaction with coenzyme A to form Acetyl CoA, which on condensation forms citric acid which is
a tricarboxylic acid.
Krebs cycle
The condensation of acetate with oxaloacetate results in the formation of citrate which
isomerized into isocitrate. On decarboxylation, isocitrate is reduced to a five-carbon compound,
ά-Ketogutarate. This five-carbon compound undergoes dehydrogenation and decarboxylation
reaction to form succinate which on dehydrogenation forms fumarate. Fumarate then picks up
molecule of water to form malate which is dehydrogenated into oxalocatate and the cycle
continues. Sometimes, the formation of ά-Ketoglutarate may be by-passed.

When this happens, isocitrate loses a two-carbon compound, glyoxylate, resulting in the
formation of sussinate. Two molecules of glyoxylate may condense into a four-carbon
compound, malate, to continue the cycle.
Electron Transport Chain and Oxidative Phosphoryylation
Electron transport chanin occurs in mitochondria, some details in the system have to be excluded
to avoid confusion in the presentation. The electron transport is operated by electron carriers as
shown in Fig. 5.4
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) accepts H+ from Krebs cycle and it becomes reduced
to NADH2. The two electrons and two H+ are passed on to flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and
electrons and the H+ to ubiquinone and then to cytochrome. There may be three to seven
cytochromes in the system and the final one transfer two H+ and the pair of electrons to an atom
of O2, producing water. According to chemiosmotic hyposthesis, protons are pumped out of the
mitochondrial matrix as electrons are passed down the electron transport chain, which forms part
of the inner mitochondrial membrane (see fig. 5.1). The movement of protons down the
electrochemical gradient as they pass through the ATP is synthesized from ADP and phosphate.
Each time one pair of electron passes from NADH2 to O2 three molecules of ATP are formed.
Each time a pair of electron passes from FADH2, which is at a slightly lower energy level than
NADH2, two molecules of ATP are formed.
When electron are passed ‘downhill’ to O2 as in electron transport chain, and the energy released
is used from ATP from ADP, the process is referred to as oxidative phosphorylation.
Energy Yield from Glycolysis and Krebs Cycle:
Glycolysis 2ATP
2NADH2 4ATP = 6ATP
Pyruvate
Acetyl CoA 1NADH2 3ATP X2 = 6ATP
Krebs cycle 1ATP
3NADH2 9ATP x2 = 24ATP
1FADH2 2ATP 36ATP

From the 2NADH2 under glycolysis, 6 molecules of ATP should have been obtained, only 4
molecules were recorded. This is due to the fact that 2 molecules of ATP were used to transport
electrons held by the 2 molecules of NADPH2 across the mitochrondrial membrane. For pyruvate
and Krebs cycle, the figures were multiplied by two because for each molecule of glucose, two
molecules of pyruvate would be obtained. Therefore, the reactions from pyruvate would occur
twice for one molecule of glucose.
Fermentation
Plants carry out fermentation (anaerobic respiration) when O2 starts limiting. Under this
condition, NADH and pyruvate start accumulating, forming mostly ethanol or some lactic acid.
The acetaldehyde and ethanol reactions are respectively catalyzed by pyruic acid decarboxylase
and alcohol dehydrof\genase while lactic acid formation is catalyzed by lactic acid
dehydrogenase. In the production of both fermentation products (ethanol and lactic acid) NADH
is the reductant but only under anaerobic conditions is NADH abundant enough to cause
reduction. Accumulation of lactic acid in muscles of animals causes ‘stiffness’ after exercise of
muscles that are insufficiently conditioned.
Glycoylate Cycle
The glyoxylate cycle is a modification of the Krebs cycle and it occurs when fats are used as
substrate for respiration instead of glucose. Fats are broken down to two-carbon units as acetyl
CoA which then becomes available as the energy source. In the glyoylate cycle, isocritrate is
split to yield one molecule of succinate and one molecule of glyoxylate by the enzyme called
isocitratelyase (fig. 5.6). The glyoxylate condenses with another molecule of acety CoA to make
a molecule of malate under the influence of the second unique enzyme referred to as malate
synthetase. Both succinate and malate can now enter the Krebs cycle and be converted to
exalocacetate. The glyoxylate cycle occurs in plants, yeasts and some bacteria, but not in
animals. This cycle occurs in plants microbodies called glyoxysome which are the sites of fatty
acid breakdown. The Glyoxylate cycle is referred to as an anapleurotic pathway, anapleurotic in
the sense that it serves to replenish the intermediates of other pathways. The glyoxylate cycle in
this case serves to provide four-carbon acids to replenish the Krebs cycle.

Pentose Phosphate Shunt

The pentose phosphate pathway bypassed the regulatory steps of the glycolytic pathway. The
pathway involves no direct synthesis of ATP, and formation of five-carbon (ribose) sugar for use
in the production of nucleric acids, adenine and pyridine nucleotides, cofactors and other
substances. In this pathway, glucose-6-phosphate is oxidized to gluconate-6-phosphate and
NADP is reduced to NADPH2. The gluconate-6-phosphate is transformed to pentose sugar
ribulose-5-bisphosphate, CO2 and another NADPH. A considerable reducing power in the form
of NADPH2 is produced by the pentose phosphate shunt, which is used in reactions such as fatty
acid synthesis. The pentose sugar may be rearranged to yield glyceradehyde-3-phosphate and
pyruvic acid or back to glucose-6-phosphate. It has been suggested that the pentose phosphate
shunt is used for hexose. Although this pathway yields less ATP than glycolysis and the Kreb
cycle it is important because it produces reducing power and substances needed for other
synthetic processes.

Respiratory Quotient (RQ)

This is the ration of CO2 produced to O2 used. The substrate used for respiration profoundly
affects the RQ. For complete oxidation of carbohydrate, RQ is equal to 1.
C6H12 + O6 6CO2 + 6H2O
 RQ 6CO2/6O2 = 1

In the case of complete oxidation of reduced such as proteins and fat, the RQ is less than 1.0.
oxidation of tripalmitin (a common fat) for example gives an RQ of 0.7.

C51H98O6 + 72.5O2 51CO2 + 49H2O

RQ 51CO2/72.5O2 = 0.7

In plant such as the succulents which oxidize organic acids ths RQ may be considerably more
than 1. For oxalic acid it would be
Cellular Respiration…… Prof Gbolagade Segun Jonathan
Cellular respiration is the process by which organic compounds (preferably glucose) are broken
apart, releasing energy that is used to produce ATP molecules. Cells need to have ATP because
it’s the gasoline that powers all living things. ATP is a high energy nucleotide which acts as an
instant source of energy within the cell.

Cellular respiration is like a change machine: you’re turning sugars into ATP so it will be a
usable form of energy. If you go to a coin operated laundromat, they all seem to run on quarters
for some reason. So you might say, “I don’t have any quarters but I want to wash my clothes and
I have a $10 bill.” You put your $10 bill into the change machine and you get 40 quarters and
now you could use the coin operated washers and dryers. All the chemical reactions in living
things run off of these quarters (ATP). They don’t run off $10 bills (sugars/fats/proteins).

One glucose will give you as much as 38 ATP, similar to the way a $10 bill will give you 40
quarters. A fat molecule is more like a $100 bill because it has that much more energy.

Since ATP is found in all living things it’s sometimes called the energy currency of cells, which
goes well with this laundromat analogy.

Here is the overall simplified reaction for aerobic respiration:

C6H12O6 + 6O2 —– enzymes & coenzymes ——> 6CO2 + 6H2O + Release of Energy (≤38
ATP) + Heat

In order to make ATP, you need food (sugar) and oxygen. If you don’t have food, you can’t
make ATP and you’re going to die. Even if I brought in all the food in the world and then I
diabolically suck all the oxygen out of this room, you’re still going to die. You need oxygen to
unlock the energy that’s in the food. Cellular respiration also explains why we are breathing
oxygen and why we exhale carbon dioxide.

In essence, the energy that was in covalent bonds of the glucose molecule is being released. In
actuality, this process requires several steps because the sugar is broken down by baby steps,
little by little, and is catalyzed many enzymes and coenzymes.

The efficiency of cell respiration

Nothing is perfectly efficient in this world. Even your car engine is only about 25% efficient at
best. Only about 25% of the burned gasoline goes toward moving your car while the other 75%
is given off as heat which is why your engine and exhaust systems are very, very hot.

Some nifty numbers here: There’s 686kcal (686,000 calories) in a mole of glucose. The actual
usable energy obtainable from the 38 ATP molecules that may be produced from this glucose is
288,800 calories (38 x 7,600 calories per ATP). Therefore, the complete oxidation of glucose is
only about 40% efficient (288/686). The other 60% goes off as heat. It’s impossible to convert
one form of energy into another without creating heat. This release of heat is predicted by the
law of thermodynamics. In other words, approximately 40% of the energy that’s created is used
to phosphorylate ADP into ATP.

Furthermore, this reaction explains why the temperature of your body is almost 100°F. If you
start to exercise, cellular respiration starts to speed up inside your muscle cells to produce more
ATP, so your body starts breaking down sugars at a faster rate, you breathe oxygen at a faster
rate and exhale carbon dioxide at a faster rate and give off a lot more heat at the same time.

Oxygen acts as a ―hydrogen acceptor.‖

What living things do is they take oxygen and transfer the hydrogens that come off of sugar
molecules and stick them onto oxygen. When you attach a couple hydrogens onto an oxygen,
you get water. For this reason, it is said that oxygen is a hydrogen acceptor.

We breathe in oxygen to remove the hydrogens off the sugars and fats otherwise the extra [H+]
will cause the acidity to increase and proteins will unravel (denature) and die. Remember, an
acidic solution is one that has more hydrogen ions (H+) than hydroxide ions (OH–).

Remember the mnemonic OIL RIG:

Oxidation: The glucose is being oxidized into carbon dioxide. OIL: Oxidation Is a Loss (of H+
and e–)

Reduction: Oxygen is reduced into water. RIG: Reduction Is a Gain (of H+ and e–)
One of the coenzymes that helps cellular respiration is NAD+, which contains the B Vitamin,
Niacin.

Now that we’ve described the big picture and we understand that sugars are the principle form of
food used to create ATP, now we could understand why having a healthy blood sugar level is so
important. So let’s go off on a slight tangent and explain how the sugar levels in our blood
remain constant before diving fully into cellular respiration.

Next post in the series: How are glucose levels regulated in the blood stream?

Mitochondria……………..

Double Membrane Organelles

Mitochondrion structure cartoon

 Nucleus - all eukaryotes

 Chloroplasts - plants
 Mitochondria - plants and animals

Mitochondria
Heart mitochondria

 Greek, mito = thread; chondrion = granule

 Located throughout cytoplasmic compartment
o has itself several membrane enclosed compartments
o each compartment has different function
 Ancient aerobic organisms in symbiosis (endosymbiosis)
 present in all cells

Mitochondria Function

 Energy production
o Respiratory chain
 Signaling
 Apoptosis role
o Programmed cell death

Mitochondria Structure
Mitochondrial membraneous compartments

Mitochondrion rat liver

 Double membrane
 outer membrane
 intermembrane space
 inner membrane
 crista (plural, cristae)
o originally considered specialized folds of the inner membrane
o variable invaginations with narrow tubular connections to each other and by crista
junctions to the peripheral region of inner membrane
  matrix

Mitochondria Shape

 Come in different shapes & sizes

 Can rapidly change shape (minutes)

Lung Cardiac muscle

Mitochondria Location

 cells with high energy requirements: Muscle, sperm tail, flagella

 generally located where energy consumption is highest in the cell
 Mitochondria (fibroblasts)
 Mitochondria (sperm)
o Packed around initial segment
o Energy for sperm motility, microtubules (9+2)

Maternal Inheritance

Most animals

 Oocyte mitochondria (maternal) are the only mitochondria inherited. (see genetics below)
o maternal mitochondrial genome inheritance.
 Spermatozoa mitochondria (paternal) can enter oocyte at fertilisation.
 o Male spermatozoa are destroyed early in embryonic development (mechanism not
yet elucidated)
o worm - (C. elegans) suggest ubiquitination occurs followed by autophagy. PMID
24528894
o mouse - suggest a more passive process, prefertilization sperm mtDNA
elimination and uneven mitochondrial distribution in embryos. PMID 23878233
 Recent experiments using swapping maternal mitochondrial DNA in mammalian oocytes

Outer Membrane

 porin - membrane channel, allows ions and metabolites into the mitochondria (<5000
daltons)

Intermembrane Space

 similar to the cytosol with respect to the small molecules it contains

 also enzymes that use ATP

Inner Membrane

 cardiolipin - phospholipid, makes membrane impermeable to ions (unique to

mitochondria inner membrane)
o mitochondrial damage and depolarization causes cardiolipin translocation to the
outer mitochondrial membrane to initiate mitophagy (selective degradation of
mitochondria by autophagy)
 transport proteins - permeable to molecules required in the matrix

Cristae

 increase inner membrane surface area

o tubular, vesicular or flat cristae
 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) synthase
 respiratory electron transfer chain proteins
 transport proteins
Matrix

 metabolic enzymes of citric acid cycle (=Krebs) (100s of enzymes) (MH- do not need to
know biochemical details of this cycle)
 genetic material DNA, tRNA, ribosomes

Mitochondria DNA

Eukaryotic mitochondrial genomes

 double stranded circular DNA (mitoDNA. mtDNA)

 1981 complete human sequence (16,569 nucleotides)
 37 genes
o encodes 13 polypeptides involved in oxidative phosphorylation
o remaining genes transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
 multiple copies within the matrix
 maternally inherited
 remainder encoded by nuclear DNA
 proteins made in cytosol and imported into mitochondria

Mitochondria Protein Synthesis

 yeast - Petite mutants

o all mitochondrion-encoded gene products missing
o forms small anaerobic colonies
o organelle is constructed entirely from nucleus-encoded proteins
Many mitochondrial proteins are encoded by nuclear DNA

 synthesis begins in the cell cytoplasm

 imported into the mitochondria
o targeting similar to signal sequence for RER
 once in matrix signal sequence is cleaved (by Hsp70)
o protein then folds (by Hsp60)
 proteins for mitochondrial membrane or intermembranous space
 additional signal following matrix localization

Mitochondrial targeting signal (MTS) - alternating amino acid pattern (amphipathic helix) with
a few hydrophobic amino acids and a few plus-charged amino acids at the N terminus.

Mitochondria Fission
  Mitochondrial
Division
 Divide
independently of the
whole cell cycle
 Generated by
existing
mitochondria
 inward furrowing
like bacterial
division
o mitochondria
lack FtsZ
ring (seen in
bacteria)
o rely on
dynamin on
Blocking mitochondrial fission
the cytosolic
causes autophagy
face for
fission
Mitochondrial fission

Mitochondrial Fusion

Energy Production

 Electrochemical proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane is used to

drive ATP synthesis Respiration

 Raw Materials
o Oxygen
o Pyruvate & Fatty Acids
 Products
o Carbon Dioxide
o Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

Steroid Synthesis

adrenal glands and gonads/ovaries - Steroid hormones required for carbohydrate metabolism,
stress management, and reproduction and are synthesized from cholesterol in mitochondria of
these tissues. PMID 25505173

Mitophagy

Apoptosis
Mitochondrial morphologies during apoptosis

Mitochondria in addition to energy production, have a second major function related to

programmed cell death by apoptosis.

 cytochrome C release activates caspases

 other changes include
o electron transport, loss of mitochondrial transmembrane potential
o altered cellular oxidation-reduction
o Bcl-2 family proteins (pro- and antiapoptotic)
 Vesicular Mitochondria
o begin to appear during the release of cytochrome C which initiates mitochondrial
mediated apoptosis
o transformation from normal morphology
o with an inner boundary membrane connected to lamellar cristae via crista
junctions
o multiple vesicular matrix compartments
o facilitates membrane fission or fragmentation as the matrix is fragmented at this
stage
o fragmentation of the mitochondrion requires only outer membrane fission
Apoptosis mitochondrial pathway (MH- this topic will be covered again in detail in the Cell
Death Lecture)
Cell Theory
In biology, cell theory is the historic scientific theory, now
universally accepted, that living organisms are made up of cells,
that they are the basic structural/organizational unit of all
organisms, and that all cells come from pre-existing cells.

Cells are the basic unit of structure in all organisms and also the
basic unit of reproduction.

With continual improvements made to microscopes over time,

magnification technology advanced enough to discover cells in
the 17th century.

This discovery is largely attributed to Robert Hooke, and began

the scientific study of cells, also known as cell biology. Over a
century later, many debates about cells began amongst
scientists.
Most of these debates involved the nature of cellular
regeneration, and the idea of cells as a fundamental unit of life.
Cell theory was eventually formulated in 1839.

This is usually credited to Matthias Schleiden and Theodor

Schwann.

However, many other scientists like Rudolf Virchow contributed

to the theory. It was an important step in the movement away
from spontaneous generation.

The three tenets to the cell theory are as described below:

All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.

The cell is the basic unit of structure and organization in

organisms.

Cells arise from pre-existing cells.

The first of these tenets is disputed, as non-cellular

entities such as viruses are sometimes considered life-forms.[1]
Discovery of cells
The cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, which
can be found to be described in his book Micrographia.

In this book, he gave 60 ‘observations’ in detail of various

objects under a coarse, compound microscope.
One observation was from very thin slices of bottle cork. Hooke
discovered a multitude of tiny pores that he named "cells".

This came from the Latin word Cella, meaning ‘a small room’
like monks lived in and also Cellulae, which meant the six sided
cell of a honeycomb.

However, Hooke did not know their real structure or function.

What Hooke had thought were cells, were actually empty cell
walls of plant tissues.
With microscopes during this time having a low magnification, Hooke was
unable to see that there were other internal components to the cells he was
observing.

Therefore, he did not think the "cellulae" were alive.[9] His cell observations
gave no indication of the nucleus and other organelles found in most living
cells.

In Micrographia, Hooke also observed mould, bluish in color, found on

leather.

After studying it under his microscope, he was unable to observe “seeds”

that would have indicated how the mould was multiplying in quantity.
This led to Hooke suggesting that spontaneous generation, from either
natural or artificial heat, was the cause.

Since this was an old Aristotelian theory still accepted at the time, others
did not reject it and was not disproved until Leeuwenhoek later discovers
generation is achieved otherwise.
Credit for developing cell theory is usually given to two scientists:

Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden.[13]

While Rudolf Virchow contributed to the theory, he is not as credited for his
attributions toward it.

In 1839, Schleiden suggested that every structural part of a plant was made up of
cells or the result of cells.

He also suggested that cells were made by a crystallization process either within
other cells or from the outside.
However, this was not an original idea of Schleiden.

He claimed this theory as his own, though Barthelemy

Dumortier had stated it years before him.

This crystallization process is no longer accepted with modern

cell theory.

In 1839, Theodor Schwann states that along with plants,

animals are composed of cells or the product of cells in their
structures.

This was a major advancement in the field of biology since

little was known about animal structure up to this point
compared to plants.

From these conclusions about plants and animals, two of the

three tenets of cell theory were postulated.[10]
Modern interpretation
The generally accepted parts of modern cell theory include:

All known living things are made up of one or more cells.

All living cells arise from pre-existing cells by division.

The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms.]

The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of independent cells.

Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells.

Cells contain DNA which is found specifically in the chromosome and RNA found in the cell
nucleus and cytoplasm.

All cells are basically the same in chemical composition in organisms of similar species .

Modern version
The modern version of the cell theory includes the ideas that:
Energy flow occurs within cells.[20]
Heredity information (DNA) is passed on from cell to cell.[20]
All cells have the same basic chemical composition.[20]
Eukaryotic Cell vs. Prokaryotic Cell
The distinction between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is
considered to be the most important distinction among
groups of organisms.

Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles,

such as the nucleus, while prokaryotic cells do not.

Differences in cellular structure of prokaryotes and

eukaryotes include the presence of mitochondria and
chloroplasts, the cell wall, and the structure
of chromosomal DNA.

Prokaryotes were the only form of life on Earth for

millions of years until more complicated eukaryotic cells
came into being through the process of evolution.
THE PLANT CELL

PLANT CELL STRUCTURE

• The plant cell has many different parts. Each
part of the cell has a specialized function.
These structures are called organelles.
•
Cell wall: The cell wall is a rigid layer that surrounds the
plant cells. It is made up of cellulose.

Cell wall is a characteristic feature to cells of plants.

Plant cell walls are primarily made up of cellulose.

Plant cell wall consists of three layers: the primary cell

wall, secondary cell wall and the middle lamella.

It is located outside the cell membrane whose main

function is to provide rigidity, strength, protection against
mechanical stress and infection.

Cell wall is made up of cellulose, pectins,glycoproteins,

hemicellulose and lignin.

Cell membrane: It is the outer boundary of the cell, it encloses

the cytoplasm and the organelles of the cells.

In plants cells it is inside the cell wall.

The cell membrane is semi permeable, allowing only specific

substances to pass through and blocking others.
Cytoplasm: It is a gel-like matrix inside enclosed by the cell membrane.

The cytoplasm supports cell organelles and also prevents the cell from bursting or
shrinking.

Nucleus: It is the control center of the cell.

It is bound by a double membrane known as the nuclear envelope.

It is a porous membrane, it allows passage of substances and is a distinctive characteristic

of the eukaryotic cell.

The nucleus directs all the activities of the cell and also help in protein formation.

The vital function of a nucleus is to store DNA or hereditary material which include cell
division, metabolism, and growth.

Nucleolus: It manufactures cell’s protein-producing structures and ribosomes.

Chloroplasts: It is an elongated or disc-shaped organelle
containing chlorophyll.

They have two membranes and have structures that look

like stack of coins.

They are flattened structures which contain

chemical chlorophyll. The process of photosynthesis
occurs in this region of the plant cell.

The chlorophyll is a green pigment that absorbs energy

from sunlight to make food for the plants by converting
light energy into chemical energy.
Cytoskeleton: It is a network of fibers made up of micro-tubule and micro-
filament.
They maintain the shape and gives support to the cell

Plasmodesmata: They are

microscopic channels which traverse
the cell walls of plant cells
and enables transport and
communication between them.
Vacuole: Vacuoles are known as cells storage center.

Plant cells have large membrane bound chamber called vacuole. Its main function is
storage.

Vacuoles are found in the cytoplasm of most plant cells.

They are membrane bound organelles, they perform functions of secretion, excretion
and storage.

Tonoplast: A vacuole that is surrounded by a membrane is called tonoplast.

Microfilaments: Microfialments are solid rod like structures whose primary function
is structural support.
Plastids: Plastids are storage organelles.
They store products like starch for synthesis of fatty acids and
terpenes.

Leucoplast: They are a type of plastid which are non-pigmented.

Chromoplast: They are plastids responsible for pigment synthesis and

storage.
They are found in photosynthetic eukaryotic species.
They are found in coloredorgans of plants like fruits and flowers.
Golgi complex: The Golgi bodies look like the endoplasmic reticulum and are
situated near the nucleus.

They are found in almost all eukaryotic cells.

Their main function is to process and package macromolecules synthesized

from other parts of the cell.

The Golgi apparatus is referred to as the cell's packaging center.

Ribosomes: Ribosomes are smallest and the most abundant cell organelle.

It comprises of RNA and protein. Ribosomes are sites for protein synthesis.

They are found in all cells because protein are necessary for the survival of
the cell.

The ribososomes are known as the protein factories of the cell.

Endoplasmic reticulum: Endoplasmic reticulum is a membrane
bound compartment, which look like flattened sacs lined side
by side.

It is a large network of interconnecting membrane tunnels.

It is composed of both rough endoplasmic reticulum and

smooth endoplasmic reticulum.

They are responsible for protein translation, and protein

transport to be used in the cell membrane.

They also aid in sequestration of calcium, and production and

storage of glycogen and other macromolecules.
Mitochondria: Mitochondria are surrounded by two membranes.

They are described as the 'power plants' of the cell as they convert
glucose to energy molecules (ATP).

They possess their own hereditary material which help in self

duplication and multiplication.

Lysosome: Lysosome contain digestive enzymes. They digest excess or worn out
organelles, food particles and any foreign bodies.

Microbody: It is a single membrane bound organelle that comprises of degradative

enzymes
Diffusion and Osmosis
Diffusion
-the process by which molecules spread from areas of
high concentration, to areas of low concentration.

When the molecules are even throughout a space - it is

called EQUILIBRIUM

Concentration gradient - a difference between

concentrations in a space.

Molecules will always move down the concentration

gradient, toward areas of lesser concentration.

Think of food coloring that spreads out in a glass of water,

or air freshener sprayed in a room.
Osmosis - the diffusion of water (across a membrane)

Water will move in the direction where there is a high

concentration of solute (and hence a lower concentration of
water.

A simple rule to remember is:

Salt is a solute, when it is concentrated inside or outside the

cell, it will draw the water in its direction.

This is also why you get thirsty after eating something salty.
Type of Solutions
Isotonic Solutions
If the concentration of solute (salt) is equal on both sides, the water will move back
in forth but it won't have any result on the overall amount of water on either side.

Hypotonic Solutions

The word "HYPO" means less, in this case there are less solute (salt) molecules
outside the cell, since salt sucks, water will move into the cell.

The cell will gain water and grow larger. In plant cells, the central vacuoles will fill and
the plant becomes stiff and rigid, the cell wall keeps the plant from bursting

Hypertonic Solutions
The word "HYPER" means more, in this case there are more solute (salt) molecules
outside the cell, which causes the water to be sucked in that direction.

In plant cells, the central vacuole loses water and the cells shrink, causing wilting,
the cell may die.
This is why it is dangerous to drink sea water - its a myth that drinking sea water will
cause you to go insane, but people marooned at sea will speed up dehydration (and
death) by drinking sea water.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Continuous growth and expansion of plant cells and plant as a whole
depends on the relative ability of the photosynthetic tissues (leaves) to
synthesize food which are made available to other various plant parts and
other nonphotosynthetic organisms (heterotrophs).

Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to

convert light energy.

This chemical energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules, such as sugars,

which are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water – hence the
name photosynthesis, from the Greek phōs, "light", and synthesis, "putting
together". In most cases, oxygen is also released as a waste product.
Most plants, most algae, and cyanobacteria perform photosynthesis; such
organisms are called photoautotrophs.

Photosynthesis is largely responsible for producing and maintaining

the oxygen content of the Earth's atmosphere, and supplies all of the
organic compounds and most of the energy necessary for life on Earth.[4]
Photosynthesis can then be defined as a process by which green plants synthesis or
build up carbohydrates from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water in the presence
of light energy captured by chlorophyll molecules with the release of oxygen.

This process can only occur in illuminated green tissues, because it is only the
chlorophyll molecules of these tissues that can trap the solar energy.

The chlorophyll are situated in the thylakoids of the chloroplasts.

Some bacteria ie the cyanobacteria can also synthesis their own carbohydrates
without making use of solar energy.

They rather use some chemical compounds such as Hydrogen sulphide and other
iron containing compounds as source of the primary energy.

They are therefore referred to as chemosynthetic organisms.

 Chloroplast and Thylakoid
In photosynthetic bacteria, the proteins that gather light for photosynthesis are
embedded in cell membranes. In its simplest form, this involves the
membrane surrounding the cell itself. However, the membrane may be tightly
folded into cylindrical sheets called thylakoids,[21] or bunched up into
round vesicles called intracytoplasmic [Link] structures can fill
most of the interior of a cell, giving the membrane a very large surface area
and therefore increasing the amount of light that the bacteria can absorb.
In plants and algae, photosynthesis takes place
in organelles called chloroplasts. A typical plant cell contains about 10 to 100
chloroplasts. The chloroplast is enclosed by a membrane. This membrane is
composed of a phospholipid inner membrane, a phospholipid outer
membrane, and an intermembrane space. Enclosed by the membrane is an
aqueous fluid called the stroma. Embedded within the stroma are stacks of
thylakoids (grana), which are the site of photosynthesis. The thylakoids
appear as flattened disks. The thylakoid itself is enclosed by the thylakoid
membrane, and within the enclosed volume is a lumen or thylakoid space.
Embedded in the thylakoid membrane are integral and peripheral membrane
protein complexes of the photosynthetic system.
Plants absorb light primarily using the pigment chlorophyll.

The green part of the light spectrum is not absorbed but is

reflected which is the reason that most plants have a
green color.

Besides chlorophyll, plants also use pigments such

as carotenes and xanthophylls.

Algae also use chlorophyll, but various other pigments are

present, such as phycocyanin, carotenes,
and xanthophylls in green algae
Light-independent reactions/Dark Reactions/Dark Phase

Calvin cycle/Carbon fixation cycle or pathway

In the light-independent (or "dark") reactions,

the enzyme RuBisCO captures CO2 from the atmosphere and, in a
process called the Calvin-Benson cycle,

it uses the newly formed NADPH and releases three-carbon sugars,

which are later combined to form sucrose and starch.

The overall equation for the light-independent reactions in green

plants is[

3 CO2 + 9 ATP + 6 NADPH + 6 H+ → C3H6O3-phosphate + 9 ADP + 8 Pi +

6 NADP+ + 3 H2O
The fixation or reduction of carbon dioxide is a process in which carbon
dioxide combines with a five-carbon sugar, ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate, to
yield two molecules of a three-carbon compound, glycerate 3-phosphate,
also known as 3-phosphoglycerate.

Glycerate 3-phosphate, in the presence of ATP and NADPH produced during

the light-dependent stages, is reduced to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate.

This product is also referred to as 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL) or, more

generically, as triose phosphate.

Most (5 out of 6 molecules) of the glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate produced is

used to regenerate ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate so the process can continue.

The triose phosphates not thus "recycled" often condense to

form hexose phosphates, which ultimately
Carbon concentrating mechanisms

These arise as a result of troubles with Calvin-Benzon cycle

These problems are photorespiration and excessive los of water both in the tropics and arid
areas.

Photorespiration arises from 02 competing with CO2 with the active sites of RUBisCO
and thereby preventing CO2 fixation.

The net effect is that photorespiration depresses the rate photosynthesis.

In hot and dry conditions, plants close their stomata to
prevent water loss.

Under these conditions, CO2 will decrease and oxygen

gas, produced by the light reactions of photosynthesis,
will increase, causing an increase of photorespiration by
the oxygenase activity of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate
carboxylase/oxygenase and decrease in carbon fixation.

Some plants have evolved mechanisms to increase the

CO2 concentration in the leaves under these conditions.
Plants that use the C4 carbon fixation process chemically fix
carbon dioxide in the cells of the mesophyll by adding it to the
three-carbon olecule phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), a reaction
catalyzed by an enzyme called PEP carboxylase,

creating the four-carbon organic acid oxaloacetic acid.

Oxaloacetic acid or malate synthesized by this process is then
translocated to specialized bundle sheath cells where the
enzyme RuBisCO and other Calvin cycle enzymes are located,

and where CO2released by decarboxylation of the four-carbon

acids is then fixed byRuBisCO activity to the three-carbon 3-
phosphoglyceric acids.

The physical separation of RuBisCO from the oxygen-generating

light reactions reduces photorespiration and increases
CO2 fixation and, thus, the photosynthetic capacity of the leaf.[
C4 plants can produce more sugar than C3 plants in conditions of
high light and temperature.

Many important crop plants are C4 plants, including maize,

sorghum, sugarcane, and millet.

Plants that do not use PEP-carboxylase in carbon fixation are

called C3 plants because the primary carboxylation reaction,
catalyzed by RuBisCO, produces the three-carbon 3-
phosphoglyceric acids directly in the Calvin-Benson cycle.

Over 90% of plants use C3 carbon fixation, compared to 3% that

use C4 carbon fixation;

however, the evolution of C4 in over 60 plant lineages makes it

a striking example of convergent evolution.
Xerophytes, such as cacti and most succulents, also use PEP
carboxylase to capture carbon dioxide in a process
called Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM).

In contrast to C4 metabolism, which spatially separates the

CO2 fixation to PEP from the Calvin cycle,
CAM temporally separates these two processes.

CAM plants have a different leaf anatomy from C3 plants, and fix
the CO2 at night, when their stomata are open.

CAM plants store the CO2 mostly in the form of malic acid via
carboxylation of phosphoenolpyruvate to oxaloacetate, which is
then reduced to malate.

Decarboxylation of malate during the day releases CO2 inside

the leaves, thus allowing carbon fixation to 3-phosphoglycerate
by RuBisCO.
TRANSPIRATION
A great deal of water absorbed by plants roots and transported to
aerial parts of plants is also lost by these aerial parts in form of water
vapour.

Water is passively transported into the roots and then into the xylem.

The forces of cohesion and adhesion cause the water molecules to

form a column in the xylem.

Water moves from the xylem into the mesophyll cells, evaporates
from their surfaces and leaves the plant by diffusion through the
stomata.

This loss of water vapour from plants is called transpiration

Transpiration is the process of water movement through a plant and
its evaporation from aerial parts, such as leaves, stems and flowers.

Water is necessary for plants but only a small amount of water taken up by the
roots is used for growth and metabolism.

The remaining 97–99.5% is lost by transpiration and guttation.

Leaf surfaces are dotted with pores called stomata, and in most plants they are
more numerous on the undersides of the foliage.

The stomata are bordered by guard cells and their stomatal accessory cells (together
known as stomatal complex) that open and close the pore.[

Transpiration occurs through the stomatal apertures, and can be thought of as a

necessary "cost" associated with the opening of the stomata to allow the diffusion
of carbon dioxide gas from the air for photosynthesis.
Regulation
The external atmosphere is usually not saturated with water vapour.

This creates a concentration gradient between the moist mesaophyll cells and the dry
external atmosphere.

This now causes diffusion of water molecules from the leaf mesophyll cells to the
environment.

Plants regulate the rate of transpiration by controlling the size of the stomatal apertures.

The rate of transpiration is also influenced by the evaporative demand of the atmosphere
surrounding the leaf such as boundary layer conductance, humidity, temperature, wind and
incident sunlight.

Soil water supply and soil temperature can influence stomatal opening, and thus transpiration
rate.

The amount of water lost by a plant also depends on its size and the amount of water
absorbed at the roots.

Transpiration accounts for most of the water loss by a plant by the leaves and young stems.
Transpiration is basically an evaporation process.

It is partly been controlled by plants structures and stomatal behaviour operating

together with physical factors that control evaporation from free water surface.

Transpiration is an unavoidable and dangerous phenomenon ie, it is a necessary evil.

It is unavoidable because of the structural arrangement of the aerial parts of plants

for entry and exit of gases.

As long as there is entry and exit of gases the condition leading to loss of water will
be unavoidable.
If transpiration rate exceeds water absorption rate, the plant may die.

Two major factors influence the rate of water flow from the soil to the roots: the
hydraulic conductivity of the soil and the magnitude of the pressure gradient
through the soil.

Both of these factors influence the rate of bulk flow of water moving from the roots
to the stomatal pores in the leaves.
Water moves from the xylem into the mesophyll cells, evaporates from their surfaces and
leaves the plant by diffusion through the stomata.

Transpiration does not occur only through the stomata. It may also occurs through other plant
parts such as lenticels and cuticle.

Cuticle is a layer of wax-like substance covering the leaf epidermis. It is a tough layer meant to
prevent transpiration.

Nevertheless, it is not completely impermeable to water. There could be up to 20 % of total

transpiration occurring through it.
Mechanism of Stomatal Transpiration

Stomata are openings on the leaf surfaces. .The close and open rhythmically
as controlled by guard cells.

The los of water through stomata amounts to about 80-90% of the total
water loss, because cuticle restricts water diffusion out of the mesophyll
cells.

Transpiration occurs in two stages.

1. Evaporation of water from cell walls of mesophyll cells into the

intercellular spaces.

2. Diffusion of this water vapour into the atmosphere through the stomata

These two stages follow closely the leaf-air vapour pressure deficit.

The rate of transpiration is largely controlled by the size of the stomatal

pore.
 Feature Effect on transpiration
More leaves (or spines, or other photosynthesizing
organs) means a bigger surface area and more stomata
Number of leaves
for gaseous exchange. This will result in greater water
loss.
More stomata will provide more pores for
Number of stomata
transpiration.
A leaf with a bigger surface area will transpire faster
Size of the leaf
than a leaf with a smaller surface area.
A waxy cuticle is relatively impermeable to water and
water vapour and reduces evaporation from the plant
surface except via the stomata. A reflective cuticle will
reduce solar heating and temperature rise of the
leaf,[citation needed] helping to reduce the rate of
evaporation. Tiny hair-like structures
Presence of plant cuticle
called trichomes on the surface of leaves also can
inhibit water loss by creating a high humidity
environment at the surface of leaves.[citation needed] These
are some examples of the adaptations of plants for
conservation of water that may be found on
many xerophytes.
 The rate of transpiration is controlled by stomatal aperture, and these
small pores open especially for photosynthesis. While there are
Light supply
exceptions to this (such as night or "CAM photosynthesis"), in general a
light supply will encourage open stomata.
Temperature affects the rate in two ways:

1) An increased rate of evaporation due to a temperature rise will hasten

Temperature
the loss of water.
2) Decreased relative humidity outside the leaf will increase the
water potential gradient.
Transpiration serves to evaporatively cool plants, as the evaporating
water carries away heat energy due to its large latent heat of
vaporization of 2260 kJ per litre.
 BOT 141
CARBOHYDRATES PROTEINS AND LIPIDS
CARBOHYDRATES
• They are important micro molecules/organic constituents of living
cells. They are important because:
• (1) chemical energy is derived from them. 1 gram gives 4kcal of
energy.
• (2)structural parts of the cell are derived from them e.g. cellulose,
hemicellulose, pectins.
• (3) organic constituents of the cell are derived from them e.g.
nucleic acids, glycoproteins, nucleoproteins, glycolipids (DNA, RNA).
Chemical Nature of Carbohydrates

• (1) Carbohydrates are made up of C, H, O with hydrogen and oxygen

having the ratio of 2:1 (H2O).
• (2) Each carbohydrate contains a carbonyl group (>C=0) which
can either be from aldehyde or ketone.
• (3) In addition to carbonyl group, each carbohydrate
2 or more hydroxyl or alcohol groups or any organic
compound which can yield alcohol during hydrolysis.
Classification of Carbohydrates

• Carbohydrates are classified into three major groups:

• (i) Monosaccharides
• (ii) Oligosaccharides
• (iii) Polysaccharides
 Monosaccharides

• These are the simplest carbohydrates because they cannot be

hydrolysed into simpler forms. Monosaccharides are soluble in water
and are the principal sources of chemical energy in the cells. The
general formula for monosaccharides is CnH2nOn.
 Classification

• (1) They are classified according to the number of carbons they contain:
3 carbon sugars = Trioses e.g. glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone
O
||
C–H CH2OH
• | |
• CHOH C=O
• | |
• CH2OH CH2OH
•
• GAL DHA
CONTD.
• 4 carbon sugars = Tetroses – e.g. erythrose
• 5 carbon sugars = Pentoses – e.g. ribose, xylose
• 6 carbon sugars = Hexoses e.g. glucose, fructose, galactose
• 7 carbon sugars = Heptoses e.g. heptulose, sedoheptulose.

• (2) Monosaccharides can exist as aldoses – glucose or ketoses if

they contain aldehyde and ketone respectively.
• (3) Aldoses and ketoses can reduce copper hydroxide in
Benedicts solution to copper oxide which gives brick red ppt.
They are called reducing sugars.
• (4) Sugars containing five or more carbons exist as straight
chains or ring/cyclic structures.
STRUCTURAL FORMULAE OF SUGARS
• GLUCOSE
• GALACTOSE
• FRUCTOSE
• PYRANOSE
 OLIGOSACCHARIDES

• They are polymers of monosaccharides. They are soluble in water.

They consist of 2-10 monosaccharide units per molecule and are
classified according to the number of monosaccharide units:
• Disaccharides are the most important carbohydrates in this group.
They are soluble and sweet to taste e.g. sucrose, maltose and lactose.
• Sucrose → Glucose + Fructose
• Maltose → Glucose + Glucose
• Lactose → Glucose + Galactose
• Trisaccharides – raffinose and stachyose
 POLYSACCHARIDES
• They differ from mono- and oligosaccharides because they are
insoluble in water. Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides.
The two most important polysaccharides are starch and cellulose.
• (i) Starch – is made up of branched and unbranched glucose chains
• The glucose chain can be straight or branched
• (ii) Starch reacts with aqueous iodine to give blue black colour.
• On hydrolysis, starch yields glucose.
• iii) Starch hydrolysis ------→ dextrin → maltose → glucose
 Cellulose
• It consists of a straight chain of glucose unit. It is soluble in water
and it is resistant to hydrolysis, certain bacteria and fungi can
degrade cellulose.
 PROTEINS

• Proteins are polymers of amino acids which joined together by

peptide bonds.
Proteins contd.
• A dipeptide – addition of more amino acids give rise to a polypeptide.
• (i) Many amino acids form a polypeptide chain and many
polypeptides form a protein therefore contain 100’s or 1000’s
of amino acids.
• (ii)Proteins are constituents of protoplasm, enzymes and cell organelles.
• (iii)In plants, they are stored in special storage tissues called
aleuroplasts.
• (iv)Proteins have high molecular weights which vary from about 5,000
to several millions (40,000 in egg albumin).
 The Structure of Proteins

• Proteins can have primary, secondary and tertiary structures.

• Primary Structure: This is the number, type and sequence of amino
acids in a polypeptide chain.
• Protein A = g – g – g – a – a – a – a – t – t – t – t
• Protein B = g – g – g – g – a – a – a – a – t – t – t – t
• Proteins A and B are different (in number).glycine,alanine,tryptophan.
• The property of each protein molecule is determined partly by its
primary structure.
Secondary Structure
• To form the secondary structure, the polypeptides chain is twisted
into an -helix, (spring like structure) with coils maintained in position
by hydrogen bonding between H – HN group and the O of a C = O
group at fixed intervals along the spiral. (Note that -helix is a
structure that looks like a coiled spring, with the coil giving in the
direction to the right). Few proteins exist as -helix.
• The coils are stabilized by H-bonds. H-bonds between – NH ( amino
group) and > C = O (carboxyl group)
• > C = O …… H – N <
• H – bonding
 Tertiary Structure

Further coiling, compressing and bending of the polypeptide

chain into a 3-dimensional shape forms the 3o structure of
protein. This structure is stabilized by H-bonds > C = O … H – N
<, disulphide bonds – S – S –, Van de waal forces – CH3 … CH3
as in myoglobin and electrostatic attractions – COO-  H3N+.
. Quartenary Structure
When the protein is twisted to diverse shapes.
 Denaturation of Proteins

• Proteins can be denatured. This is the destruction of the biological

activity.
• Property of proteins and it is caused by the disruption/destruction of
bonds that stabilize the secondary and tertiary structures of proteins.
• (i) Unfolding/uncoiling of already folded or coiled protein molecule.
It also causes fragmentation of protein molecule into smaller unit
coagulation or precipitation then occurs.
• (ii) After denaturation, coagulation occurs.
 Agents of denaturation

• (a) Heat and ultra-violet radiation which presumably break/destroy

bonds stabilizing the molecules.
• (b) Organic solvents, such as ethanol, acetone and carbon
disulphide.
• (c) Strong acids, bases and salts of heavy metals also cause
denaturation by interfering with bonds stabilizing protein molecule
 Major functions of proteins

• (i) As a major source of C and N e.g. in groundnut and cowpea

seeds.
• (ii) Proteins can serve as enzymes. All known enzymes are proteins.
• (iii) They serve as structural components or organisms e.g. the
structural protein in mitochondria and collagen in animals, lipoprotein
in plasma membrane.
• (iv) Mobility structures e.g. the flagella of the flagellates and the
muscles of higher animals.
 LIPIDS
• The lipids are another important group of plant cell
constituents. They are soluble in organic solvents like
ether, benzene, chloroform, ethanol, gasoline and
acetone. Examples of lipids are fats, oils, waxes,
phospholipids and glycolipids.
• Lipids can be classified into two:
• Simple and compound lipids
 Simple Lipids
• Simple lipids on hydrolysis yield fatty acids (aliphatic
monocarboxylic acids) and alcohols. Simple lipids are
therefore esters of fatty acids and alcohols. E.g. are
fats, oils and waxes (i.e. yield fatty acid glycerol
alcohol on hydrolysis).
 Fats and Oils

• There is no chemical difference between fats and oils.

Fats are solids or semi-solids of (25oC) room
temperature whereas oils are liquids. Both fats and
oils are esters of fatty acids and glycerols
Waxes

• (i) These are esters of fatty acids and alcohols (not glycerol
but straight chain, having 24 – 36 carbon atoms and only one
OH).
• (ii) Waxes have higher melting points fats.
• (iii) They are constituents – which covers the epidermis,
stems and leaves and suberin, the water proofing material of
the cork cell walls.
• (iv) Plant waxes are used in making the more expensive and
better grades of polishes for shoes, floors and automobiles.
 Compound Lipids

• These are components which on hydrolysis yield fatty

acids, alcohols and other compounds:
• e.g. phospholipid – lipid + phosphoric acid unit
• glycolipid – lipid + carbohydrate
• lipoprotein – lipids + proteins
• These compound lipids are constituents of the
membrane.
• On oxidation lipids yield higher energy than
carbohydrates/protein
• 1g mole of fat → 9.5 kcals
• 1g mole of carbohydrate/protein → 4 kcals
• There are several hundreds of naturally occurring
amino acids and their derivatives – e.g. alanine,
valine, leucine, isoleucine, proline, phenylanine,
tryptophan, glycine, thiamine etc.
Ester linkage
O
||
H2C ⎯ O ⎯ C ⎯ (CH2)n ⎯ CH3
| O
||
H-C ⎯ O ⎯ C ⎯ (CH2)n ⎯ CH3 + 3H3O
| O
||
H2C ⎯ O ⎯ C ⎯ (CH3)

cleverage
H2C ⎯ OH
|
H ⎯ C ⎯ OH
|
H2C ⎯ OH
Trihydric alcohol
(glycerol)
PHYTOHORMONES OR GROWTH REGULATORS
• Plant hormones are organic compounds produced by the plant itself,
which although present in minute amounts regulate physiological
processes and as a rule, migrate in plants.
• Growth regulating substances
• Auxins
• Gibberellins Florigen
• Cytokinins
• Abscisic acid
• Ethylene
PHYTOHORMONES

Phyllody on a purple
coneflower (Echinacea
purpurea), a plant
development abnormality
where leaf-like structures
replace flower organs. It
can be caused by
hormonal imbalance,
among other reasons.
• Plant hormones can be classified into:
• (a) Growth Promoters
• (b) Growth Inhibitors
• Growth Promoters: Auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene (exists
as gas).
• Growth Inhibitors: Abscisic acid (ABA)
 AUXINS

• The word Auxin is derived from a Greek word Auxion – ‘to grow’.
• Natural auxin can be defined as indole compounds of which the
principal auxin is called Indole (Acetic acid CIAA) or Indole III acetic
acid. Other natural auxins are indole acetic nitrile and indole ethanol.
The auxin indole-3-acetic acid
 Synthetic Auxins

• They are not always indole compounds i.e. they could be

indole or non-indole compound. The common synthetic
auxins are:
• (1) 2, 4 – D or 2, 4 – Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid.
• (2) Indole butyric acid (IBA)
• (3) Naphthalenic acetic acid
 CH2COOH
CH2CH2CH2COOH

Cl

2,4-D NAA
Cl IBA
Role of Auxins

(1) Promote cell elongation.

(2) Control apical dominance/lateral bud inhibition

APPLICATION OF AUXINS
• (A) They can be used as weed killers.
• (B) Auxins are used for producing seedless fruits i.e.
parternocarpic fruit. E.g. banana, plantain, pineapple
and apple (local).
• (C) They are used as rooting chemicals e.g. IBA and
NAA
• (D) By spraying mature fruit with auxins, abscission of
fruit is delayed.
 GIBBERELLINS
• This was discovered in 1925 by a Japanese scientist
called Kurosava while working on a rice seedling
disease called “bakanae”.
• He found out that on infection by a causal organism
Gibberella fujikuroi, the rice seedling grows
abnormally tall, thin and spindly.
• It collapsed hence the name bakanae “foolish seedling
disease”.
CONTD.
• It was discovered that the organism G. fujikoroi
secretes a growth substance called gibberellin which
consists of 6 gibberellins GA, GA2, GA3, GA4, GA7 and
GA9.
• Today, more than 40 gibberellin are known but the
cheapest and most popular is GA3. All gibberellins
have a common molecular structure called Gibban
carbon skeleton.
 IMPORTANCES OF GA

• (1) Gibberellins also play an important role in the

initiation of flowering.
• (2) Gibberellin plays an essential role in germination
of cereal seeds.
• (3) Gibberellins break seed dormancy in positive
photoblastic seeds (i.e. light requiring seeds) and cold
requiring seedlings.
• (4 )Used in breweries for controlling malting process
Gibberellin A1
 CYTOKININS

• The word cytokinin is derived from “cytokinesis” – cell

division, its major function is to stimulate cell division.
Cytokinins are produced in the root especially root
apices in immature fruits e.g. apple and banana, also
produced from immature seeds, especially corn (Zea
mays) and coconut milk.
 Roles of Cytokinins
• (1) Stimulates cell division and hence it is used in
tissue culture work.
• (2) In combination with auxins and gibberellins,
cytokinins stimulate leaf enlargement. The three
hormones control leaf development).
• (3) They delay or slow down senescence in detached
or intact leaves by delaying the breakdown of
chlorophyll, proteins, nucleic acid etc
• The cytokinin zeatin, the
name is derived from
Zea, in which it was first
discovered in immature
kernels
 ETHYLENE

• Ethylene is a liquefiable gas. It was discovered about

90 years ago.
• It can be produced artificially from incomplete
combustion of carbon-rich materials such as coal,
wood, kerosene and petroleum. Naturally, ethylene is
produced in high concerns. from ripening fruit. They
are also produced in flowers, seeds, tubers and stems.
 ROLES OF ETHYLENE

• (1) It is used for ripening fruit .Ethiel is a commercial name of

compound that can produce ethane i.e. 2-chloro-ethyl phosphoric
acids on decay. It produces ethylene.
• (2) It induces and accelerates abscission.
• (3) It inhibits the capacity of IAA in stimulating hb,cell elongation. It
can be reversed by addition of IAA.
• (4) Ethylene can stimulate/break dominancy in some seeds
• (5) Stimulates formation of root hairs.
Ethylene
 Abscisic Acid (ABA)
• This is a growth inhibitor which not only stimulates and
accelerates/maintains dormancy in seeds and buds of (trees) but also
induces and accelerates abscission
 ROLES OF ABA

• (1) It induces dormancy in seed and buds.

• (2) It induces and accelerates abscission of organs such as fruits,
leaves, flowers and this can be applied in harvesting of cotton and
fruits.
• (3) ABA is called stress hormone in plants, because it is produced in
response to stress.
• (4) It induces stomatal closure.
• (5) ABA is produced in seeds where it increases dormancy in
• organs and leaves.
DORMANCY
• Dormancy is a state in which viable seeds, spores or buds fail to
germinate under conditions of moisture, temperature and oxygen
favourable for vegetative growth.

• Dormancy can be defined as any rest period or reversible

interruption of phenotypic development of an organism.

• Dormancy is accompanied by reduced metabolic activity, low water

content and zero growth -during which the seed or bud is very hard
and can withstand cold, drought or climatic stress.
Biological Significances of Dormancy
• Dormancy enables some seeds, resting buds and organs to remain
viable for some time until environmental conditions are favourable
for growth.
• Some seeds are known to remain viable for hundreds of years in a
dormant state. Viable seeds of Lupin (Lupinus arcticus) 10,000 yrs.
old) were found in the burrow of a rodent in Canada to continuous
low temperature
• Dormancy may prevent wastage of seeds in some plant species by
preventing pre-harvest germination e.g. Barley grains.

• On the other hand dormancy could pose an economic problem to

nursery workers, farmers and foresters who are interested in raising
many seedlings.
 Forms of Dormancy
In some species dormancy may be caused by
• Unfavourable environmental conditions for example many weeds e.g.
will not grow in response to a fall in temperature to about 0-5oC: Forced
or Imposed Dormancy

• The cause of dormancy may lie within its plant organ/tissues. Hence, this
dormancy is termed Innate or Spontaneous Dormancy, and could occur
during favourable environmental conditions.
Terminating of Bud Dormancy
• Several mechanisms appear to act alone or synergistically in release ng
buds from dormancy.

Chilling/Cold Treatment:
• About the most important. Many trees require an exposure 250 to 1000h
of chilling before dormancy can be broken. During chilling (0-10oC)
adequate aeration is required.

• In nature, chilling requirement is met during winter in temperate co

untries. Chilling gradually cause the breakdown or decay of ABA or
inhibitors and production of GA and CK.
• Long Days (LD): In some cases dormancy can be released by long days.
One effect of LD is promoter production e.g. gibberellins. Gibberellins
negates the effect of ABA and it promotes growth.
• Some plants do not respond to LD e.g. Larixdecidua apple, plum and pear.

• Temperature: A high temperature shock may break dormancy. Buds for

example can be immersed in warm water, 30-50oC, for several hours.

• Chemicals: Chemicals which have been used in breaking bud dormancy

are thicurea, ethylene, for potato tubers gibberellins, chlorhydrin and
kinetin.
Termination of Seed Dormancy
• Scarification: any treatment that weakens the seed coat without physically
retarding embryo expansion.
• Mechanical: knife, pin, fire, sand, abrasive.
• Chemicals: organic solvents such as alcohol, acetate, strong acids such as
H2SO4 or boiling with water.

• Stratification: Mixing of seeds with sand, peat or other media and storing at
low temps. (to insure optimum conditions such as moisture, O2 and temp).
• Conifers: 5o – 10oC for 2 – 3 months. Clutching in conjunction with moisture
can shorten after – ripening effects.
 Light
• The primary effect of light on seed germination is mediated
by phytochrome, a proteinaceous pigment containing a
chromophore molecule. Phytochrome is energized by red
light (660nm) to a chemically active form which on reacting
with a substance “X” induces physiological response that
leads to germination.
• Active phytochrome is disintegrated and/or
reconverted into the original inactive form if unused.
When irradiated with red light, phytochrome will be
predominantly in Pfr form (i.e. 81% Pfr and 19% Pr.
Hence for germination to take place light should be
adequate to produce the appropriate Pfr to Pr ratio.
• Pressures

2,000 atm at 18oC for 5 – 20 mins germination

increases by 50 – 200%
ENZYMES

An enzyme is a protein catalyst which does not start a

reaxn but only speeds up the rate of reaction. Because they

are proteins, enzymes are affected by external conditions

such as heat, organic solvents, ultra violet radiation etc. An

enzyme is not used up and does not constitute a part of the

product of a reaxn.

Structure and Composition of Enzyme

There are two types of enzymes:

Simple (protein) enzymes consist of protein only

(conjugate enzymes). Conjugate enzymes are called

holoenzymes and consist of protein parts called apoenzyme

and non-protein parts called protesthetic groups or co-

factors.

Mechanism of Enzyme Action

An enzyme enters into a temporary union with a

substrate. The molecular configuration of the enzyme must

fit the molecular configuration at the substrate as a key fits

a lock. The site at which the substrate is attached is called

action site. An enzyme may have more than one active site.

Nature of Enzyme Catalyzed Reaxn

To make a reaction faster, the enzyme lowers the

kinetic energy or energy barrier so that more molecules or

reactants can attain the activated energy.

 Energy-Hill Diagram of a Theoretical Chemical Reaction

Without enzyme

With enzyme

C+D
Product
DG

An enzyme speeds up chemical reaxns in cells by decreasing the amount of activation

energy required so that more molecules can attain higher activation energy.

Classification of Enzymes

(1) The first classification is based on the substrate used for the experiment. At the end of the

substrate used for the experiment. At the end of the substrate, - ase is added e.g. enzymes

which break urea → urease

Protein → protease

Lipids → lipase

Sucrose → sucrose

(2) Another one is based on the type of chemical reaxn. Catalyzed by the enzyme e.g. enzymes

which catalyze oxidation reaction – oxidase dehydrogenations dehydrogenases

Properties of Enzymes

(1) Specificity of enzyme can only catalyze one reaxn and sometimes can only act on a

particular substrate e.g. urea + H2O Urease Ammonia + CO2.

Urease can only act on urea because only the configuration of urea fits the active site of

urease.

(2) Temperature: At low temperature, the rate of the reaxn. is very low. As temperature

increases, the rate of reaxn. increases until optimum temperature is reached. Up to the

optimum temperature, the rate of reaxn increases 2 – 3 times to every 10oC. This rate is

called Q10X. After the optimum temperature, the rate of reaxn. decreases. At about 90 –

100oC at the enzymes are denatured.

Deactivation of the enzymes at high temperature is the distortions of the bond that stabilizes

the enzymes.

Optimum temperature

Denaturation (inactivated)
 Rate
(1/t)
Increase temperature

(3) pH effect the enzyme has a major pH range at which it works. The effect of pH on enzyme

reaxn. is similar to that of temperature.

Optimum pH

Denaturation

pH
If the medium is too acidic or too alkaline, the enzyme will be denatured

(4) Substrate concentration – At very low substrate concentration, the rate of reaction increase

linearly. At very high substrate concentration, there is no further increase in the rate of

reaction because there are no more enzyme molecules to react with the substrate molecule.

The end product of the reaxn accumulates such that the forward reaxn. is inhibited.

Plateau
 Substrate concn.
low high

ENZYME INHIBITION

An inhibitor is a substance that can put an enzyme out

of motion by preventing the combination of the enzyme

with substrate or breaking up of the enzyme substrate

complex. Inhibitors are usually competitive or non-

competitive.

Competitive Inhibitor: The configuration or the

structure of the inhibitor is similar to that of the substrate.

It thus competes with the substrate at the active site of the

enzyme thereby reducing catalytic reaction of enzyme. An

example of competitive inhibition is the effect of malonic

acid on the substrate. The action is catalyzed by the enzyme

succinic dehydrogenase.
COOH COOH COOH
  
CH2 -2H CH CH2 malonic
  
CH2 +2H CH2 COOH acid
 Succinic 
COOH dehydrogenase COOH
Succinic fumaric
Acid Acid

If malonic acid is added to the reaction mixture, the

product fumaric acid is active slowed down or completely

stopped. This is because malonic acid had a molecular

structure similar to that of succinic acid and becomes

attached to the enzyme.

Non-competitive inhibitor: A non-competitive

inhibitor does not have the same configuration as the

substrate and therefore does not compete with the substrate

for the active site. The non-competitive inhibitor combines

with another active site. Once the non-competitive

inhibitor combines with the enzyme the reaction of the

enzyme is altered in such a way that the active site of the

substrate is distorted.

another active site

active site + inhibitor

for substrate

e.g. the effect of KCN in respiratory enzymes

(oxidase).

ACTIVATION OF ENZYMES

As an enzyme can be inhibited, so it can be activated.

Some enzymes exist as pro-enzymes (zymogens). To

transfer these pro-enzymes to active enzymes, a blocking

peptide has to be removed.

HCI
Trypsinogen Trypsin (active)
HCI
Pepsinogen Pepsin (active)

In other types, the non-protein (prothestic group) of

the enzyme has to be precipitated.

.

GENETICS
 GENETICS
• Genetics is the branch of biology concerned with the
origin of biological variation, organization of these
variations and how they are passed down from one
generation to another.
• Genetics is the study of heredity and variations
• Heredity deals with inheritance, while variability is a
major attribute of nature.
• Genes are the units of inheritance
 GENETICS (Contd)
Heritable variation
• Heritable variations genetically induced variations
that can be passed from one generation to the other.
• These variations are passed down through the germ
lines such as; sperms, pollens and eggs
• or passed down through the soma such as; leaves,
stems and roots that occasionally serve as
reproductive units.
 GENETICS (contd)
Non-heritable variation
• Non-heritable variations are environmentally induced variations
that are not transmissible from parent to offspring
• For example, a plant shaded from sunlight automatically turns
albino, but may revert to green colouration on exposure to
sunlight.
• A plant grown in poor soil becomes stunted , but may grow into
luxuriant plant of its type on good soil.
• A child who is treated with some antibiotics such as
‘’Terramycin’’ during teething period may develop coloured
teeth, but the child may grow normal teeth colour.
 Mendelian Genetics

Mendel in his experiment monitored many contrasting

attributes (alternative traits) :

• Colour of the cotyledons- Yellow endosperm and Green

endosperm
• Shape of the seed- Round and full: Irregularly-shaped and
wrinkled seeds
• Shape of the ripe pod- Simply inflated pods and constricted
pods
• Colour of the seed coat- Grey to buff: white
 Mendelian Genetics (Contd)

• Colour of the unripe pods- Light to dark green : Yellow

• The position of the flower on the stem- Axial :Terminal
• The length of the stem- Tail or long : Short or Dwarf
 Mendelian Genetics (Contd)
Mendel’s Experiments:
Monohybrid cross
• Mendel carried out crosses between plants with contrasting characters
• He crossed a tall vine plant with a dwarf vine plant
• He observed that all the first filial generation were tall vine
• The offspring of the second filial generation showed 75% tall vine and 25% dwarf
vine.
• The result showed that tall vine plants were made up of 25% homozygous tall
vine and 50% heterozygous tall vine plants
• The re-occurrence of the dwarf vine plants in the second filial generation showed
that dwarf trait was hidden or masked by the tall trait.
• The trait for dwarfness is said to be recessive to the tall trait which is dominant.
 Mendelian Genetics (contd)

▪This dwarf trait which re-appear in the second

generation is said to segregate.
▪Therefore, Mendel’s first law of segregation states that
genes exist in pairs and during gamete formation they
separate or segregate from each other.
 Mendelian Genetics (contd)

▪From his monohybrid crosses, Mendel derived the following

three postulates;
▪Genetic characters are controlled by unit factors that exist in
pairs in individual organisms
▪ When two unlike unit factors responsible for a single
character are present in a single individual, one unit factor is
dominant to the other which is said to be recessive
▪ During the formation of gametes, the paired unit factors
separate or segregate randomly so that each gamete receives
the other with equal livelihood
 Mendelian Genetics (contd)

Dihybrid cross
▪ Mendel further considered two characters together;
Plant height and seed coat characters
▪ He crossed a tall, smooth seeded plant and a dwarf, wrinkled
seeded plant of the same species.
▪ TT represent tall plant
▪ tt represent dwarf plant
▪ SS represent smooth seed
▪ ss represent wrinkled seed
 Mendelian Genetics (contd)

Parents are;
▪ TTSS ; tall and smooth seeded plant
▪ ttss ; dwarf and wrinkled
▪ First filial generation progeny is; TtSs
▪ Gametes obtained are TS, Ts, tS and ts
▪ Second filial generation progenies gives a ratio of 9:3:3:1.
▪ The combination of characters in second filial generation of a
dihybrid cross resulted from random combination of gametes of
first filial generation plants.
▪ Hence, when two genes are seggregating together, each does so
independent of the other.
▪ This is known as Law of independent Assortment
 Cytology
Concepts of cytology
 Concepts of cytology
• Cytology was derived from two Greek words ‘kytos’ (cyto) meaning
hollow vessel or cell
• ‘logos’ means study
• Therefore cytology is the study of cells
• Cytogenetics is the branch of genetics that correlates the structure,
number and behavior of chromosomes with heredity and variation
• Cell biology is the biological science which deals with the study of
structure, function, molecular organization, growth reproduction and
genetics
• A cell is a basic unit of structure, function cell and heredity in all living
things.
 Concepts of cytology (contd)
• Robert Hooke discovered cell in 1665. he observed and
described some cork pieces having some compartments
in them.
• These compartments are known as cells.
• The discovery of cells which was further validated by M.J
Schleiden and Theodore Schwann (1839) led to the
formulation of ‘cell theory’ in plants and animals.
• From cell theory, cells occurred universally
• Cells are the basic unit of life in any organism
 Cell Reproduction and Multiplication
• All the cells are produced by division of pre-existing cells
• Continuity of life depends on cell division
• the idea of cell reproduction and multiplication leads to the concepts of mitosis
and meiosis as naturally occurring events.
• Both events represent cell division process
• In the cell division, the division of nucleus is called karyokinesis and division of
cytoplasm is called cytokinesis.
• Therefore the cell division is of two types:
1. Mitosis ; 2. Meiosis
• Before any cell undergoes a division process, it is conditioned to a stage called
INTERPHASE
• Interphase stage is the resting stage when the cell gets itself ready for the work
to be carried out .
 Cell Reproduction and Multiplication (contd)
• Two major activities that take place at the interphase stage are;
duplication of genetic materials and accumulation of energy
required for the entire process.
• Cells in interphase are characterized by deeply stained nucleus
that shows a higher definite number of nucleoli
• The chromosomes in interphase are not individually
distinguishable but appear as extremely thin coiled threads
forming a faintly staining network
• The cell is quite active metabolically during interphase
 ❖ MITOSIS
• The term ‘mitosis’ was coined by Flemming in 1882. it is also known
as somatic cell division because it is the basis for asexual
reproduction
• Mitosis refers to the equational or homotypic division of a matured
cell into two daughter cells.
• The daughter cells are similar to the mother or parent cell in shape,
size and chromosome number.
• Mitosis occurs in somatic organs like root tips, stem tips, leaf base
etc
• The process of mitosis consists of four stages;
1. Prophase 2. metaphase 3. anaphase 4. telophase
 ❑ MITOSIS (contd)
Prophase
• Chromosomes appear as thin threads, single stranded and not easily
distinguishable
• The nucleolus, nucleus and nuclear membrane diasppear
• The nucleus takes a dark colour with nuclear specific stains such as
acetocarmine, or orcein
• At the initial stages, the size of the nucleus is comparatively big and the
chromosomes are thin but slowly thicken and shorten by a specific
process of coiling
• The two chromatids of a chromosome are distinct with matrix coating
and relational coiling
• The disintegration of nuclear membrane denotes the end of prophase
 ❑ MITOSIS (contd)
Metaphase
• After the disintegration nuclear membrane, the chromosome
become reduced, condensed, thickened and distinguishable
• The distinct centromere of each chromosome is connected to
the pole through spindle fibers.
• The chromosomes move towards equator and centromere of
each chromosome is arranged on the equator.
• The type of orientation of centromeres on the equation is
known as auto orientation.
• The chromatids of a chromosome are held together at the
point of centromeres and the relational coils are at its
minimum.
 ❑ MITOSIS (contd)
Anaphase
• Characterized by vertical chromosomal division along the
centromere
• This leads to the formation of two sister chromatids
• This chromatids formed starts moving towards the opposite
poles
❑ Telophase
• Chromatids have reached the opposite poles.
• Becomes full chromosomes of their own
• Nucleolus, nucleus and nuclear membrane reappears
• Two independent daughter cells are formed known as
cytokinesis
 ❑ Significance of mitosis
• Production of protoplasm
• Asexual reproduction of new cells.
• Production of new tissues
• Growth and development
• Replacement of worn out tissues
• Healing of wounded parts
• Vegetative propagation e.g cassava, cocoyam etc.
Diagram of Mitotic stages
Meiosis
Meiosis
❑The life cycle of higher plants and animals is characterized by sexual
reproduction.
❑It involves the production of new individuals
❑Each gamete with (n) number of chromosome(haploid) is doubled
(diploid-2n) as a result of sexual reproduction.
❑Halving of this diploid chromosomes must be maintained for
transmission of traits from one generation to another.
❑This stage or phase is known as meiosis whereby there is reduction
division of sex cell (in a matured cell).
Meiosis (contd)
❑It results to gametogenesis, whereby there is formation of
gametes. (2n-diploid in nature. Somatic chromosomes
complement are reduced to half).
❑Two different divisions takes place in meiosis
A. Meiosis I- reduction of chromosome
B. Meiosis II- Equational division of chromosome into
daughter cells.
❑Meiosis I- is divided into four stages; prophase I, metaphase
I, anaphase I and telophase I.
Prophase I
❖Is further sub-divided into 5 sub-stages:

➢Leptotene or leptonema
➢Zygotene or zygonema
➢Pachytene or pachynema
➢Diplotene or diplonema
➢Diakinesis
 Prophase I (contd)
➢Leptotene
✓Chromosomes appear as long thin threads
✓Chromosomes are not easily distinguished as separate entities.
➢Zygotene
✓attraction of chromosomes to one another as homologous partner.
✓This result into pairing of homologous chromosomes along their
longitudinal lengths known as synapsis occurs.
➢Pachytene
✓Thickening and contraction of the chromosomes becomes more
obvious.
 Prophase I (contd)
✓Completion of synapsis as homologous are united along their length.
✓Each synapsed chromosome pair as bivalent of a tetrad
➢Diplotene
✓Bivalents held together at the point of exchange appears as crosses or
chiasmata occurs.
✓Each bivalent consists of four strands due to duplication of chromosomes
into two chromatids.
✓Exchange of genetic material as source of variation in sexual reproductive
organisms
✓This can lead to evolution
Prophase I (contd)
➢Diakinesis
✓Intense internal coiling of the sister chromatids results in
greater shortening and thickening of chromosomes.
✓Chromatids pair on either sides of the chiasma.
✓Position of chiasmata move from one place to the other
known as terminalisation.
✓Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear
Diagram of prophase I stages of meiosis I
❑ Metaphase I
• Bivalents become attached to the spindle fibres through their
centromere.
• And move towards the metaphase plate with two centromeres of
each pair of homologous on opposite sides of the plate.
• Pairing of homologous chromosomes differentiate metaphase I of
meiosis from mitotic metaphase which does not has pairing of
homologous chromosome.
❑Anaphase I
• Centromeres of each pair of homologous chromosome move towards
opposite poles.
• Homologous chromosome are pulled further apart
 ❑ Anaphase I (contd)
• Division of centromeres which does not take place in meiotic
anaphase I differentiate it from mitotic anaphase.
❑Telophase
• Completion of anaphase migration of the chromosome towards the
spindle poles.
• Nuclear membrane forms around each set of homologous
chromosomes
• Cell divides into two daughter cells.
• It is an equational division similar to mitosis
• Duplication of chromosome
• Each cell contains only one set of chromosome (n) haploid unlike (2n)
diploid in mitosis or meiosis I.
❑ Meiosis II
• It is an equational division similar to mitosis
• Duplication of chromosomes
• Each cell contains only one set of chromosomes
(n) haploid unlike (2n) diploid in mitosis or
meiosis I
Prophase II
• Very short stage
• Characteristics is similar to other prophase stages
• Disappearance of nucleolus and nuclear membrane
❑Metaphase II
• Chromosomes are attached to the spindle fibers by their centromeres
• Align on a metaphase plate.
❑Anaphase II
• Each centromere divides at the beginning
• This takes place for the first and only time during meiosis
• Sister chromatids move to the opposite poles.
❑ Telophase II
• Completed when sister chromatids reached their respective
poles
• Nuclear membrane and nucleolus appear around each of the
haploid nucleus.