A BRIEF INTRODUCTION OF THE SUBJECT (5:00 PM)

Discussion of PYQs
Sources
NCERT science book: Class 6 - 8 (must), Class 9-10 (Selective), and Class 11-12
(biology book as reference)
Current affairs: Newspaper and magazines
FOOD AND NUTRITION (5:32 PM)

Nutrients are present in our food and are essential to the life and health of a person,
providing us with energy and acting as building blocks for repair and growth
Macronutrients
They are needed by the body in a larger quantity and form the major part of our diet
For example, protein, carbohydrates, and fats
Micronutrients
They are needed in a lesser quantity and form a minor part of our diet
For example, vitamins and minerals
Carbohydrates
They are the main macronutrient by which the body gets its energy
They are found in food and are containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates which contain one single
unit, e.g. glucose, galactose, fructose
Glucose is the main energy source for the body
Galactose is a component of milk sugar
Fructose is the fruit sugar
Oligosaccharides are formed when 2-10 monosaccharide units are joined together by
glycosidic bonds, e.g. common table sugar, lactose, maltose, etc.
Sucrose is made up of glucose and fructose
Lactose is the milk sugar and is made up of glucose and galactose
Maltose is present in malt-based syrup, e.g. maple syrup, corn, and barley syrup
It is made up of two units of glucose
Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates that are made up of more than ten units of
monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds, e.g. glycogen, starch, cellulose, etc.
Cellulose makes the cell walls of plants
Starch and cellulose are found only in plants
Starch is the storage product of glucose in plants and glycogens are storage products
of glucose in animals
Glycogens are found only in animals
Proteins
 (6:00 PM)
They are nitrogenous organic compounds, made up of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen,
oxygen, and sometimes sulfur
They contain amino acids which are joined by peptide bonds
Fibrous protein
The amino acid chains are arranged in a linear pattern and they act as structural
proteins of the body e.g. myosin in muscles, collagen in the skin, keratin in the hair and
nails, etc.
Globular protein
The amino acids chain are arranged in a spherical manner and they act as functional
proteins of the body
For example, hormones like insulin, blood plasma proteins like albumin, enzymes or
biocatalysts, etc.
Enzymes or biocatalysts which help in different reactions taking place in the body
For example, lactose in the presence of lactase enzyme gets converted into glucose
and galactose
Fats
(6:29 PM)
Fats are naturally occurring organic compounds that are insoluble in water
Triglycerides are a major form in which fats are stored in the body
They are made up of three units of fatty acids and one unit of glycerol joined by an
ester bond
Function of fats
They are building material for cell membranes, act as vitamins like A and D, some
hormones like sex hormones (estrogen and testosterone), and signal molecules for the
brain
Type of fats
They are based on types of fatty acid
Saturated fat
They do not have double bonds between carbon atoms
They mostly have animal sources and are generally solid at room temperature
A few examples include ghees, cheese, cream, butter, coconut oil
Unsaturated fats
They have at least one double bond between carbon atoms
They mostly have plant-based sources and are generally liquid at room temperature
Unsaturated fats can further be classified into monounsaturated or MUFA (Mono
Unsaturated Fatty Acid) (only one double bond) and polyunsaturated or PUFA (Poly
Unsaturated Fatty Acid) (more than one double bond)
A few examples of MUFA are olive oil, sesame oil, avocado oil, etc.
A few examples of PUFA are fish oils, walnuts, almonds, etc.
Transfats
They are a type of unsaturated fatty acid that is industrially hydrogenated to change to
a solid form
For example, vanaspati ghee, fried and processed foods, and certain bakery products
Bad fats are those fats that get deposited in the blood vessels,e.g. transfats, saturated
fats, etc.
Vitamins
(7:16 PM)
Vitamins are micronutrients needed in small quantities for the proper functioning of an
organism
Most of these cannot be synthesized in our bodies and have to be made available as a
part of our diet
Water-soluble vitamins i.e. Vitamin B and C dissolve in water and have to be regularly
replenished
Fat-soluble vitamins i.e. Vitamin A, D, E, and K dissolve in fat and do not need to be
regularly restored

Vitamins Sources Disease

Vitamin B1 or Milk, sweet potatoes, Beri-Beri, retarded

Thymines and peanuts growth

Cheilosis
Vitamin B2 or development or
Banana, yeast, dates
Riboflavin cracks at the corner of
the mouth

Pellagra or 4D i.e.
Mushrooms, eggs, diarrhea, dermatitis
Vitamin B3 or Niacin
yeast (skin), dementia (,
and death

Vitamin B5 of
Eggs, soybeans Fatigue
Pantothenic acid

Vitamin B6 or
Milk, eggs, grains Nerve damage
Pyridoxine

Hair loss or hair

Vitamin B7 or Biotin Oranges, strawberries
thinning

Vitamin B9 or Follic Impaired nervous

Dates, beetroot system of developing
 acid baby

Meats, eggs, and also Pernicious anemia

Vitamin B12 or made by the bacteria (B12 helps in
Cyanocobalamin present in the hemoglobin
intestine formation)

Scurvy, bleeding
Vitamin C or Ascorbic Citrus fruits like
gums, weak immune
acid lemon, orange
system

Milk, carrots,
Vitamin A or Retinol Night blindness
watermelons

Exposure of the skin Rickets (mostly in

Vitamin D or Calciferol
to sunlight children)

Vitamin E or Reduced fertility in

Pumpkins, mango
Tocopherol males

Vitamin K or Green leafy Increased clotting

Phylloquinone vegetables, tomatoes time

Readings:
NCERT (2022 edition) Class 6, Chapter 1 on food

QUESTION-BASED ON THE PREVIOUS CLASS (05:07 PM):

Which of the following elements are present in all the proteins?

1. Carbon
2. Hydrogen
3. Oxygen
4. Nitrogen
Select the code:
a) 2 and 3
b) 1, 2, and 4
c) 1, 3, and 4
d) 1, 2, 3, and 4
Answer is d.
MINERALS (05:08 PM):

Minerals are inorganic micronutrients needed in small quantities which play a key role
in ensuring the health and well-being of an individual.
Macro Minerals:

Macro Minerals Micro Minerals

Calcium Iron

Sodium Fluorine

Potassium Copper

Magnesium Iodine

Chlorine Zinc

Sulfur

a) Calcium:
Sources - milk and milk products.
Its deficiency leads to brittle bones and bad muscle movement.
Example - Rickets.
b) Sodium and Chlorine:
Source - Table salt
Sodium is needed for the functioning of nerves and muscles.
Its deficiency will lead to fluid imbalance and dehydration.
c) Potassium:
Sources - most fruits and vegetables.
Its deficiency leads to muscle weakness.
d) Phosphorous:
Sources - pulses and milk.
Its deficiency leads to weaker teeth and bones.
e) Magnesium:
Source - nuts, seeds, green leafy vegetables.
Its deficiency leads to poor muscle coordination.
f) Sulfur:
Source - onion, garlic, meat.
Deficiency of sulfur leads to protein deficiency.
Micro Minerals:
a) Iron:
Sources - meat, fish, spinach, pumpkin.
Deficiency disease - iron deficiency anemia.
b) Fluorine:
Source - drinking water.
Its deficiency can cause increased tooth decay.
c) Copper:
Sources - pulses, nuts, and seeds.
Its deficiency causes a low White Blood Cell count.
d) Iodine:
Sources - salt.
Thyroid hormone goiter contains iron.
e) Zinc:
Sources - beans, eggs.
Its deficiency can lead to Diarrhea.
CELLS BIOLOGY (05:39 PM):

The smallest unit of life is the cell.

The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known forms of life.
Types of Organisms:
Based on the number of cells:
a) Unicellular.
b) Multicellular.
Unicellular Organisms:
They contain only a single cell that performs all the functions of life.
Examples - Amoeba, Euglena, Paramecium, and Bacteria.
Multicellular Organisms:
They consist of more than one cell.
The different cells can become specialized for different functions all of which
coordinate to make life possible.
Examples - Insects, Human Body, and Plant Body.

Eukaryote Prokaryote
 Linear DNA in the form of
chromosomes (rod-like Circular DNA
structure).

The chromosomes are present in Circular DNA present in nucleoid

the nucleus. region.

Membrane-bound cell organelle. No cell Organelle

Examples - Plants, animals, Examples - Bacteria and

amoeba, and fungi Cyanobacteria.

Types of organisms based on organization within the cell:

Prokaryotes:
They are unicellular organisms that lack a membrane-bound nucleus and cell organelle.
The genetic material DNA is circular and is present in the nucleoid region.
Examples - Bacteria and Cyanobacteria.
Eukaryotes:
They can be unicellular or multicellular organisms that have a membrane-bound
nucleus and cell organelle.
The genetic material DNA is linear and is organized in the form of rod-like structures
called chromosomes.
Examples - Amoeba, Fungi, Plants, and Animals.
STRUCTURE OF THE CELL (06:10 PM):

Cell Membrane/Plasma Membrane:

It is the biological membrane that separates the interior of all the cells from the outside
environment.
It is made up of Phospholipids.
Cell Wall:
It is the structural layer surrounding the cell membrane in certain types of cells.
It provides additional support and protection.
Which all organisms contain Cell walls - Plants, fungi, and bacteria.
The cell wall of plants is made up of Cellulose.
The cell wall of fungi is made up of Chitin.
The cell wall of bacteria is made up of Peptidoglycans.
Cell Nucleus:
It is the controlling center of all the activities of the cell as it contains the genetic
material of the cell.
Cytoplasm:
It consists of all the components of the cell enclosed within the cell membrane other
than the nucleus.
Protoplasm:
It is the living part of the cell which includes the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

Protoplasm = Cytoplasm + Nucleus.

Lysosomes:
It contains powerful digestive enzymes to break down any foreign material or damage
cell organelle.
It can digest the whole damaged cell by releasing its enzymes into the cytoplasm.
It is thus called the suicide bag of the cell.
Mitochondrion:
It contains its DNA and is the site for energy production within the cell.
It is thus called the powerhouse of the cell.
Ribosomes:
They are the site for protein synthesis in the cell.
They can be present freely in the cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.
Endoplasmic Reticulum:
It is a large network of tubes that act as channels of transport within the cell.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum contains attached ribosomes and is associated with
protein synthesis.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum does not contain ribosomes and is associated with the
manufacture of fats.
Golgi Body:
It packages and dispatches material to various targets inside and outside the cell.
Vacuole:
They are the storage structures of the cell.
They can be present in the form of single, large structures in plant cells and multiple
small structures in animal cells.
Plastids:
Plastids are containing pigments of different colors and are found only in plant cells.
They contain their DNA.
There are three types:
a) Chloroplast - green color (present in green leaves).
b) Chromoplast - different colors.
c) Leucoplast - white to colorless.
PLANT CELLS AND ANIMAL CELLS (06:57 PM):

Animal Cell Plant Cell

Only cell membrane. Cell wall.

Multiple small vacuoles Vacuole

No plastids Plastid present

Central position of nucleus Peripheral nucleus

Glycogen Starch

Fig: Animal Cell and Plant Cell

Question:
Which of the following statements are correct regarding the general difference
between plant and animal cells?
1. Plant cells have cellulose cell walls whilst animal cells do not.
2. Plant cells do not have plasm membranes, unlike animal cells which do.
3. Mature plant cells have one large vacuole whilst animal cell has, many small
vacuoles.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
a) 1 and 2 only.
b) 2 and 3 only.
c) 1 and 3 only.
d) 1, 2, and 3.
Answer is c.
CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS (07:03 PM):

Five Kingdoms:
a) Monera - Prokaryotes which are unicellular.
Examples - Bacteria and Cyanobacteria.
b) Protista - Eukaryotes which are unicellular.
Examples - Amoeba, Euglena, Protozoa.
c) Fungi - Eukaryotes which are unicellular as well as multicellular.
Examples - Yeast, Mushroom.
d) Plants - Eukaryotes which are multicellular.
Examples - ferns, sunflowers.
e) Animals - Eukaryotes which are multicellular.
Examples - Hydra, ants, dolphins.
VIRUS (07:11 PM):

Viruses have their genetic material which can be DNA and RNA and their own set of
proteins.
They lack the enzymes needed for energy production.
They can grow and replicate only inside the living cells of another organism.
They can infect plants, animals, and microorganisms like bacteria.
HEALTH (07:20 PM):

Health is the complete physical, mental, and social well-being of an organism and not
merely the absence of disease.
DISEASES (07:35 PM):

a) Congenital disease.
b) Acquired diseases.
Congenital diseases:
Any abnormality in the structure or function of a person that is present right from the
time of the birth.
Examples - Down syndrome, congenital heart disease.
Acquired Diseases:
Any disease that is not present at the time of birth but develops at a later stage of the
life of an organism.
Types:
a) Communicable/Infectious Diseases.
b) Non-communicable/Non-infectious Diseases.
Communicable/Infectious Diseases:
They occur because of disease-causing organisms called pathogens.
Examples - Covid-19, Tuberculosis.
Non-communicable/Non-infectious Diseases:
They are not caused by pathogens but by lifestyle and environmental factors.
Examples:
Cardiovascular Disease - Disease of the heart - high blood pressure/Hypertension.
Respiratory Diseases - Asthma.
Deficiency Diseases - Anaemia.
Mental Diseases - Depression.
Environmental Diseases - Mina Mata disease.
Occupational Diseases - Silicosis (Silica).
Cancer.
NCERT Class 9th - Chapter 5 (Cell).

QUESTION-BASED
ON THE PREVIOUS CLASS (05:00 PM):

Consider the following:

1) Bacteria
2) Fungi
3) Virus
Which of the above can be cultured in an artificial/synthetic medium?
a) 1 and 2 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2, and 3
Answer is a.
COMMUNICABLE DISEASES (05:05 PM):

Modes of Transmission:
Air - Tuberculosis.
Water - Cholera.
Food - Amoebiasis and Typhoid.
Soil - Hookworm infection.
Blood and Body fluids - AIDS
Direct Contact - Chicken Pox, Covid-19 infection.
Fomite - When the transmission is through non-living things - Chicken Pox, Common
Cold.
Zoonotic - When you get a disease from a bird or animal - Nippah Virus, Rabies, Swine
Flu, Bird Flu.
Vector - When we get a disease from mosquito - Malaria, Dengue.
Vector:
Vector is a carrier.
Types:
Mechanical Vector.
Biological Vector.
Vectors are organisms that do not cause the disease but spread infection by taking
pathogens from one organism to another.
Mechanical vectors carry pathogens on the surface of their bodies and biological
vectors carry pathogens within their bodies.
Disease - Things that you should know about any disease from exam point of
view:
a) Causes.
b) Modes of transmission.
c) National Programmes.
Other points you can look at - Symptoms, Diagnosis/Management.
Sources to Follow:
India Year Book:
Chapter on Health (all relevant data, National Programmes, etc.).
Question:
Which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. Viruses lack enzymes necessary for the generation of energy.
2. Viruses can be cultured in any synthetic medium.
3. Viruses are transmitted from one organism to another by biological vectors only.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2, and 3
Answer is a.
BACTERIAL DISEASES (05:34 PM):

Tuberculosis.
Leprosy.
Typhoid.
Tetanus.
Cholera.
Anthrax.
Tuberculosis:
The pathogen involved that causes this disease is Mycobacterium Tuberculosis.
Modes of transmission - Air - coughing, sneezing, and droplet infection.
The main organ of the body that is affected is the Lungs - Pulmonary Tuberculosis.
Symptoms of Pulmonary Tuberculosis:
Persistent cough for more than 15 days, afternoon fever, weight loss, blood-stained
sputum, and night sweats.
Sometimes it can affect other organs as well - Intestine, Brain, bones - in this case, we
call it Extra-Pulmonary Tuberculosis.
Management of Bacterial Diseases:
Antibiotics - medicine for bacterial diseases.
Detailed drug therapy is supposed to be followed in this case prescribed by the doctor.
Discussion on the frequency and duration for which you have to take the medicine.
If this is not followed completely, then a problem of Antibiotic Resistance (AR) can
develop.
Sources through which Antibiotic Resistance can develop:
a) It can happen naturally if bacteria changes.
b) It can happen through misuse of drug therapy.
c) Water pollution.
d) Food - animal sources.
Rifampicin - First line medicine for TB.
DOTS - Directly observed therapy for the treatment of TB.
Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) (06:05 PM):

Bacteria - Antibiotic.
Virus - Anti-viral.
Fungi - Anti-fungal.
Malaria - Anti-malarial
WHO - AMR is top ten global deaths.
AMR is the ability of a microorganism like bacteria, viruses, fungus, etc. to stop an
antimicrobial agent like an antibiotic, antiviral, or antifungal from working against it.
It can occur naturally or through misuse of drug therapies.
Standard treatments become ineffective, infection persists, and may spread to others.
Kindly refer to May Current Affairs Magazine for more details regarding the AMR
topic to write your assignment question.
Question (06:14 pm):
Which of the following are the reasons for the occurrence of multi-drug resistance in
microbial pathogens in India?
1. Genetic predisposition of some people.
2. Taking incorrect doses of antibiotics to cure diseases.
3. Using antibiotics in livestock farming.
4. Multiple chronic diseases in some people.
Select the correct answer using the code given:
a) 1 and 2
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1, 3, and 4
d) 2, 3, and 4
The answer is b.
HELMINTHIC DISEASES (06:43 PM):

The different worms which cause diseases:

Ascariasis.
Taeniasis.
Lymphatic filariasis.
Hookworm infection.
National Program - National Helminthic Disease Control Program.
PROTOZOAN DISEASES (06:51 PM:

Amoebiasis.
Giardiasis.
Malaria.
kalazar.
Malaria:
The pathogen causing malaria is Plasmodium (i.e. Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium
falciparum).
Vector - The plasmodium can be transferred only through the female Anopheles
mosquito.
Reproduction:
Asexual reproduction is happening within a single parent.
Sexual reproduction is one where two parents are involved that are male and female.
Reproduction of Plasmodium - It can be Asexual (man is host for asexual
reproduction) as well as Sexual (mosquito is host).
Place where asexual reproduction takes place - Intermediate Host
Place where sexual reproduction takes place - Definitive Host.

Fig: Malaria Transmission Cycle.

Description of the Diagram:

Female anopheles mosquito carrying plasmodium - this is a biological
vector.
This mosquito will bite the person, during this bite, the mosquito deposits
plasmodium in the blood of the person.
The first place where your blood will take this plasmodium is the liver
where it will become active.
Plasmodium will enter Red Blood cells where plasmodium reproduces
asexually in the RBCs.
Plasmodium number increases and this increase is so large that RBC
cannot accommodate these large numbers and they start
bursting/breaking down.
Now plasmodium enters the RBCs.
Now the second female anopheles mosquito will pick up plasmodium
while biting and if this mosquito bites any other person, then that person
will be affected.
 Thus, this cycle goes on.

FUNGAL DISEASES (07:08 PM):

Candidiasis.
Ringworm.
Athlete's foot.
VIRAL DISEASES (07:15 PM):

Hepatitis.
Chicken pox.
Polio.
Dengue.
Zika.
Chikungunya.
AIDS.
In the case of viral diseases, we try to manage symptoms and wait for the body to fight
with its capacity.
HEALTHCARE:
Preventive - Before diseases.
Examples - Vaccines, cleanliness, balanced diet, awareness and education programs,
better lifestyle, yoga, etc.
Curative - After diseases.
Examples - Medicines, surgical treatments, therapy.
HEPATITIS:
Causes inflammation of the liver.
Inflammation:
Redness, swelling, pain, loss of function, increased temperature.
Pathogen - Hepatitis Virus.
Types:
Hepatitis A - Most common type of Hepatitis infection - Because of Food and water
contamination.
Hepatitis B - Body fluid and blood.
Hepatitis C - Blood and body fluid.
Hepatitis D - Only with Hep B.
Hepatitis D - Food and water.
No vaccine for Hepatitis C till now.
Question:
Match the list- 1 (diseases) with List- 2 (type of diseases) and select the code:
List 1 List 2
A. Haemophilia 1. Deficiency disease
B. Diabetes 2. Genetic disease
C. Rickets 3. Hormonal disease
D. Ringworm 4. Fungal disease
a) A-2, B-3, C-4, D-1
b) A-2, B-3, C-1, D-4
c) A-3, B-2, C-1, D-4
d) A-3, B-2, C-4, D-1
Answer is b.
IMMUNITY (07:38 PM):

This is the inherent ability of the body to provide defense.

Immunity is the balanced state of an organism having adequate biological defenses to
fight any unwanted agents.
Types:
a) Innate Immunity.
b) Acquired/Adaptive Immunity.
Innate Immunity:
It is the non-specific response of the body which is activated immediately on exposure
to an unwanted agent.
It forms the first line of defense of the body.
Examples:
Physical barriers like skin, and mucous membranes (present in organs).
Chemical barriers - Tears, saliva, HCL (stomach).
Cellular defense - Neutrophils and Monocytes (both are types of White Blood Cells).
Acquired/Adaptive Immunity:
It is the specific immune response that is developed against unwanted agents when the
immune system is exposed to it.
It is slower than innate immunity.
Autoimmunity:
Autoimmune diseases are the ones in which the immune system loses its capacity to
distinguish between self and non-self.
Example - Rheumatoid Arthritis.
kindly refer to NCERT OF Class 8 - Chapter 2.

BRIEF OVERVIEW OF PREVIOUS CLASS (5:02 PM)

Revision of Previous class topics with the help of PYQ.

Discussion of Immunity and its Type.
IMMUNITY (5:07 PM)

Antigen: It is an agent which stimulates the immune system.

Antibody: It is the protein produced in response to the antigen.
B lymphocytes are the immune cells which produce antibodies and their action is
called antibody-mediated immune response.
Phagocytosis:
It is a process by which a cell uses its plasma membrane to engulf a large particle and
then break it down.
T lymphocytes use this method to provide cell-mediated immune response.
B cells:
After the first exposure of the antigen, B cells will be activated and upon analyzing the
antigens they will produce the antibodies. However, this is a slow and low-intensive
process.
Immunological memory:
B-cells will remember the antigen and also the response produced.
When the same antigens come in, (second exposure of the same antigen)the B-cells
will produce the antibodies-based on memory, this will be a highly intense and fast
immune response in a way that so many antibodies will be produced so that antigen will
be killed right away
For example- Chickenpox (viral disease), the immunological memory is lifelong.
Immunological memory varies in different cases.
VACCINATION (5:30 PM)

It is a process by which a
person is made immune or resistant to a particular disease
typically by stimulating the body's own immune systems.
When the body encounters an antigen for the first time, a slow and low-intensity
production of antibodies is there.
The B lymphocytes, however, remain sensitized immunological memory is created and
on the subsequent attack by the same antigen a fast and high-intensity response is
created.
Types of vaccines:
1. Live attenuated vaccine: The pathogen is alive but is weakened so that it does not
cause the disease but retains its capacity to grow. For example - oral polio, and the
BCG vaccine for TB.
2. Inactivated Killed Vaccine: The pathogen is killed but certain parts of its structure
can still be recognised by the B cells and an immune response is generated. For
example - the injectible polio vaccine, COVAXIN.
3. Subunit Vaccine: Specific parts from the structure of the pathogen which act as an
antigen can be used to create an immune response. For example- Whopping cough
vaccine.
4. Conjugate Vaccine: Two specific parts from the pathogens are given together as a
vaccine like a polysaccharide and a protein together. For example- Pneumococcal
conjugate vaccine
5. Nucleic acid Vaccine: DNA vaccine and RNA vaccine.
Faculty discuss the PYQs related to the above topics.
ACQUIRED/ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY (6:32 PM)

Active Immunity:
It is the immune response in which the body produces antibodies against a specific
antigen.
There are two types i.e. natural active immunity (for e.g. - infections) and artificial
active immunity (for e.g. - vaccination)
Passive Immunity:
It is an immune response in which antibodies against a particular antigen are
administered from outside.
There are two types i.e. natural passive immunity (for example - mother milk) and
artificial passive immunity (for example- anti-snake venom and Plasma therapy).
Herd Immunity:
When the majority of the population has developed immunity against the disease so
that it cannot spread further.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM (6:50 PM)

Digestion means the breakdown of foods into smaller and simpler parts/forms.
Mouth:
The first contact with food, salivary glands produce saliva and this saliva has an
enzyme called Amylase.
Amylase breaks down carbohydrates and carbohydrate is the first compound that goes
into breakdown.
Oesophagus or the Food pipe:
It is a connecting link between the mouth and stomach, food moves from mouth to
stomach.
There is no breakdown taking place here.
Stomach:
It produces a liquid known as 'gastric juice, which has HCL (hydrochloric acid), the
enzyme present here is Protease, which digests the protein.
Sphincters:
The sphincter muscle acts as an opening that prevents the backflow of gastric juice
(acidity-backflow of HCL to the Oesophagus)
Small Intestine:
The food then will go into the small intestine.
It has intestinal juice. This intestinal juice has a couple of enzymes such as
Peptidase for proteins and Sucrase, maltase, and lactase for carbohydrates.
The two glands:
1. Liver:
It produces a liquid known as 'bile'.
Bile helps in the digestion of fats
but it does not have fat-digesting enzymes
.
The only role of Bile is to separate the food so that other enzymes can act on it.
Bile after production gets stored in the Gall bladder.
The small intestine has two liquids i.e. intestinal juice and Bile.
2. Pancreas:
It creates Pancreatic juice. This pancreatic juice has
Proteases for protein, Lipase for fats, and Amylase for carbohydrates
.
The digestion is completed in the small intestine.
The Blood will absorb these nutrients from the small intestine.
After the absorption of nutrients, the undigested material (like dietary fibres etc.) and
excess water go into the Large intestine.
After this, the excess water is absorbed in the large intestine.
The remaining undigested waste will come out of the body through an external opening
called Anus.
Query handling wrt above topic.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM (7:05 PM)
The process which helps in energy production is called Respiration
There are two processes i.e. gaseous exchange and cellular respiration.
Gaseous exchange: It takes place in the Lungs.
Cellular respiration: It takes place at the level of Cells.
A. Cellular Respiration:
1. Aerobic Respiration:
Glucose (is used for energy production) + oxygen ==> Carbon dioxide (Co2) +
water(H2O) + Energy.
It is called aerobic respiration because energy is produced in the presence of oxygen.
2. AnaerobicRespiration:
Glucose ==> Ethanol + Carbon Dioxide (Co2) + Energy.
Anaerobic respiration takes place in bacteria and yeast, and it is called Fermentation.
Note: Fermentation is seen in baking and brewing.
In the human body, in certain cases, if the oxygen supply is insufficient, then the
muscle cells will be able to produce energy.
Glucose + Inefficient oxygen ==> Lactic acid+ Energy. (energy produced here will be
lesser in amount)
Muscle cramps will be observed because of the
deposition of lactic acid
in such kinds of respirations.
B. Gaseous Exchange:
Air comes through the nasal cavity and then goes to the pharynx. After that it goes to
the larynx (Voice Box - vocal cords are present here) and then to the trachea
(windpipe).
Sequence
: Nasal cavity --> Pharynx--> larynx-->trachea.
The trachea gets divided into two Bronchii. Bronchii are further divided into
Bronchioles and these Bronchioles end in the final passage i.e. Alveoli.
Note: Alveoli are air sacs-like structures, that contain a rich supply of blood
The alveoli is the place where the gaseous exchange will occur.
Haemoglobin has an affinity to Oxygen, hence it gets attached to oxygen. And thus
oxygen will be supplied to different parts of the body.
When haemoglobin is less, it is called anaemia.
The blood comes from different parts of the body and then gets exchanged at the
Alveoli. And the Co2 will again follow the same path to get out of the body.

Sequence: Alveoli===> Bronchioles==> Bronchii==> Trachea==>

Larynx==> Pharynx==> Nasal cavity
EXCRETORY SYSTEM (7:25 PM)

Excretion is the process of removal of waste from the body.

Excretion helps in the regulation of water.
Kidney: waste regulation and regulation of water.
The main process is the Filtration
The waste parts will be absorbed into the kidney, and the purified blood will be sent
back.
Urine: excess water in the body along with the remaining waste
Nitrogenous waste and the most important are
urea (2.5%), other waste (2.5%), and Water (95%
).
Note: Kidney stone is basically calcium oxalate.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS (7:34 PM)

The pumping organ i.e. the heart, for transportation- has Blood and blood vessels
Heart :
It is divided into four parts:
The upper chambers are called-Auricles or atriums (Right auricle, and left auricle)
Lower chambers- ventricles (right ventricles and left ventricles)
Note: Kindly refer to the diagram drawn by the faculty on the smartboard.
Blood vessels:
There are two main types of blood vessels i.e. Arteries and Veins.
Arteries are those blood vessels which carry blood away from the Heart while
Veins are blood vessels which carry blood toward the Heart.
Arteries are deep-seated and Reddish in colour while Veins are Superficial and
bluish-green in colour.
Arteries are thick-walled and Veins are thin-walled.

Double circulation:
From the lungs, oxygenated blood goes to the left auricle (through the pulmonary
artery), and then the blood will go to the Left ventricle.
From the left ventricle, the oxygenated blood will go to the main parts of the body
through the Aorta (Artery)
From the other parts of the body (except the lungs) the deoxygenated blood flows
through the Vena cava (vein) and comes to the right auricle.
From the right auricle, it goes to the right ventricle. And from the right ventricle
deoxygenated blood goes to the lungs.
The part of circulation which has the lung is called pulmonary circulation and the part
of circulation about the system of the body is known as systematic circulation.
Arteries and veins:
Arteries always carry the oxygenated blood except for the Pulmonary artery.
Veins will always carry the deoxygenated blood except for the Pulmonary vein.
Note:
Coronary arteries are the arteries which supply the blood to the heart.
PREVIOUS CLASS ASSIGNMENT QUESTION DISCUSSION (7:49 PM)

The faculty explained the approach in detail.

Homework:
Ncert: class 7th (Chapters 2, 6)
Ncert class 12 (chapter 8)

DISCUSSION ON PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (5:09 PM)

BLOOD (5:11 PM)

Blood has two parts, Plasma (yellowish liquid) and Cells.

Plasma
Plasma contains special proteins called plasma proteins.
Plasma proteins are globular proteins- Globulin, Albumin and Fibrinogen
Albumin is for maintaining the pressure of the blood
Globulin is to provide the defence mechanism of the body
Fibrinogen is for clotting of the blood.
Blood Cells
Platelets (Thrombocytes)
The main purpose of the blood platelets is that they initiate blood clotting.
The deficiency of platelets will lead to internal bleeding.
Red Blood Cell (Erythrocytes)
The main purpose is the transport of oxygen.
They contain haemoglobin.
White Blood Cells (Leucocytes)
They provide immunity.
Types of White Blood Cell
Agranulocytes
They do not contain granules in their cytoplasm.
They are of two types-
(i)
Monocytes-
They provide the innate immunity.
(ii)
Lymphocytes-
These are for the acquired immunity.
Lymphocytes are of two types: B-cells and T-cells.
B-cells, which give an antibody-mediated immune response, and T-cells which provide
a cell-mediated immune response.
Granulocytes
They contain granules in their cytoplasm.
They are of three types-
(i)
Basophils:
These are involved in inflammation reactions.
(ii)
Eosinophils:
These are involved in allergic reactions.
(iii)
Neutrophils:
These are for innate immunity.
Blood Groups
Blood groups are determined by the antigens.
Antigens- Biological marker on the surface of the cell.
ABO blood group - two types of antigen- antigen A and antigen B.
Whichever antigen is present on the surface of the RBC, then it will be the Blood group.
If antigen A => A blood group.
If antigen B => B blood group.
If antigen A and antigen B => AB blood group.
If no antigen => O blood group.
Rh Type Categorization
Positive- Rh antigen will be present.
Negative- which does not have the Rh antigen.
Antibodies
Antibodies- antibody-A will destroy the antigen A blood group.
Blood group A will not produce antibody A, but it can produce Antibody B.
Blood group B will not produce antibody B, but it can produce Antibody A.
Blood Group AB will not produce any antibodies.
Blood group O will produce antibody A and Antibody B.
Rh positive will not produce any antibody (antibody is absent).
Rh negative will produce Antibody Rh.
BLOOD TRANSFUSION (5:35 PM)

It refers to the transfer of blood from one person to another.

Antigens stimulate the immune response.
Donor blood will be coming and recipient blood will generate the response.
Recipients body will recognize the antigen, then it will produce the antibodies
The antibodies produced by the recipient, if they are corresponding [matching] then
the blood transfusion will be successful, otherwise, it will be destroyed
For example, If the recipient's blood group is B, and the donor's blood group is A
(which has antigen A), then the Recipient's body will produce antibody A and it will
destroy the blood => Blood transfusion will not be successful.
The person having the blood group O negative is the Universal donor.
The person having the blood group AB Positive is the Universal Recipient.
We look for antigens in the Donor and the antibody in the Recipient.
BOMBAY BLOOD

Antigen H is a precursor to the ABO-type blood group.

It is present in all blood groups, A, B, AB, and O.
Bombay blood group is the blood group in which this antigen H is absent.
This blood group has antibody H.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (5:47 PM]

It is meant for the internal communication and the regulation of the human body.
Hormones are secretions of the endocrine glands that do not have ducts and secrete
directly to the blood to be transported to distantly located target organs.
The sex organs are called gonads. They produce sex hormones like estrogen and
testosterone.
Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus has releasing and inhibiting hormones.
Releasing hormone stimulates the release of secretions from the pituitary gland.
Inhibiting hormone stops the release of secretions from the pituitary glands.
Pituitary Gland
It is also called the master endocrine gland.
It has two parts, anterior and posterior pituitary glands.
Anterior Pituitary gland
(a) Thyroid stimulating hormones (TSH)
It stimulates the thyroid gland to release its secretions.
(b) Prolactin
This is for the formation of milk (men and women of age will have the amount of
prolactin).
(c) Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
ACTH stimulates the release of hormones from the adrenal glands
(d) Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
It stimulates the growth of eggs and the formation of sperm.
(e) Growth hormone
It is for the growth and development of an individual.
If the amount of growth hormone is less then it may lead to
dwarfism
.
If the amount of growth hormone is high then it may lead to
gigantism
.
(f) Luteinizing hormone
This stimulates the gonads to release the sex hormones.
Posterior Pituitary
(a) Anti-diuretic hormone(ADH or Vasopressin)
This is for reabsorption of water from the kidneys.
The lower levels of ADH will create the condition of dehydration, frequent urination,
and thirst condition.
It is synonymous with the Diabetes insipidus.
Diabetes insipidus is the condition where the ADH is deficient.
(b) Oxytocin
It is released during childbirth (Oxytocin can be given to induce labour during child
birth).
Thyroid and Parathyroid gland (6:25 PM)
The thyroid is required for the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
The malfunctioning of the thyroid gland may lead to hyperthyroidism and
hypothyroidism.
The parathyroid gland releases the parathyroid hormone.
It is associated with the metabolism of calcium and phosphorous.
If parathyroid increases, then the level of calcium will increase and phosphate will
decrease. So parathyroid has a direct relation with calcium and an indirect relation with
phosphate.
Adrenal Gland
It has two parts- the Adrenal cortex and the Adrenal medulla.
Adrenal medulla
Adrenaline and Noradrenaline are the "Emergency hormones" of the body that are
released during the conditions of fear, being frightened and extreme excitement.
Adrenal Cortex
ACTH activates the adrenal cortex.
The adrenal cortex releases two hormones:
(a) Mineralocorticoids
It regulates the balance of water and minerals, thus maintaining blood pressure.
(b) Glucocorticoids
It is required for carbohydrate metabolism in the body.
Pancreas
It is a mixed gland because it has parts that are endocrine as well as exocrine.
Extra glucose is converted into Glycogen, and when there is a deficit glycogen is again
converted into glucose.
Glycogen is stored mostly in liver cells.
Insulin reduces blood glucose levels and the Glucagon increases blood glucose levels.
Diabetes Mellitus
It is caused by the reduced amount of insulin. As a result, the blood sugar amount will
increase (commonly referred to as diabetes).
DISCUSSION ON THE GENERAL STUDIES PAPER (7:05 PM)
GENETICS (7:12 PM)

The genetic material of living organisms is made up of nucleic acid.

Nucleic Acids
They form the genetic material of all life forms.
It is responsible for the transmission of characters from one generation to the next.
These have three components:
(a) Pentose Sugar: This can be deoxyribose or ribose.
(b) Phosphate group
(c) Nitrogenous base
The nitrogenous base can be of two types: Purines and Pyrimidines.
Purines can be of two types: Adenine (A) and Guanine (G).
Pyrimidine can be of three types: Cytosine (C), Thymine (T), and Uracil (U).

DNA RNA

It stands for Deoxyribose Nucleic

 Acid. It stands for Ribose Nucleic Acid.

It has Deoxyribose sugar. It has Ribose sugar.

It has A, G, C, and T. It has A, G, C, and U.

It has a double helix structure. It has a single-stranded structure.

DNA Structure
The structure of DNA is double-stranded with the strands having a sugar and
phosphate backbone.
The nitrogenous bases present on these stands are linked by
complementary base pairing.
Adenine joins to Thymine with a
Double bond,
and Guanine joins to Cytosine with a Triple bond.
These bonds keep the two strands together.
The whole structure twists together into a spiral form known as Double Helix DNA.
GENE EXPRESSION (7:32 PM)

The segments of DNA tell the individual cells how to produce specific proteins. These
segments are called Genes.
It is the presence or absence of specific proteins that give an organism its trait or
characteristic.
Transcription of the gene or DNA segment into messenger RNA takes place in the
nucleus of the cell.
Translation of messenger RNA into specific proteins takes place in the ribosomes
present in the cytoplasm.
VIRUS

The virus can be of DNA type or RNA type.

Examples of DNA viruses are Adenovirus and chickenpox virus.
The RNA virus can be of two types, Non-retro and Retro Virus.
Examples of Non-retro RNA viruses are Coronavirus, Rabies virus, and dengue virus.
An example of a Retro RNA virus is HIV.
In the retro RNA viruses
reverse transcription
takes place. It means RNA is converted to DNA.
READINGS FOR THE NEXT CLASS

Class 7- Chapter 7.
Class 8- Chapters 6 and 7.
Class 11- Chapter 19.

QUESTION-BASED ON THE PREVIOUS CLASS (05:05 PM):

Consider the following statements:

1) Adenoviruses have single-stranded DNA genomes whereas retroviruses have
double-stranded DNA genomes.
2) Common cold is sometimes caused by an adenovirus whereas AIDS is caused by a
retrovirus.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer is b.
DNA VACCINE (05:11 PM):
It is the introduction of the DNA sequence coding for the Antigen against which the
immune response is needed.
The production of target antigen takes place in the body of the person who is
vaccinated.
Example - ZyCov-D.
RNA Vaccine/mRNA Vaccine:
It works by introducing an mRNA sequence that holds the information for disease-
specific Antigens.
Example - GEMCOVAC-OM.
GENOME (05:15 PM):

It is the complete set of DNA of all the chromosomes and genes.

Genome Sequencing:
It is the exact order of nitrogenous base pairs that can be analyzed to understand the
functions of various genes and identify changes.
Haploid Cell:
Haploid cell contains a single set of unpaired Chromosomes represented as n.
Gametes like eggs and sperm are Haploid.
Diploid Cell:
It contains two sets of chromosomes one coming from each pair.
Somatic cells which are all the cells of the body other than the gametes are Diploid.
It is represented as 2n.
Homologous Chromosomes:
They are similar in length, size, shape, and gene position one coming from each pair.
INHERITANCE OF CHARACTERS (05:42 PM):

Gregor Mendel:
Garden Pea:

Height Tall Dwarf

Pod Green Yellow

Flower Violet White

Fig: Mendel's Experiment

All the characters in an organism are manifested in two factors.

These factors or genes are the units of inheritance.
The Dominant Trait is the one that overrides the impact of the other trait.
The Recessive Trait is the one that can't express itself in the presence of a dominant
trait.
For example, in garden peas, the green color of Pod is dominant over the recessive
yellow color.
Homozygous:
When both the genes are the same (i.e. green-green, yellow-yellow).
Heterozygous:
When both the genes are different like one green and one yellow.
Phenotype:
It is the observable characteristics like height, color, etc.
Genotype:
Genotype is the genetic composition.
BLOOD GROUP INHERITANCE (06:03 PM):

ABO Type:

Phenotype Genotype

A AA, AO

B BB, BO

O OO

AA: co-dominance (when both

AB
genes express themselves).

Question:
A married couple adopted a male child. A few years later, twin boys were born to them.
The blood group of the couple is AB positive and O negative. The blood group of the
three sons is A positive, B positive, and O positive. The blood group of the adopted son
is:
A) O positive
B) A positive
C) B positive
D) Can't be determined based on the given data
Answer: A
SEX DETERMINATION (06:16 PM):

23 Pairs of Chromosomes.
22 Pairs - Autosomes.
1 Pair - Sex Chromosome (XX - Female, YY - Male).
Genetic Abnormalities:
Number of Chromosomes:
Down Syndrome - Trisomy 21:
Presence of extra chromosome number 21.
The child is born with a small round head, partially open mouth, and mental retardation.
Number of chromosomes present = 46.
Klinefelter's Syndrome:
Extra X chromosomes (i.e. XXY).
This is a male with the development of feminine characteristics.
Number of chromosomes present = 46.
Turner's Syndrome:
This is a female who is supposed to have two X chromosomes, however, she has only
one X chromosome (i.e. XO).
Sterile female.
Number of chromosomes present = 45.
GENE DEFECTS (06:51 PM):

a) Autosomal - Recessive disease (This means the defective gene is recessive).

Example: Sickle Cell Anemia.
b) Sex-linked - Recessive disease.
The defect is on X chromosomes.
Examples: Haemophilia, colour blindness.
Normal: XX, XY.
Female Diseased: Xh Xh.
Normal/Carrier Woman: XXh.
Question:
In the context of genetic disorders, consider the following:
A woman suffers from colour blindness while her husband does not suffer from it. They
have a son and a daughter. In this context, which one of the following statements is
most probably correct?
A. Both children suffer from colour blindness.
B. Daughter suffers from colour blindness while son does not suffer from it.
C. Both children do not suffer from colour blindness.
D. Son suffers from colour blindness while daughter does not suffer from it.
Answer - D
BIOTECHNOLOGY (07:15 PM):

Applied biotechnology.
Genetic Engineering.
Biotechnology is the use of living organisms, and their processes to manufacture
products or technology intended to improve the quality of human life.
Applications of these technologies to everyday life is Applied Biotechnology.
These techniques use genetic engineering which is the process of altering the genetic
material of an organism.
RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY (07:22 PM):

Fig: Recombinant DNA Technology

Steps to be followed:
Isolation of desired gene.
DNA cutting Enzymes - Nuclease.
Vector - DNA that carries the desired gene (i.e. Plasmid - small, circular, independent
DNA present in bacteria and viruses).
The desired gene joins to Vector to form recombinant DNA.
DNA joining Enzymes - Ligase.
Recombinant DNA inserted back to get the needed result.
Viral Vector Vaccine:
Examples: SPUTNIK V, Covishield.
Live attenuated Vaccine:
Desired Gene (Covid-19 virus gene coding for antigen) + Vector (Adenovirus
chimpanzee) = Recombinant Adenovirus with gene coding for Covid-19 Virus.
In-vitro Fertilization:
Examples: IVF, Test Tube baby.
Twins:
Identical and non-identical.
Kindly refer:
NCERT of Class 10th - Chapter 7, 8 and NCERT of Class 10th - Chapter 7, 8

DISCUSSION OF PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTION- 5:00 PM

GENE EDITING- 5:06 PM

Gene editing is the process by which genes are added, deleted, or replaced by the use
of genetic engineering.
CRISPR- Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats.
It is also called a Gene Editing tool or "Molecular Scissors".
1. Guide molecule- Single-guided RNA or sgRNA.
2. DNA cutting enzymes- Nuclease Cas 9 protein.
For gene editing single guided RNA guides CRISPR to specific parts of the DNA where
the cas9 enzyme will cut the DNA to allow the editing.
Applications- Designer babies
ANIMAL CLONING- 5:30 PM

Somatic cell nuclear transfer-

The nucleus of a cell from the animal to be cloned is transferred into an egg cell that
has had its own nucleus removed.
The hybrid cell is then stimulated to divide and develop into an embryo.
The embryo is then implanted into a mother, who carries it to term and gives birth to
the cloned animal.
Dolly the sheep was the first mammal to be cloned from an adult somatic cell.
Application- Preserve endangered species and reintroduce extinct species to the
wild, desirable animal traits, etc.
Three parent baby-
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)-
Defective mtDNA- can cause diseases such as Leigh's disease. It is inherited only
from the Mother.
mtDNA can be replaced by Mitochondrial replacement/Donation.
For this, we need an egg from a mother's nucleus to replace it or donate it.
It is used to cure mitochondrial diseases.
Unfertilized egg- Maternal spindle transfer -
During spindle transfer, the maternal spindle is removed from an unfertilized egg and
placed into a donor egg that has had its own spindle removed.
Pronuclear transfer removes the pronucleus, containing both egg and sperm DNA, and
places it in a donor embryo whose pronucleus has been removed.
STEM CELLS -06:07 PM

Stem cells are unspecialized cells that can divide and grow into different types of cells
Types of stem cells-
1. Embryonic stem cells- They exist at the early stages of life and can change into
any type of cells of the body.
2. Adult stem cells- They are present in different parts of the body like bone marrow,
skin, and brain and can form new cells specific to that tissue.
3. Induced Pluripotent stem cells- The normal differentiated cells of the body can
be induced to divide and become undifferentiated stem cells.
Pluripotent is the property of a stem cell to form any cell of the body.
Application- Organ transplant, regenerative medicine, R&D.
Sources for biotechnology-
Current affairs magazine- (Monthly, mains, and PT 365)
Department of Biotechnology website
Yojana and Kurukshetrara
COLORS IN BIOTECHNOLOGY- 7:01

1. White biotechnology- industrial products

2. Blue Biotechnology- Marine
3. Green biotechnology- Agriculture
4. Grey biotechnology- develop products and processes that protect and improve the
environment.
The issue of Bioremediation is done by Oil Zappers.
5. Red biotechnology- Medical
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)-Genetically Modified Crops (GM Crops)
Benefits-
High yield- GM mustard
Pest resistance- Bt cotton
Climate resilience- GM rubber allowed
More nutrition- Golden rice
Disease resistance- GM Potato
Higher shelf-life- FLAVR SLAVR Tomato
Concerns about GM Crops-
1. Health Issues-
2. Environment Risks- Biodiversity risk.
3. Economic concerns- which could make it more expensive for farmers to grow
them.
Terminal seeds don't grow into new crops.
Monopoly of companies.
Challenges-
1. Financial issues
2. Lack of skilled manpower/infrastructure
3. Awareness
4. Less R&D
5. The gap between research and industry
6. Regulatory issues
ETHICAL ISSUES - 7:35 PM

It is against the law of nature, The Creation of Designer babies and change in the
natural course of Evolution, Misuse of Biotechnology such as Biological weapons,
Inequality with respect to Nations, Biopiracy, etc.
Classes and NCERT chapters for more understanding-
Class 6- 1, 4
Class 7- 1,2,6,7,8
Class 8- 2, 6,7
Class 9- 5
Class 10- 7,8
Class 11- 9,15, 19
Class 12- 4,5,8, 9,10