INTRODUCTION TO FLUID

MECHANICS AND BASIC

CONCEPTS
1–1 ■ INTRODUCTION
Mechanics: The oldest physical science
that deals with both stationary and
moving bodies under the influence of
forces.
Statics: The branch of mechanics that
deals with bodies at rest.
Dynamics: The branch that deals with
bodies in motion.
Fluid mechanics: The science that deals
with the behavior of fluids at rest (fluid
statics) or in motion (fluid dynamics),
and the interaction of fluids with solids
or other fluids at the boundaries.
Fluid dynamics: Fluid mechanics is also
referred to as fluid dynamics by Fluid mechanics deals with
considering fluids at rest as a special liquids and gases in motion
case of motion with zero velocity.
or at rest.
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Hydrodynamics: The study of the motion of fluids that
can be approximated as incompressible (such as
liquids, especially water, and gases at low speeds).
Hydraulics: A subcategory of hydrodynamics, which
deals with liquid flows in pipes and open channels.
Gas dynamics: Deals with the flow of fluids that
undergo significant density changes, such as the flow
of gases through nozzles at high speeds.
Aerodynamics: Deals with the flow of gases
(especially air) over bodies such as aircraft, rockets,
and automobiles at high or low speeds.
Meteorology, oceanography, and hydrology: Deal with
naturally occurring flows.

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What is a Fluid?
Fluid: A substance in the liquid
or gas phase.
A solid can resist an applied
shear stress by deforming.
A fluid deforms continuously
under the influence of a shear
stress, no matter how small.
In solids, stress is proportional
to strain, but in fluids, stress is
proportional to strain rate.
Deformation of a rubber block
When a constant shear force is
applied, a solid eventually stops placed between two parallel plates
deforming at some fixed strain under the influence of a shear
angle, whereas a fluid never force. The shear stress shown is
stops deforming and that on the rubber—an equal but
approaches a constant rate of opposite shear stress acts on the
strain. upper plate.
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Stress: Force per unit area.
Normal stress: The normal
component of a force acting on a
surface per unit area.
Shear stress: The tangential
component of a force acting on a
surface per unit area.
Pressure: The normal stress in a
fluid at rest.
Zero shear stress: A fluid at rest is
at a state of zero shear stress.
When the walls are removed or a
liquid container is tilted, a shear
develops as the liquid moves to
The normal stress and shear stress at
re-establish a horizontal free
the surface of a fluid element. For
surface.
fluids at rest, the shear stress is zero
and pressure is the only normal stress.
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Newton’s Law of Viscosity

Fluid element under a shear

force

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 F
shear stress, =
A
The deformation which this shear
stress causes is measured by the
size of the angle θ and is know as
shear strain.

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• Viscosity is the resistance offered to the movement of one
layer of fluid by another adjacent layer of the fluid
• Viscosity is the property of a fluid, due to cohesion and
interaction between molecules, which offers resistance to
shear deformation. Different fluids deform at different rates
under the same shear stress.

• Fluid with a high viscosity such as syrup, deforms more

slowly than fluid with a low viscosity such as water.
The SI physical unit of dynamic viscosity (μ) is the Pascal-second (Pa s), which is identical to
1 kg m−1 s−1. The physical unit for dynamic viscosity in the centimeter gram second system
of units (cgs) is the poise (P), named after Jean Poiseuille.

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Question:1
11
12
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 Properties of Fluids

Any measurable characteristic of a system is called a property.

Some familiar properties are pressure(P), temperature(T),
volume(V),and mass(m).

Other less familiar properties include viscosity, thermal conductivity,

modulus of elasticity, thermal expansion coefficient, electric
resistivity, and even velocity and elevation.
Properties of Fluids
Density
The density of a substance is the quantity of matter
contained in a unit volume of the substance. It can be
expressed in three different ways.

Mass Density
Mass Density, ρ (kg / m³) , is defined as the mass of
substance per unit volume

Specific Weight (N / m³), (known as specific gravity) is

defined as the weight per unit volume. Or The force exerted
by gravity, g, upon a unit volume of the substance.
Properties of Fluids
Relative Density
Relative Density, σ , is defined as the ratio of mass density of a substance to some standard
mass density.
For solids and liquids this standard mass density is the maximum mass density for water at
atmospheric pressure.

 sub tances
=
  O (at 4o C )


Typical values:
Water = 1, Mercury = 13.5, Paraffin Oil =0.8.
Properties of Fluids
Coefficient of Dynamic Viscosity

Kgm −1s −1
Kinematic Viscosity


=

Compressibility
Liquids vs. Gases
A liquid is difficult to compress and often regarded as
being incompressible.
A gas is easily to compress and usually treated as
such - it changes volume with pressure.

A given mass of liquid occupies a given volume and

will occupy the container it is in and form a free
surface (if the container is of a larger volume).
A gas has no fixed volume, it changes volume to
expand to fill the containing vessel. It will completely
fill the vessel so no free surface is formed.
Viscosity in Gasses
The molecules of gasses are only weakly kept in position by
molecular cohesion (as they are so far apart).
As adjacent layers move by each other there is a continuous
exchange of molecules. Molecules of a slower layer move to
faster layers causing a drag, while molecules moving the other
way exert an acceleration force. Mathematical considerations
of this momentum exchange can lead to Newton law of
viscosity.

If temperature of a gas increases the momentum exchange

between layers will increase thus increasing viscosity.
Viscosity will also change with pressure - but under normal
conditions this change is negligible in gasses.
 Viscosity in Liquids
Cohesion plays an important roll in the viscosity of liquids.

Increasing the temperature of a fluid reduces the cohesive forces and increases
the molecular interchange.

Reducing cohesive forces reduces shear stress, while increasing molecular

interchange increases shear stress.

High pressure can also change the viscosity of a liquid. As pressure increases the
relative movement of molecules requires more energy hence viscosity increases.
WHAT ARE NEWTONIAN FLUIDS?

 Where stress is directly proportional to rate of strain or Fluid

with a constant viscosity at a fixed temperature and
pressure.

 A Newtonian fluid's viscosity remains constant, no matter the

amount of shear applied for a constant temperature.. These
fluids have a linear relationship between viscosity and shear
stress.
Continue…..
 They obey the Newton’s law of viscosity,
which is
τ= µdu/dy
 The constant of proportionality is known as the
viscosity.
 τ = shear stress exerted by the fluid ("drag")

 μ = fluid viscosity - a constant of proportionality

 du/dy= velocity gradient perpendicular

to the direction of shear.
WHAT IS STRAIN AND STRAIN RATE?
 Strain
 The ratio of extension to original length is called
strain it has no units as it is a ratio of two lengths
measured in meters.
 Strain rate

 is the change in strain (deformation) of a

material with respect to time.
WHAT IS STRESS AND SHEAR RATE?
 Stress
 The stress applied to a material is the force per
unit area applied to the material. The maximum
stress a material can stand before it breaks is
called the breaking stress or ultimate tensile
stress.
 Shear rate

 is the rate at which a progressive shearing

deformation is applied to some material
GRAPH OF NEWTONIAN FLUID
 Continue…..
 This type of flow behavior Newton assumed for all fluids is
called Newtonian.
 It is, however, only one of several types of flow behavior you may
encounter.
 Graph A showsthat the relationship between
shear stress and shear rate is a straight line.
 Graph B shows that the fluid's viscosity
remains constant as the shear rate is varied.
 Typical Newtonian fluids include water and thin motor oils.
EXAMPLES
 Water
 Mineral oil

 Gasoline

 Alcohol
NON - NEWTONIAN
FLUID
WHAT ARE NON NEWTONIAN FLUIDS?
 Where stress is proportional to rate of strain, its
higher powers and derivatives (basically
everything other than Newtonian fluid).

 Non-Newtonian fluids are the opposite of

Newtonian fluids.

 When shear is applied to non-Newtonian fluids,

the viscosity of the fluid changes.
 Continue….
 A non-Newtonian fluid is broadly defined as one
for which the relationship is not a
constant.
 It means that there is non-linear relationship
between shear rate & shear stress.
 In other words, when the shear rate is varied,
the shear stress doesn't vary in the same
proportion (or even necessarily in the same
direction).
 E.g. Soap Solutions & cosmetics, Food such as
butter, jam, cheese, soup, yogurt, natural
substances such as lava, gums, etc.
type OF non Newtonian FLUID

 Dilatant
 Pseudoplastic

 Thixotropic Fluid

 Rheopectic fluid
 TIME INDEPENDENT

DILATANT
PSEUDOPLASTIC
DILATANT
 Viscosity of the fluid increases when shear is
applied.
 Examples

 Quicksand

 Corn flour

 Starch in water

 Potassium silicate in water.

GRAPH
Continu
e…
 Increasing viscosity with an increase in shear
rate characterizes the dilatant fluid.
 Although rarer than pseudo plasticity, dilatancy
is frequently observed in fluids containing high
levels of deflocculated solids, such as clay
slurries, candy compounds and sand/water
mixtures.
 Dilatancy is also referred to as shear- thickening
flow behavior.
PSEUDOPLASTIC
 Pseudoplastic is the opposite of dilatant i.e. the
more shear applied, the less viscous it becomes.
 Example

 Ketchup

 Polymer solutions

 greases

 starch suspensions

 biological fluids, detergent slurries etc.

GRAPH
 Continue…
 This type of fluid will display a decreasing
viscosity with an increasing shear rate.

 Probably the most common of the non-

Newtonian fluids, pseudo-plastics include
paints, emulsions, and dispersions of many
types.

 This type of flow behavior is sometimes called

"shear-thinning.
PSEUDOPLASTIC VS DILATANT
 TIME DEPENDENT

THIXOTROPIC FLUID
RHEOPECTIC FLUID
THIXOTROPIC FLUID
 Fluids with thixotropic properties decrease in
viscosity when shear is applied.
 EXAMPLES

 Inks

 Paints

 Cosmetics

 Asphalt

 Glue

 Drilling muds.
GRAPH
Continue…
 These fluids exhibit a reversible decrease in
shear stress with time at a constant shear rate.
 Examples

 Some polymer solutions

 Some food materials and paints.

RHEOPECTIC
 Rheopectic is very similar to dilatant in that
when shear is applied, viscosity increases. The
difference here, is that viscosity increase is
time-dependent.
EXAMPLES
 Gypsum paste

 Cream

 Bentoniteclay suspensions, certain sols

and clay suspensions.
GRAPH
Combined Graph
Pressure Measurement
 Pressure

 Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area.

 We speak of pressure only when we deal with a gas or a liquid. The
counterpart of pressure in solids is normal stress.
 Since pressure is defined as force per unit area, it has the unit of newtons per
square meter (N/m2), which is called a pascal (Pa). That is,
1 Pa = 1 N/m2
 The pressure unit pascal is too small for pressures encountered in practice.
Therefore, its multiples kilopascal (1 kPa =103 Pa) and megapascal (1 MPa
=106 Pa) are commonly used.
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 Pressure

 Other pressure units commonly used in practice, especially in

Europe, are bar and standard atmosphere

 The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute pressure,

and it is measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero
pressure).
 Most pressure-measuring devices, however, are calibrated to read zero
in the atmosphere , and so they indicate the difference between the
absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure. This
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difference is called the gage pressure.
Absolute and vacuum Pressure

 Pressures below atmospheric pressure

are called vacuum pressures and are
measured by vacuum gages that
indicate the difference between the
atmospheric pressure and the absolute
pressure.
 Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures
are all positive quantities and are
related to each other by

 In thermodynamic relations and tables, absolute pressure is almost always used.

Throughout this course, the pressure P will denote absolute pressure unless specified
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otherwise.
 Pressure at a point
 Pressure is the compressive force per unit area, and it gives the
impression of being a vector. However, pressure at any point in
a fluid is the same in all directions. That is, it has magnitude but
not a specific direction, and thus it is a scalar quantity.

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 Pressure at a point
 This can be demonstrated by considering a small
wedge- shaped fluid element that was obtained by
removing a small triangular wedge of fluid from
some arbitrary location within a fluid mass.
 Since we are considering the situation in which
there are no shearing stresses, the only external
forces acting on the wedge are due to the pressure
and the weight.

 For simplicity the forces in the x direction are not

shown, and the z axis is taken as the vertical axis
so the weight acts in the negative z direction.
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Pressure at a point
 From Newton’s second law, a force balance in the
y- and z directions gives

F y = p yδxδz − psδxδssinθ = 0 (a)

 where ps, py and pz are the average pressures on the faces, γ and ρ are
the fluid specific weight and density
 From the geometry δy = δs cosθ
z = s sin
 The last term in Eq. b drops out as δx ,δy and δz→0 and the wedge
becomes infinitesimal, and thus the fluid element shrinks to a point.
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Pressure at a point

 Thus substituting and simplifying results

py = ps pz = ps or py = ps = pz

 Thus we conclude that the pressure at a point in a fluid has

the same magnitude in all directions.
 It can be shown in the absence of shear forces that this
result is applicable to fluids in motion (rigid body motion,
no relative motion between layers) as well as fluids at rest.
 This important result is known as Pascal’s law

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Continuity Equation
Continuity equation
 By steadiness, the total mass of fluid contained in the control
volume must be invariant with time.
 Therefore there must be an exact balance between the total rate of
flow into the control volume and that out of the control volume:
Total Mass Outflow = Total Mass Inflow
 which translates into the following mathematical relation

 Where M is the number of inlets, and N is the number of outlets.

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Continuity equation

 If the fluid is incompressible, e.g. water, with ρ being effectively constant,

then .

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 Brief to start Bernoulli
Equation
Energy Conservation
Steady Flow
Stream line
Uniform Flow
Incompressible flow
Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation

Assumptions
Inviscid flow (ideal fluid, frictionless)
Steady flow
Along a streamline
Constant density (incompressible flow)
No shaft work or heat transfer
Care must be exercised when applying the Bernoulli equation since
it is an approximation that applies only to inviscid regions of flow.
The Bernoulli approximation is typically useful in flow regions
outside of boundary layers and wakes, where the fluid motion is
governed by the combined effects of pressure and gravity forces.
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Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation

 A streamline (a line which follows the direction of the fluid

velocity) is chosen with the coordinates shown in Fig below.
 Around this line, a cylindrical element of fluid having the cross-
sectional area dA and length ds is considered.

 Let p be the pressure acting on

the lower face, and pressure p +
dp acts on the upper face a
distance ds away.
 The gravitational force acting on
this element is its weight,
ρgdAds.
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Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation

 Applying Newton’s second in the s-direction on a particle

moving along a streamline gives

 The velocity may change with both position and time. In

one-dimensional flow it therefore becomes a function of
distance and time, v = v(s, t). The change in velocity dv
over time dt may be written as

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Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation

 Summing forces in the direction of motion, the

s-direction results

 Where and
 On substituting and dividing the equation by ρgdA,
we can obtain Euler's equation:

56  Note that Euler's equation is valid also for compressible flow.

Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation

 Now if we further assume that the flow is incompressible so that

the density is constant, we may integrate Euler's equation to get

 The terms of in the equation represent energy per unit weight,

and they have the units of length (m) so they are commonly
termed heads.

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Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation

 A head corresponds to energy per unit weight of flow and has

dimensions of length.
 Piezometric head = pressure head + elevation head, which is the
level registered by a piezometer connected to that point in a pipeline.
 Total head = piezometric head + velocity head.
 It follows that for ideal steady flow the total energy head is constant
along a streamline, but the constant may differ in different streamlines .
 Applying the Bernoulli equation to any two points on the same
streamline, we have

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Application of Bernoulli’s equation

 Various problems on the one-dimensional flow of an ideal fluid can be

solved by jointly using Bernoulli’s theorem and the continuity equation.
Venturi, nozzle and orifice meters
 The Venturi, nozzle, and orifice-meters are three similar types of devices
for measuring discharge in a pipe.
 The Venturi meter consists of a rapidly converging section, which
increases the velocity of flow and hence reduces the pressure.
 It then returns to the original dimensions of the pipe by a gently diverging
'diffuser' section.
 By measuring the pressure differences the discharge can be calculated.

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Application of Bernoulli’s equation

 We assume the flow is

horizontal
steady, inviscid, and
incompressible between
points (1) and (2). The
Bernoulli equation
becomes
Pitot tube

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 HYDRAULIC MACHINES
HYDRAULIC ENERGY MECHANICAL ENERGY

TURBINES
MECHANICAL ENERGY HYDRAULIC ENERGY

PUMPS
Layout of
Hydraulic
Power
Plant)
 Heads, Losses and Efficiencies of Hydraulic Turbines

• Heads
These are defined as below:
(a)Gross Head: Gross or total head is the difference between the
headrace level and the tail race level when there is no flow.
(b)Net Head: Net head or the effective head is the head available at the
turbine inlet. This is less than the gross head, by an amount, equal to
the friction losses occurring in the flow passage, from the reservoir to
the turbine inlet.

88
 • Efficiencies
Various types of efficiencies are defined as under:
(a)Hydraulic efficiency: It is the ratio of the power developed by
the runner to the actual power supplied by water to the runner. It
takes into account the hydraulic losses occurring in the turbine
ηh = Runner output / Actual power supplied to runner
= Runner output / (ρ.Q.g.H)
Where, Q = Quantity of water actually striking the
runner
blades
H = Net head available at the turbine inlet
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 (b)Volumetric efficiency: It is the ratio of the actual quantity of
water striking the runner blades to the quantity supplied to the
turbine. It takes into account the volumetric losses.
Let ∆Q = Quantity of water leaking or not striking the runner
blades
ηv = Q / (Q+ ∆Q)
(c)Mechanical efficiency: The ratio of the shaft output to the

runner output is called the mechanical efficiency

accounts for the mechanical losses.
ηm = Shaft output / Runner output

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 (d) Overall efficiency: Ratio of shaft output to the net power
available at the turbine inlet gives overall efficiency of the
turbine
ηm = Shaft output / Net power available

[Link]
o =
 (Q + Q) gH
[Link] [Link] Q
o =  
[Link]  QgH (Q +  Q )
o =  m h v
Thus all the three types of losses, mechanical, hydraulic and
volumetric have been taken into account.

91
 General layout of hydraulic power plant

92
 Turbines

• Hydro electric power is the most remarkable development

pertaining to the exploitation of water resources throughout the
world
• Hydroelectric power is developed by hydraulic turbines which are
hydraulic machines.
• Turbines convert hydraulic energy or hydro-potential into
mechanical energy.
• Mechanical energy developed by turbines is used to run electric
generators coupled to the shaft of turbines
• Hydro electric power is the most cheapest source of power
generation.

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Hydraulic Turbine Working Principle:

• So, the working principle of the hydraulic turbine is, according to Newton’s
law, A force is directly proportional to the change in momentum. If there is
any change in momentum of fluid then a force is generated.
• The hydraulic turbine blades (In the case of the Pelton wheel Turbine)
are provided against the flow of water which changes the momentum of it.
• As the momentum is changing, a resulting pressure force generated which
rotates the rotor or turbine.
• As the change in momentum high, the force generated is high, which
increases energy conversion.
• So the blade or buckets are designed so that it can change the maximum
momentum of the water. This turbine is used in a hydroelectric power
plant.
 Classification of turbines
Based on head and quantity of water
According to head and quantity of water available, the
turbines can be classified into:-
a)High head turbines
b)Medium head turbines
c)Low head turbines
a) High head turbines
High head turbines are the turbines which work under heads more than 250m.
The quantity of water needed in case of high head turbines is usually small. The
Pelton turbines are the usual choice for high heads.

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 Classification of turbines

Based on head and quantity of water

b)Medium head turbines
The turbines that work under a head of 45m to 250m are called medium
head turbines. It requires medium flow of water. Francis turbines are used
for medium heads.
c)Low head turbines
Turbines which work under a head of less than 45m are called low head
turbines. Owing to low head, large quantity of water is required. Kaplan
turbines are used for low heads.

96
 Classification of turbines

Based on hydraulic action of water

According to hydraulic action of water, turbines can be classified into
a)Impulse turbines
b)Reaction turbines
c)Impulse turbine: If the runner of a turbine rotates by the impact or
impulse action of water, it is an impulse turbine.
d)Reaction turbine: These turbines work due to reaction of the pressure
difference between the inlet and the outlet of the runner.

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Impulse
turbine
 Classification of turbines

Based on direction of flow of water in the runner

Depending upon the direction of flow through the
runner, following types of turbines are there
a)Tangential flow turbines
b)Radial flow turbines
c)Axial flow turbines
d)Mixed flow turbines

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Hydraulic Turbine Advantages:

The following advantages of Hydraulic Turbine:

• This is a renewable energy source. The water-energy can be used again and again.
• This turbine having high efficiency.
• The running cost of the Hydraulic turbine is less as compared to other turbines.
• Since Dams are used. So it is used for power generation.
• The environmental pollution system is negligible here.
• This is easy to maintain.
• The main advantages of the Hydraulic turbine are that at the turbine place, the people
can visit and come across all the main parts in detail. This is like an open system.
Hydraulic Turbine Disadvantages:

The following disadvantages of Hydraulic Turbine:

• The Installation or Initial cost is very high. This system or plant takes
several decades to produces the profit.
• It can develop at only a few sites where the proper amount of water
is available.
[Link]
 Impulse Turbine

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 IMPULSE TURBINE
(Pelton wheel)
The impulse turbine, the pressure change occurred in the nozzle, where pressure
head was converted into kinetic energy.
There was no pressure change in the runner, which had the sole duty of turning
momentum change into torque.
The flow of water is tangential to the runner so it is a tangential flow impulse
turbine.
The speed jet of water hits the bucket on the wheel and cause of wheel rotate.
A spear rod which has spear shaped end can be moved by hand wheel.
 Construction:
•Blades:- The number of blades is situated over the
rotary. They are concave in shape. The water jet
strikes at the blades and change the direction of it.
The force exerted on blades depends upon amount
of change in direction of jet. So the blades are
generally concave in shape.
•Rotor: Rotor which is also known as wheel is
situated on the shaft. All blades are pined into the
rotor. The force exerted on blades passes to the
rotor which further rotates the shaft.

109
Nozzle:- A nozzle play main role of generating
power from impulse turbine. It is a diverging nozzle
which converts all pressure energy of water into
kinetic energy and forms the water jet. This high
speed water strikes the blades and rotates it.
Casing:- Casing is the outside are which prevent the
turbine form atmosphere. The main function of
casing is to prevent discharge the water from vanes
to tail race. There is no change in pressure of water
from nozzle to tail race so this turbine works at
atmospheric pressure.
Braking nozzle:-A nozzle is provided in opposite
direction of main nozzle. It is used to slow down or
stop the wheel.

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