DISCUSSION: INFORMATION SHEET 2
Insect Growth and Development
Most insects change in form during their development, and the successive stages are not all
alike. This change in form is called metamorphosis. It is controlled by a juvenile hormone secreted by
glands in the insect's head. The juvenile hormone is released during each molt, but the amount
decreases each time. Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted directly into the blood,
which carries them to organs and tissues of the body to exert their functions.
Because they are enclosed in an exoskeleton, insects must "shed their skins", or molt, to grow
larger. The molting process in immatures and the transformation from larva to pupa to adult is
regulated by the following hormones.
· Ecdysone (molting hormone) secreted by the prothoracic gland; it stimulates shedding of the
cuticle.
· Juvenile hormone (JH). JH is secreted from the corpora allata; it suppresses adult
characteristics.
As growth during each stage triggers secretion of ecdysone, if juvenile hormone is present, the
cuticle is shed and replaced, and the insect reaches its next juvenile stage. As the immature insect
grows and eventually discontinues production of juvenile hormone, secretion of ecdysone in the
absence of JH triggers pupation and subsequent development of adult form. An application of
understanding these processes: Synthetic juvenile hormones have been developed for use as
insecticides that disrupt insect development and cause death.
Metamorphosis
Metamorphosis refers to the process through which insects develop, grow and change form.
Metamorphosis actually infers "change." The term is of Latin and Greek origins: meta means change
and morphe means form. Metamorphosis describes the series of changes through which an insect
passes in its growth from the egg stage (some insects, such as aphids, may produce eggs and/or
give birth to live young) through the immature stages (ex., nymph, larva or pupa) to the adult stage.
With a few odd exceptions, all insect life begins in the form of an egg. After leaving its egg, an
insect must grow and undergo a series of physical transformations until reaching adulthood. (Only
adult insects can mate and reproduce.)
Insects may undergo gradual metamorphosis, in which the transformation is subtle, or they can
undergo a complete metamorphosis, in which each stage of the life cycle has a distinctly different
appearance from the one before and the one after the current stage—or they can experience
something in between.
Unit II. Life Cycle of an
1. No Metamorphosis
The Ametabola do not undergo metamorphosis. During development, these insects
increase in size, but do not undergo distinct changes in form. In general, the Ametabola do not have
wings. The most primitive insects, such as springtails, silverfish, and and the common human
louse, undergo little or no true metamorphosis over the course of their life cycles. Entomologists refer
to these insects as "ametabolous," from the Greek for "having no metamorphosis." When they
emerge from the egg, immature ametabolous insects look like tiny versions of their adult
counterparts. They continue molting and growing until they reach sexual maturity.
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2. Gradual metamorphosis
Paurometabola-development by gradual metamorphosis. In this form of development,
immature stages (nymphs) resemble small adults and typically have external wing buds. They live in
the same habitat as adults, typically taking the same food. Immatures are called nymphs. Gradual
metamorphosis is exhibited by grasshoppers, crickets, true bugs, etc. Change in form is gradual, with
the most obvious changes involving the development of external wing pads and differences in color or
markings. Nymphs and adults generally share the same habitat. Grasshoppers undergo gradual
metamorphosis.
3. Incomplete metamorphosis
The hemimetabolous life cycle consists of egg, nymph, and adult. Immatures are called
naiads. Incomplete metamorphosis is exhibited by mayflies, dragonflies, damselflies, and stoneflies.
Immatures do not closely resemble adults ... naiads have tracheal gills. However, transition to adult
form is gradual external wing pads develop in later instars. Nymphs and adults dwell in different
habitats.
The term "naiad" is specific to dragonflies and mayflies because their immature forms and
lifestyles are very different from the adults, and the immatures do not undergo a pupal stage like
butterflies. . A nymph is an immature form of an insect that shares the general appearance and
lifestyle of the adult.
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Video: Life cycle of
dragonfly
[Link]
com/watch?v=Ezq_JW
Complete Metamorphosis
Holometabola are those insects with complete metamorphosis. Holometabolous insects have
soft-bodied, wingless, morphologically reduced larval stage and a mostly quitescent pupal stage. For
the insects that undergo complete metamorphosis, Immatures are called larvae and pupae.
Complete metamorphosis is exhibited by butterflies, moths, beetles, flies, ants, bees, wasps, etc.
Larvae do not resemble adults. Wings and other adult features develop during an immobile pupal
stage. Immatures and adults may or may not share habitats. Immatures are adapted for feeding;
adults are adapted for reproduction and dispersal. o Instar: The insect itself between molts ... "third
instar (larva)"
Surviving Adverse Conditions
Quiescence: Immediate inactivity in response to unfavorable conditions.
Dormancy: Seasonally recurring suppression of growth, development, and/or reproduction
Diapause: Dormancy (sometimes delayed) invoked by an environmental condition that does not
immediately limit development (often day length [photoperiod]). Once invoked, diapause
usually continues for predetermined period
In temperate climates, dormancy and diapause are often accompanied by overwintering adaptations.
One is survival by supercooling, often as a result of production of trehalose or similar sugars
that act as freezing depressants (antifreeze).
Reproduction: A couple of noteworthy ways in which insects are different than vertebrate animals.
Parthenogenesis: Reproduction in the absence of male gametes (may be facultative or
obligative); common in aphids and some groups of Hymenoptera
Haplo-diplo sex determination: o Unfertilized eggs become males; fertilized eggs become
females. (Particularly common in the Hymenoptera)
Univoltine: A single generation per year.
Multivoltine: Multiple generations per year.
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Unit III – The Molting Process Molting, known technically as ecdysis, is literally a period of
growth for insects. The molting process is triggered by
hormones released when an insect's growth reaches the physical limits of its exoskeleton. Each molt
represents the end of one growth stage (instar) and the beginning of another. In some insect species
the number of instars is constant (typically from 3 to 15), but in others it may vary in response to
temperature, food availability, or other environmental factors. An insect is known as an imago (adult)
when it becomes sexually mature. At this point, molting stops and energy for growth is channeled into
production of eggs or sperm.
An insect cannot survive without the support and protection of its exoskeleton, so a new,
larger replacement must be constructed inside the old one -- much like putting an overcoat under a
sweater! The molting process begins when epidermal cells respond to hormonal changes by
increasing their rate of protein synthesis. This quickly leads to apolysis -- physical separation of the
epidermis from the old endocuticle. Epidermal cells fill the resulting gap with an inactive molting fluid
and then secrete a special lipoprotein (the cuticulin layer) that insulates and protects them from the
molting fluid's digestive action. This cuticulin layer becomes part of the new exoskeleton's epicuticle.
After formation of the cuticulin layer, molting fluid becomes activated and chemically
"digests" the endocuticle of the old exoskeleton. Break-down products (amino acids and chitin
microfibrils) pass through the cuticulin layer where they are recycled by the epidermal cells and
secreted under the cuticulin layer as new procuticle (soft and wrinkled). Pore canals within the
procuticle allow movement of lipids and proteins toward the new epicuticle where wax and cement
layers form.
When the new exoskeleton is ready, muscular contractions and intake of air cause the
insect's body to swell until the old exoskeleton splits open along lines of weakness (ecdysial sutures).
The insect sheds its old exoskeleton (ecdysis) and continues to fully expand the new one. Over the
next few hours, sclerites will harden and darken as quinone cross-linkages form within the exocuticle.
This process (called sclerotization or tanning) gives the exoskeleton its final texture and appearance.
An insect that is actively constructing new exoskeleton is said to be in a pharate condition.
During the days or weeks of this process there may be very little evidence of change. Ecdysis,
however, occurs quickly (in minutes to hours). A newly molted insect is soft and largely unpigmented
(white or ivory). It is said to be in a teneral condition until the process of tanning is completed (usually
a day or two).
[Link]
als/course/ent425/library/t
utorials/growth_developm
ent/[Link]
[Link]
watch?v=QfeEZl0VGs0
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NAME
Date
Course, Year & Sec. Score
I. Fill-in the blank. Fill the blank with correct answer.
1. is a morphological changes in the form and structure of an insect.
2. are chemical messengers or signaling substance secreted into the blood to
perform specific function.
3. The word meta which are of Latin and Greek origins means .
4. Ametabolous is a Greek word meaning .
5. is a specific term referring to the aquatic nymph of dragonfly.
6. is a growth stage to which a molt ends and the beginning of another.
7. The term applied to Adult insect which become sexually mature is called .
8. is a physical separation of the epidermis from The old endocuticle.
9. is a term applied to the shedding of old exoskeleton of insects.
10. is a dormancy in insect invoked by an environmental condition.
II. Identify what is being asked in the statement. Encircle your answer.
1. A life cycle where insects do not undergo distinct change in form or with no true
metamorphosis.
a. paurometabola c. ametabola
b. holometabola d. hemimetabola
2. Insects with the following stages; egg – larva – pupa - adult.
a. holometabola c. ametabola
b. paurometabola d. hemimetabola
3. Dragonfly undergo a life cycle termed as.
a. paurometabola c. holometabola
b. ametabola d. hemimetabola
4. Which insect undergo paurometabolous life cycle?
a. grasshopper c. dragonfly
b. butterfly d. fly
5. Insects having a single generation per year.
a. multivoltine c. univoltine
b. haplo-diplo sex determination d. parthenogenesis
6. It is the reproduction in insects in the absence of male gametes, ex. aphids.
a. univoltine c. haplo-diplo sex determination
b. parthenogenesis d. multivoltine
7. Insects having multiple generation per year;
a. parthenogenesis c. multivoltine
b. univoltine d. haplo-diplo sex determination
8. This is an immediate inactivity of insect in response to unfavorable condition,
a. supercooling c. dormancy
b. quiescence d. diapause
9. The uppermost layer of the exoskeleton of the insect.
a. endocuticle c. exocuticle
b. epicuticle d. epidermis
10. A special lipoprotein layer that insulates and protects from the molting fluids digestive action.
a. endocuticle c. epidermal cells
b. epicuticle d. cuticullin
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College of Agriculture & Fisheries
AG 120 General Physiology and Toxicology
Instruction:
Exercise 2 covers knowledge and skills in discussing metamorphosis and determining the life
cycle of an insect. The learning experiences gained from this exercise and the previous topics are
prerequisites in understanding better insect toxicology particularly how pesticides works to kill
insects. Perform and answer what are being ask in this exercise. You can use the form below for
your exercise report.
Exercise No. 2
Insect Growth and Development
Introduction
(Make a brief introduction about the importance of insect physiology in relation to insect
toxicology)
Objectives
To discuss the concept of metamorphosis and the different hormones involve in the process.
To compare the different life cycle of an insect.
To develop skills in identifying the different stages in each life cycle.
Procedure
Make use of the discussions contain in this module. If available, make use of internet facility.
Observation
Guide Questions/Instructions:
1. What is metamorphosis in insects? Enumerate and explain the different hormones involve in
metamorphosis.
2. Differentiate the different life cycle of insects (no metamorphosis, gradual metamorphosis,
incomplete metamorphosis and complete metamorphosis).
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3. Manually draw or illustrate the different life cycle of an insect (Downloaded drawing
materials are not acceptable.)
Answer No. 1
What is metamorphosis in insects? Enumerate and explain the different hormones
involve in metamorphosis.
Answer No. 2
Differentiate the different life cycle of insects (no metamorphosis, gradual
metamorphosis, incomplete metamorphosis and complete metamorphosis).
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Answer No. 3
Drawing/illustration of the different life cycle of insect.
1. Ametabola
2. Paurometabola
3. Hemimetabola
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Conclusion;
Answer the objectives per item.
Therefore I conclude that:
1,
2.
3.
References
The Philippine Insects: An Introduction by Claire R. Baltazar
The Principles of Insect Physiology by V.B. Wigglesworth
Insect Physiology by Russell Jurenk
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