CHAPTER-5

NETWORKING TECHNOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO TRANSMISSION MEDIA
1].The pathway through which individual system are connected in a network are
called transmission media
2] Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information
from the sender to the receiver. Data is transmitted through the electromagnetic
signals.
3] The main functionality of the transmission media is to carry the information in
the form of bits through LAN(Local Area Network).
It is a physical path between transmitter and receiver in data communication.
4] In a copper-based network, the bits in the form of electrical signals.
5] In a fibre based network, the bits in the form of light pulses.
THE CHARRACTRISTICS OF TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Each type of transmission media has special characteristics as
below
1] COST OF MEDIA
2] INSTALLATION REQUIREMENT
3]BANDWIDTH
4] BAND USAGE [BROAD BAND & BASE BAND}
5] ATTENUATION
6] IMMUNITY FROM ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFRANCE (EMI)
1] Cost of Media -
1] one major factor in purchase decision of any networking component is its cost.
2] for a new fast technology , cost is also more expensive.
3] decision depends upon application and standard of the resources.
4] cost also depend on geographical area where we used media and which type we
used.
2] Installation Requirement-
1] some transmission area required skilled labor to install. This increase cost of
network
It may cause certain delay.
2] before installation we required to prepare actual physical layout of network.
3] Band Width-
1]band width is the measure of capacity of a medium to transmit data.
2] data transmission rate is number of bits transmitted per second.
3] bandwidth of cable depends on cable length.
4] a short cable can have greter bandwidth than a long cable so for all cable designs , maximum length
for runs are specified.
5] beyond these limits the frequency signal can deteriorate and error occurs in data signals.
4] BAND USAGE-.
1] The bandwidth is shared so that maximum usage is obtained.
2] there are two transmission modes , 1] Base band
2] Broad band transmission.
3]Base band devotes the entire capacity of medium to one communication channel.
4]Broad band enables two or more communication channels to share the bandwidth of communication
medium.
5]local area network used base [Link] base band signaling can be analog to digital
5] Attenuation:-
Attenuation means the loss of energy, i.e., the strength of the signal decreases
with increasing the distance which causes the loss of energy.
1]Distortion:
Distortion occurs when there is a change in the shape of the signal. This type of
distortion is examined from different signals having different frequencies. Each
frequency component has its own propagation speed, so they reach at a different
time which leads to the delay distortion.
2]Noise:
When data is travelled over a transmission medium, some unwanted signal is
added to it which creates the noise.
6] Interference[ electromagnetic interference (EMI)]-
1]An interference is defined as the process of disrupting a signal when it travels
over a communication medium on the addition of some unwanted signal.
2]EMI is interfacing the signals and makes difficult for computers to decode the
signal.
 COMPARISION OF BASE BAND AND BROAD BAND
BASE BAND BROAD BAND

1] only one channel is transmitted on 1] many channels are transmitted on

2] original information is sent on line. 2] information is modulated & indirectly sent

3] small bandwidth can be used. 3]big band width is required to transmit

4] [Link] or telephone lines 4] e.g. cable TV channels transmission

5] twisted wire cable is used. 5] co-axial cable is used.

DAIGRAM DAIGRAM
 T1 T2 T3
FREQUENCY
Classification Of Transmission Media:
Guided Media
It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are transmitted. It is
also known as Bounded media.
Types Of Guided media:
Twisted Pair Cable-
1]Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other.
2] A twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media.
3] Installation of the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a lightweight cable.
4] The frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHzA twisted pair consists
of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern.
5] The degree of reduction in noise interference is determined by the number of turns
per foot.
6]Increasing the number of turns per foot decreases noise interference
.
Types of Twisted pair:
 Shielded Twisted Pair:[STP]-
1] Its consist of one or more twisted pairs cables.
2] twisted pairs cable are surrounded by braided cu-shielding
3] A cu-shield protects twisted pairs from cross-talk & EMI
4] whole system is coated by plastics jacket. Which protect STP from damage.
It is used in LAN also.
Characteristics of STP-
A] COST- more than UTP & coaxial cable. And less than fiber optic cable
B] INSTALLATION- depends on network type and it is difficult.
C] BAND-WIDTH-115 mbps with 100 meters cable run.
but most common data rate is 16mbps.
D] ATTENUATIONS- less attenuation depends on cable length.
E] EMI- good EMI less sensitive to EMI.
Shielded Twisted Pair
A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding the
wire that allows the higher transmission rate.
Characteristics Of Shielded Twisted Pair:
•The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not very
low.
•An installation of STP is easy.
•It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
•It has a higher attenuation.
•It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.
Disadvantages
•It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.
•It has a higher attenuation rate.
Unshielded Twisted Pair:
An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication.
This wire does not have any bridal shield.
Following are the categories of the unshielded twisted pair cable:
•Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-speed data.
•Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps.
•Category 3: It can support upto 16Mbps.
•Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for long-distance
communication.
•Category 5: It can support upto 200Mbps.
Advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:
•It is cheap.
•Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
•It can be used for high-speed LAN.
Disadvantage:
•This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of attenuation.
•CHARECTERISTICS OF UTP CABLE-
1] COST-inexpensive than STP.
2] INSTALLATION- easy to installation.
3] BAND-WIDTH- up to100mbps.
4] ATTENUATION-similar to STP & other cable networks cable run is limited to few hundreds
meters 100 meters is common used.
5]EMI-more sensitive to EMI
Coaxial Cable
1]Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV wire is
usually a coaxial cable.
2]The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to each other.
3]It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
4]The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer
conductor is made up of copper mesh. The middle core is made up of non-conductive
cover that separates the inner conductor from the outer conductor.
5]The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper mesh
prevents from the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).
Coaxial cable is of two types:
[Link] transmission:[thin net ]
A]It is defined as the process of transmitting a single signal at high speed.
B] it is light and flexible cabling medium.
C]it is belongs to RG-58 [Link] 50 ohm impedance.
D]thin net is 0.25 inches(6mm) in [Link] transmit signal for 185 meters (610feet)
[Link] transmission: [thick net]
A] It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple signals simultaneously.
B]it is thicker than thin [Link] is 0.5 inches (13mm) in [Link] does not bend.
C]it carry more than one signal at larger distance at larger distance.
D]it can transmit signal approximately more than 500 meters (1650feet)
E] 2/3 LAN can be connected.
Advantages Of Coaxial cable:
•The data can be transmitted at high speed.
•It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
•It provides higher bandwidth.
Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:
•It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.
•If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.c
CHARECTERISICS OF CO-AXIAL CABLE-
1]COST-
A] thin net-inexpensive
B] thick net- expensive.
2] INSTALLATION-
A] thin net- easy to install.
B] thick net- difficult to install than thin net and twisted pair cable.
3] BAND WIDTH-
LAN employing co-axial cable has band width bet 2.5 mbps to 10 mbps.
4] ATTENUATION-
Less attenuation than twisted pair cable. transmit signals up to 185 m & 500m
respectively thin net and thick net.
5] EMI
A]All copper media are sensitive to EMI. shield increases the resistance of cable to
EMI it radiates the portion of their signal.
B] Less sensitive to EMI.
Fiber Optic
•Fiber optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for communication.
•Fiber optic is a cable that holds the optical fibers coated in plastic that are used to
send the data by pulses of light.
•The plastic coating protects the optical fibers from heat, cold, electromagnetic
interference from other types of wiring.
•Fiber optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.
Basic elements of Fiber optic cable:
•Core:
•The optical fiber consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known as a
core.
•A core is a light transmission area of the fiber.
•The more the area of the core, the more light will be transmitted into the
fiber.
•Cladding:
•The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding.
•The main functionality of the cladding is to provide the lower refractive
index at the core interface as to cause the reflection within the core so that
the light waves are transmitted through the fiber.
•Jacket:
•The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket. The main
purpose of a jacket is to preserve the fiber strength, absorb shock and extra
fiber protection.
Following are the advantages of fiber optic cable over copper:
•Greater Bandwidth:
•The fiber optic cable provides more bandwidth as compared copper.
•Therefore, the fiber optic carries more data as compared to copper cable.
•Faster speed:
• Fiber optic cable carries the data in the form of light.
•This allows the fiber optic cable to carry the signals at a higher speed.
•Longer distances:
•The fiber optic cable carries the data at a longer distance as compared to copper
cable.
•Better reliability:
•The fiber optic cable is more reliable than the copper cable as it is immune to any
temperature changes while it can cause obstruct in the connectivity of copper
cable.
•Thinner and Sturdier:
•Fiber optic cable is thinner and lighter in weight so it can withstand more pull
pressure than copper cable.
CHARECTERISTICS OF FIBER OPTIC CABLE-
1] COST- It is expensive
2] INSTALLATION- it is difficult to install skilled Laboure is required for
installation.
3] BAND-WIDTH- 100 MBps for several kms. Theoretically it up to
200000 mbps.
4] ATTENUATION- less attenuation than copper wire.
5]EMI- free from EMI
Computer Network Types-
A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the
computer to communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and
applications.
A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly
of four types:
1] LAN(Local Area Network)
2] PAN(Personal Area Network)
3] MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
4] WAN(Wide Area Network)
LAN(Local Area Network)
•Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area
such as building, office.
•LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication
medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
•It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network
adapters, and ethernet cables.
•The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
•Local Area Network provides higher security.
PAN(Personal Area Network)
•Personal Area Network is a network arranged
within an individual person, typically within a
range of 10 meters.
•Personal Area Network is used for connecting
the computer devices of personal use is known
as Personal Area Network.
•Thomas Zimmerman was the first research
scientist to bring the idea of the Personal Area
Network.
•Personal Area Network covers an area of 30
feet.
•Personal computer devices that are used to
develop the personal area network are the
laptop, mobile phones, media player and play
stations.
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
•A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger
geographic area by interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger
network.
•Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private
industries.
•In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone
exchange line.
•The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM,
ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.
•It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN
Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:
•MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
•It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
•It can be used in a college within a city.
•It can also be used for communication in the military.
WAN(Wide Area Network)
•A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area
such as states or countries.
•A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
•A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
•The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
•A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and
education.
Advantages Of Wide Area Network:
Following are the advantages of the Wide Area Network:
•Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large geographical area.
Suppose if the branch of our office is in a different city then we can connect with
them through WAN. The internet provides a leased line through which we can
connect with another branch.
•Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized. Therefore, we do
not need to buy the emails, files or back up servers.
•Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server. Therefore, the
programmers get the updated files within seconds.
•Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are transmitted fast. The
web application like Facebook, Whatsapp, Skype allows you to communicate with
friends.
•Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we can share the
software and other resources like a hard drive, RAM.
•Global business: We can do the business over the internet globally.
•High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our company then this gives the
high bandwidth. The high bandwidth increases the data transfer rate which in turn
increases the productivity of our company.
Disadvantages of Wide Area Network:
The following are the disadvantages of the Wide Area Network:
•Security issue: A WAN network has more security issues as compared to LAN and
MAN network as all the technologies are combined together that creates the security
problem.
•Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is transferred on the internet which
can be changed or hacked by the hackers, so the firewall needs to be used. Some
people can inject the virus in our system so antivirus is needed to protect from such a
virus.
•High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network is high as it involves the
purchasing of routers, switches.
•Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing the problem is difficult.
UnGuided Transmission
•An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without
using any physical medium. Therefore it is also known as wireless
transmission.
•In unguided media, air is the media through which the electromagnetic
energy can flow easily.
Unguided transmission is broadly classified into three categories:
Radio waves
•Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the
directions of free space.
•Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all the
directions.
•The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 khz.
•In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not
aligned, i.e., the wave sent by the sending antenna can be received by any
receiving antenna.
•An example of the radio wave is FM radio.
Applications Of Radio waves:
•A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is
one sender and many receivers.
•An FM radio, television, cordless phones are
examples of a radio wave.
Advantages Of Radio transmission:
•Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area
networks and mobile cellular phones.
•Radio waves cover a large area, and they can
penetrate the walls.
•Radio transmission provides a higher transmission
rate.
Microwaves
Microwaves are of two types:
•Terrestrial microwave
•Satellite microwave communication.
Terrestrial Microwave Transmission
•Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the focused
beam of a radio signal from one ground-based microwave transmission antenna to
another.
•Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the frequency in the range
from 1GHz to 1000 GHz.
•Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to be
aligned, i.e., the waves sent by the sending antenna are narrowly focussed.
•In this case, antennas are mounted on the towers to send a beam to another
antenna which is km away.
•It works on the line of sight transmission, i.e., the antennas mounted on the
towers are the direct sight of each other
Characteristics of Microwave:
•Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave is from 4-6 GHz
to 21-23 GHz.
•Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.
•Short distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.
•Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for a longer distance.
•Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. It is affected by environmental
conditions and antenna size.
Advantages Of Microwave:
•Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.
•It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the installation of
cables.
•Microwave transmission provides an easy communication in terrains as the
installation of cable in terrain is quite a difficult task.
•Communication over oceans can be achieved by using microwave transmission.
Disadvantages of Microwave transmission:
•Eavesdropping: An eavesdropping creates insecure communication. Any malicious
user can catch the signal in the air by using its own antenna.
•Out of phase signal: A signal can be moved out of phase by using microwave
transmission.
•Susceptible to weather condition: A microwave transmission is susceptible to
weather condition. This means that any environmental change such as rain, wind can
distort the signal.
•Bandwidth limited: Allocation of bandwidth is limited in the case of microwave
transmission.
Satellite Microwave Communication
•A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known height.
•Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more flexibility than cable
and fibre optic systems.
•We can communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite communication.
How Does Satellite work?
The satellite accepts the signal that is transmitted from the earth station, and it amplifies
the signal. The amplified signal is retransmitted to another earth station.
Advantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:
•The coverage area of a satellite microwave is more than the terrestrial microwave.
•The transmission cost of the satellite is independent of the distance from the centre of the
coverage area.
•Satellite communication is used in mobile and wireless communication applications.
•It is easy to install.
•It is used in a wide variety of applications such as weather forecasting, radio/TV signal
broadcasting, mobile communication, etc.
Disadvantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:
•Satellite designing and development requires more time and higher cost.
•The Satellite needs to be monitored and controlled on regular periods so that
it remains in orbit.
•The life of the satellite is about 12-15 years. Due to this reason, another
launch of the satellite has to be planned before it becomes non-functional.
Infrared
•An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for communication over
short ranges.
•The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.
•It is used for short-range communication such as data transfer between two
cell phones, TV remote operation, data transfer between a computer and cell
phone resides in the same closed area.
Characteristics Of Infrared:
•It supports high bandwidth, and hence the data rate will be very high.
•Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls. Therefore, the infrared
communication in one room cannot be interrupted by the nearby rooms.
•An infrared communication provides better security with minimum
interference.
•Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the sun rays
will interfere with the infrared waves.
What is Multiplexing?
Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the multiple data streams over a single
medium. The process of combining the data streams is known as multiplexing and hardware
used for multiplexing is known as a multiplexer.
Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer (MUX) that combines n input
lines to generate a single output line. Multiplexing follows many-to-one, i.e., n input lines and
one output line.
Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called Demultiplexer (DEMUX) available at the
receiving end. DEMUX separates a signal into its component signals (one input and n
outputs). Therefore, we can say that demultiplexing follows the one-to-many approach.
Why Multiplexing?
•The transmission medium is used to send the signal from sender to receiver. The medium
can only have one signal at a time.
•If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then the medium must be divided in such
a way that each signal is given some portion of the available bandwidth. For example: If
there are 10 signals and bandwidth of medium is100 units, then the 10 unit is shared by
each signal.
•When multiple signals share the common medium, there is a possibility of collision.
Multiplexing concept is used to avoid such collision.
•Transmission services are very expensive.
History of Multiplexing
•Multiplexing technique is widely used in
telecommunications in which several telephone calls are
carried through a single wire.
•Multiplexing originated in telegraphy in the early 1870s
and is now widely used in communication.
•George Owen Squier developed the telephone carrier
multiplexing in 1910.
Concept of Multiplexing
•The 'n' input lines are transmitted through a multiplexer and multiplexer combines the
signals to form a composite signal.
•The composite signal is passed through a Demultiplexer and demultiplexer separates a
signal to component signals and transfers them to their respective destinations.
Advantages of Multiplexing:
•More than one signal can be sent over a single medium.
•The bandwidth of a medium can be utilized effectively.
Multiplexing Techniques
Multiplexing techniques can be classified as:
Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM)
•It is an analog technique.
•Frequency Division Multiplexing is a technique in which the available bandwidth of a
single transmission medium is subdivided into several channels.
•In the above diagram, a single transmission medium is subdivided into several frequency
channels, and each frequency channel is given to different devices. Device 1 has a
frequency channel of range from 1 to 5.
•The input signals are translated into frequency bands by using modulation techniques, and
they are combined by a multiplexer to form a composite signal.
•The main aim of the FDM is to subdivide the available bandwidth into different frequency
channels and allocate them to different devices.
•Using the modulation technique, the input signals are transmitted into frequency bands and
then combined to form a composite signal.
•The carriers which are used for modulating the signals are known as sub-carriers. They
are represented as f1,f2..fn.
•FDM is mainly used in radio broadcasts and TV networks.
Advantages Of FDM:
•FDM is used for analog signals.
•FDM process is very simple and easy modulation.
•A Large number of signals can be sent through an FDM simultaneously.
•It does not require any synchronization between sender and receiver.
Disadvantages Of FDM:
•FDM technique is used only when low-speed channels are required.
•It suffers the problem of crosstalk.
•A Large number of modulators are required.
•It requires a high bandwidth channel.
Applications Of FDM:
•FDM is commonly used in TV networks.
•It is used in FM and AM broadcasting. Each FM radio station has different frequencies,
and they are multiplexed to form a composite signal. The multiplexed signal is
transmitted in the air.
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
•Wavelength Division Multiplexing is same as FDM except that the optical signals are
transmitted through the fibre optic cable.
•WDM is used on fibre optics to increase the capacity of a single fibre.
•It is used to utilize the high data rate capability of fibre optic cable.
•It is an analog multiplexing technique.
•Optical signals from different source are combined to form a wider band of light with
the help of multiplexer.
•At the receiving end, demultiplexer separates the signals to transmit them to their
respective destinations.
•Multiplexing and Demultiplexing can be achieved by using a prism.
•Prism can perform a role of multiplexer by combining the various optical signals to form
a composite signal, and the composite signal is transmitted through a fibre optical cable.
•Prism also performs a reverse operation, i.e., demultiplexing the signal.
Time Division Multiplexing
•It is a digital technique.
•In Frequency Division Multiplexing Technique, all signals operate at the same time
with different frequency, but in case of Time Division Multiplexing technique, all
signals operate at the same frequency with different time.
•In Time Division Multiplexing technique, the total time available in the channel is
distributed among different users. Therefore, each user is allocated with different time
interval known as a Time slot at which data is to be transmitted by the sender.
•A user takes control of the channel for a fixed amount of time.
•In Time Division Multiplexing technique, data is not transmitted simultaneously rather
the data is transmitted one-by-one.
•In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of frames. Frames contain a cycle of
time slots in which each frame contains one or more slots dedicated to each user.
•It can be used to multiplex both digital and analog signals but mainly used to
multiplex digital signals.
There are two types of TDM:
•Synchronous TDM
•Asynchronous TDM