The sources of renewable energy are known to be less polluting and therefore the whole Distributed generation refers

ation refers to a variety of technologies that generate electricity at or near backup power sources. The technologies are fundamental requirements of more advanced
LECTURE NOTES
world is looking forward to new carbon emission norms, where carbon will play a major role where it will be used, such as solar panels and combined heat and power. Distributed power grids such as smart grids.
RENEWABLE AND DISTRIBUTED ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES (R&DET) in developing new factories and industries. They will be rated according to the carbon generation may serve a single structure, such as a home or business, or it may be part of a
emission and the products that they are producing will be rated accordingly. microgrid (a smaller grid that is also tied into the larger electricity delivery system), such as Benefits of distributed energy resources are as follows,
(PROFESSIONAL ELECTIVE – III) at a major industrial facility, a military base, or a large college campus. When connected to
Types of Renewable Energy the electric utility‘s lower voltage distribution lines, distributed generation can help support  The inclusion of distributed energy resources into the grid has several benefits.
Unit-I: Brief idea on renewable and distributed sources - their usefulness and advantages; delivery of clean, reliable power to additional customers and reduce electricity losses along Customers with DER assets can expect to pay less for electricity because they can sell
Wind Energy Systems: Estimates of wind energy potential - wind maps - Instrumentation for 1. Solar Energy: The radiant light and heat energy from the sun is harnessed with the transmission and distribution lines. power back to the grid.
wind velocity measurements - Aerodynamic and mechanical aspects of wind machine design use of solar collectors. These solar collectors are of various types such as
 In areas where there is a high reliance on wind, solar and other variable energy
- Conversion to electrical energy - Aspects of location of wind farms. photovoltaics, concentrator photovoltaics, solar heating, (CSP) concentrated solar In the residential sector, common distributed generation systems include: resources (VERs), distributed energy resources can be used to help improve quality of
power, artificial photosynthesis, and solar architecture. This collected solar energy is
service and reliability of service.
then used to provide light, heat, and different other forms of electricity.  Solar photovoltaic panels
2. Wind Energy: The energy we get from winds is known as wind energy. For this,  Small wind turbines
BRIEF IDEA ON RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY windmills have been used for hundreds of years to pump out water from the ground.  Natural-gas-fired fuel cells
We use large tall wind turbines that allow winds to generate electricity. The natural SOURCES OF ENERGY
Energy is the capacity of a physical system to perform work. Energy exists in several forms  Emergency backup generators, usually fueled by gasoline or diesel fuel
airflow on the surface of the earth is used to run the wind turbines. The modern-day
such as heat, kinetic or mechanical energy, light, potential energy , electrical, or other forms. Sources of energy can be classified into:
wind turbines range from about 600 Kilowatt to 5 Megawatts, for commercial
Energy is the ability to do work. Energy sources could be classified as Renewable and Non- In the commercial and industrial sectors, distributed generation can include resources such as:
purposes these are rated with an output power of 1.5 to 3 Megawatts. The most
renewable. The sun is the main source of energy on Earth. Other energy sources include coal,  Renewable Sources
preferred locations for these wind turbines to be installed are the areas which and
geothermal energy, wind energy, biomass, petrol, nuclear energy, and many more. Energy is  Combined heat and power systems
strong and have constant airflows on offshore and sites that are at high altitudes. The  Non-renewable Sources
classified into various types based on sustainability as renewable sources of energy and non- 
power generated from wind energy in 2015 met 4% of global energy consumption. Solar photovoltaic panels
renewable sources of energy.
3. Hydroelectricity: According to statistics, hydroelectricity generated around 16.6% of  Wind
Renewable energy is energy that is produced from natural processes and continuously the global energy resources and constituted about 70% of all renewable electricity.  Hydropower
replenished. A few examples of renewable energy are sunlight, water, wind, tides, geothermal This energy is another alternative source of energy that is generated by the
 Biomass combustion
heat, and biomass. The energy that is provided by renewable energy resources is used in 5 construction of dams and reservoirs on the flowing water, the kinetic energy from the
important areas such as air and water cooling/heating, electricity generation, the rural sector, flowing water is used to run the turbines which generate electricity. Tidal power  Municipal solid waste incineration
and transportation. converts the energy of tides and Wave power which captures the energy from the
 Fuel cells fired by natural gas or biomass
surface of the ocean waves for power generation. These two forms of hydropower
We can define renewable energy as those energies which can never be depleted. The also have huge potential in electric power generation.  Reciprocating combustion engines, including backup generators
importance of renewable energy is invaluable. These types of energy sources are different
4. Geothermal Energy: It is the energy that is generated from the thermal energy which A distributed energy resource (DER) is a small-scale unit of power generation that operates
from fossil fuels, such as oil, coal, and natural gas. Some examples of renewable energy
is stored in the earth. The heat energy is captured from sources such as hot springs and locally and is connected to a larger power grid at the distribution level. DERs include solar
sources are:
volcanoes and this heat is directly used by industries for heating the water and other panels, small natural gas-fueled generators, electric vehicles and controllable loads, such as
purposes. HVAC systems and electric water heaters. An important distinction of a DER is that the
 Wind energy
5. Biomass Energy: This type of energy is derived from biomass which is a type of energy it produces is often consumed close to the source.
 Solar energy
biological material derived from living organisms and plant-derived materials which
 Geothermal energy are called lignocellulosic biomass. Biomass can be directly used via combustion to When using renewable power sources, the intermittent nature of some resources creates a
produce heat and indirectly it can be used to convert to biofuels. Biomass can be need for using multiple renewable resources, as well as a means to tie them together, manage
 Hydropower
converted to other usable forms of energy such as transportation fuels like ethanol, and store their output. Energy storage such as batteries and fly wheels are required for
 Biomass energy biodiesel, and methane gas. hardware such as wind and other turbine types, solar panels, and tidal generation units.
Renewable Sources:
The sources could sustain for a longer period of time and can easily be renewed often. DERs are commonly used to manage a number of smaller power generation and storage
Sustainable sources are biomass, nuclear power, geothermal, wind energy, solar power, tidal methods in residential, commercial and industrial [Link] may be used by utility
power, and wave power. BRIEF IDEA ON DISTRIBUTED SOURCES OF ENERGY providers, businesses and individuals in the production and storage of renewable power or for

Renewable energy is derived from sources that are continuously refilled. Solar energy, 4. Renewable sources require less maintenance as compared to non-renewable energy 4. A non-renewable resource is a natural resource that is found underneath the earth. 5. Sources like coal, oil and natural gas release a large amount of carbon dioxide when
geothermal energy, wind energy, and hydroelectric power are some of the renewable energy sources. For instance, if you can see turbines in hydropower stations or in wind farms, These type of energy resources do not replenish at the same speed at which it is used. burnt. As a result of these chemicals, they are rapidly destroying the ozone layer.
sources. you will observe that these power generating systems do not require any external They take millions of years to replenish. The main examples of non-renewable
6. Oxides like sulphur oxide and others released while burning fossil fuels convert the
system for rotating parts. Although their initial cost is high, once they are installed, resources are coal, oil and natural gas. rain into acidic rain, which is harmful to wildlife as well as human beings.
Renewable sources are generally allied with clean energy and green energy, but there are you can benefit from them for a lifetime.
5. Examples of non-renewable sources of energy are: Natural gas, coal, petroleum, 7. Many non-renewable sources release smog which envelopes the buildings. Mostly in
some subtle differences between these three types of energy. Where clean energy is a type of
nuclear energy and hydrocarbon gas liquids.
energy that does not release pollutants like carbon dioxide, the sources that are recyclable are Disadvantages of Renewable Sources of Energy modern cities, people complain about the same. Over time, black smog can make your
renewable sources, and the energy that comes from natural sources is green energy. There is building and other property appear dark and dirty.
Advantages of Non-Renewable Energy
often a dispute between these types of energy because not all types of renewable energy are 1. Renewable energy sources are not available round the clock because these sources are 8. Sometimes it may be risky to transport non-renewable sources as huge cargo ships
truly green or clean. For instance, natural habitats can be damaged by some hydroelectric natural forces that depend strongly on the weather condition. Therefore, when you and oil tankers crash and spill the contents in the sea or elsewhere. It can be deadly for
1. Non-renewable resources are high in energy. Resources such as coal and oil tend to
sources, which eventually causes deforestation. have bad weather conditions, renewable energy such as solar cells can‘t be used. the sea animals and human beings who may come in contact with it.
provide us more energy in comparison to renewable energy like solar or wind energy.
2. The efficiency of renewable energy is low because every type of energy requires a 2. Huge profits can be generated in the mining of coal, selling of oil or the construction 9. To keep the power station working, every time we need to keep a huge amount of fuel
Characteristics of Renewable Energy Sources
particular kind of technology to convert it into electricity. Unfortunately, as compared in reserve. This can be expensive and occupy a lot of space.
of natural gas pipelines.
with traditional energy conversion devices, the efficiency of renewable sources and
1. Renewable resources have the capacity to restore themselves easily. 3. These resources are easy to use whether in a home or anywhere else.
technology is not that high.
2. Ecological developments for a definite time period are required by renewable 4. Consumers can find non-renewable resources at a very cost-effective price.
3. The storage cost of renewable energy is very high, and also it requires a lot of space
resources to regenerate themselves.
for its installation. 5. For some people, new machines and other energy sources cannot replace their
3. Renewable energy can become non-renewable energy if it is utilised in an extreme traditional minerals like coal and oil. So, it is also known as traditional energy.
amount, that is, higher than the environment‘s ability to restore it.
6. Non-renewable energy is easily found anywhere and everywhere. This implies that
Non-Renewable Sources: they can be conveniently moved across the world. People living in areas that are not
easily approachable can make use of non-renewable energy as well.
The source of energy which will eventually run out with time is known as a non-renewable 7. Most importantly, non-renewable recourses are job-creating. Extracting, transporting
energy source. Fossil fuels, such as gas, coal, and oil, are some examples of non-renewable and refining are the parts of non-renewable sources that provide employment.
 Renewable sources of energy are available plentiful in nature and are sustainable. energy sources.
These resources of energy can be naturally replenished and are safe for the 8. Most of the non-renewable sources are also quite easy to store.
environment. For a large number of industries, these natural resources are a major source of power;
 Examples of renewable sources of energy are: Solar energy, geothermal energy, however, there are several disadvantages to non-renewable energy, counting their negative
environmental influence and the fact they are in limited supply.
wind energy, biomass, hydropower and tidal energy. Disadvantages of Non-Renewable Energy

Advantages of Renewable Sources of Energy So, basically, a non-renewable resource is a finite natural resource because it cannot be
1. One of the major disadvantages of non-renewable energy is that it is time-consuming.
refilled at the speed at which it is consumed.
Mining of coal, searching for oil, installing oil drills, building oil rigs, inserting pipes
1. Renewable energy sources can never run out because these sources are continuously to extract and transporting natural gases are very time-consuming processes. It also
filled by nature. For instance: solar energy can never run out until the Sun exists in the takes a lot of effort.
solar system.
Characteristics of Non-Renewable Energy Sources 2. Since non-renewable energy takes billions of years to form, they are slowly but
2. As compared to non-renewable sources like fossil fuels, renewable energy sources are gradually vanishing from the earth. Using non-renewable resources indiscriminately
easily available to humans and are reliable because these energy sources are 1. Non-renewable energy sources are also known as stock resources because they are not without thinking for our future generations could be selfish.
distributed equally on the planet. obtainable in high quantities.
3. Non-renewable energy can be dangerous and can cause respiratory problems in
3. Renewable energy sources are environment friendly because they are produced 2. Non-renewable energy generally exists in the form of minerals which are present in humans because sources like fossil fuels emit gases such as carbon monoxide.
naturally, and they do not emit any harmful gases or pollutants that can cause damage various forms in the lithosphere of the earth.
4. The workers working in coal mines or oil drills are more prone to a number of health
to the ozone layer or to the environment.
3. Non-renewable resources can be obtained in solids, liquids or gases, that is, all the risks. As a result, there are a large number of diseases, injuries and even deaths.
three states of matter, for instance, coal, petroleum and natural gas.

The most popular renewable energy sources currently are:  It is a perennial, natural source and free Harnessing the wind as a source of energy started more than 7,000 years ago. Now, As a renewable energy resource, hydro power is one of the most commercially developed. By
 It is available in plenty electricity-generating wind turbines are proliferating around the globe, and China, the U.S., building a dam or barrier, a large reservoir can be used to create a controlled flow of water
1. Solar energy and Germany are the world's leading wind-energy producers. From 2001 to 2017, cumulative that will drive a turbine, generating electricity. This energy source can often be more reliable
 It is non-polluting wind capacity around the world increased to more than 539,000 megawatts from 23,900 than solar or wind power (especially if it's tidal rather than river) and also allows electricity to
2. Wind energy
 It does not emit any green house gases. megawatts—more than 22 fold. be stored for use when demand reaches a peak. Like wind energy, in certain situations hydro
3. Hydro energy can be more viable as a commercial energy source (dependant on type and compared to other
 Solar energy offers decentralization in most (sunny) locations, meaning self-reliant
4. Tidal energy Some people may object to how wind turbines look on the horizon and to how they sound, sources of energy) but depending very much on the type of property, it can be used for
societies.
but wind energy, whose prices are declining, is proving too valuable a resource to deny. domestic, ‗off-grid‘ generation. Find out more by visiting our hydro power page.
5. Geothermal energy
 One of the biggest advantages of solar energy is the ability to avoid the politics and While most wind power comes from onshore turbines, offshore projects are appearing too,
6. Biomass energy price volatility that is increasingly characterizing fossil fuel markets. with the most in the United Kingdom and Germany. The first U.S. offshore wind farm opened For centuries, people have harnessed the energy of river currents, using dams to control
 It doesn‘t result in the destruction of forests and eco-systems that occurs with most in 2016 in Rhode Island, and other offshore projects are gaining momentum. Another water flow. Hydropower is the world's biggest source of renewable energy by far, with China,
fossil fuel operations. problem with wind turbines is that they‘re a danger for birds and bats, killing hundreds of Brazil, Canada, the U.S., and Russia being the leading hydropower producers. While
thousands annually, not as many as from glass collisions and other threats like habitat loss hydropower is theoretically a clean energy source replenished by rain and snow, it also has
SOLAR ENERGY
Disadvantages and invasive species, but enough that engineers are working on solutions to make them safer several drawbacks.
for flying wildlife.
 Dependent on change in seasons / weather – hence they may not be used always Large dams can disrupt river ecosystems and surrounding communities, harming wildlife,
Advantages and displacing residents. Hydropower generation is vulnerable to silt buildup, which can
 Requires high initial investments for productive use
compromise capacity and harm equipment. Drought can also cause problems. In the western
 Solar systems doesn‘t work at night directly but the battery bank, which stores energy  It is environment friendly U.S., carbon dioxide emissions over a 15-year period were 100 megatons higher than they
during day-time can be used during night.  Its freely and abundantly available would have been with normal precipitation levels, according to a 2018 study, as utilities
 Solar electricity storage technology has not reached its potential yet. turned to coal and gas to replace hydropower lost to drought. Even hydropower at full
Disadvantages capacity bears its own emissions problems, as decaying organic material in reservoirs
 Solar panels are bulky. This is particularly true of the higher-efficiency, traditional releases methane.
silicon crystalline wafer solar modules.  High investment requirement
Dams aren't the only way to use water for power: Tidal and wave energy projects around the
 Wind speed is not uniform all the time which affects power generated
Sunlight is one of our planet‘s most abundant and freely available energy resources. The world aim to capture the ocean's natural rhythms. Marine energy projects currently generate
amount of solar energy that reaches the earth‘s surface in one hour is more than the planet‘s WIND ENERGY
an estimated 500 megawatts of power—less than one percent of all renewables—but the
total energy requirements for a whole year. Although it sounds like a perfect renewable potential is far greater. Programs like Scotland‘s Saltire Prize have encouraged innovation in
energy source, the amount of solar energy we can use varies according to the time of day and HYDRO ENERGY this area.
the season of the year as well as geographical location. In the UK, solar energy is an
increasingly popular way to supplement your energy usage. Find out if it‘s right for you by Advantages of Hydroelectric Energy
reading our guide to solar power.
1. Electricity can be produced at a constant rate once the dam is constructed
From home rooftops to utility-scale farms, solar power is reshaping energy markets around 2. The gates of the dam can be shut down if electricity is not needed, which stops
the world. In the decade from 2007 and 2017 the world's total installed energy capacity from electricity generation. Hence by doing this, we can save water for further use in future
photovoltaic panels increased a whopping 4,300 percent. when the demand for electricity is high.
Wind is a plentiful source of clean energy. Wind farms are an increasingly familiar sight in 3. One of the biggest advantages of hydroelectric power plants is that they are designed
In addition to solar panels, which convert the sun's light to electricity, concentrating solar
the UK with wind power making an ever-increasing contribution to the National Grid. To to last many decades, and so they can contribute to the generation of electricity for
power (CSP) plants use mirrors to concentrate the sun's heat, deriving thermal energy instead.
harness electricity from wind energy, turbines are used to drive generators which then feed years.
China, Japan, and the U.S. are leading the solar transformation, but solar still has a long way
electricity into the National Grid. Although domestic or ‗off-grid‘ generation systems are
to go, accounting for around just two percent of the total electricity generated in the U.S. in 4. Large dams often become tourist attractions because the lake that forms in the
available, not every property is suitable for a domestic wind turbine. Find out more about
2017. Solar thermal energy is also being used worldwide for hot water, heating, and cooling. reservoir area behind the dam can be used for leisure or water sports.
wind energy on our wind power page.
5. The water from the lake of the dam can be used for irrigation purposes in farming.
Advantages Fig.: Overview of a hydropower plant

6. Since the water is released to produce electricity, the build-up of water in the dam is Tidal energy production is still in its infancy. The amount of power produced so far has been  The variable intensity of sea waves and wind energy, geothermal energy is always available, but it has side effects that need to be
stored to produce extra energy until needed. small. There are very few commercial-sized tidal power plants operating in the world. The managed, such as the rotten-egg smell that can accompany released hydrogen sulphide.
first was located in La Rance, France. The largest facility is the Sihwa Lake Tidal Power
7. Hydroelectric energy generation does not pollute the atmosphere because the
Station in South Korea. The United States has no tidal plants and only a few sites where tidal Advantages of Geothermal Energy
hydroelectric power plant does not produce greenhouse gases.
energy could be produced at a reasonable price. China, France, England, Canada, and Russia GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
8. Hydropower plants can be considered a reliable energy generation source. Since have much more potential to use this type of energy.  There are plenty of hot springs and natural pools across the world that emits
hydropower totally depends on water present on this planet, this energy source will geothermal energy. The water from such a natural source of geothermal energy is
remain inexhaustible because of the water cycle as it continuously keeps on commonly used for bathing, warmth, and cooking.
maintaining balance on the Earth.
 GHPs powered heating, and air-conditioning systems are more efficient as they use 25
to 50% less electricity than conventional systems. Ultimately, there is a decrease in
Disadvantages of Hydroelectric Energy
greenhouse gas emissions as well.
1. It is not an easy task to assemble a hydropower plant because the dams are extremely  Many buildings, sidewalks, and parking lots are heated using geothermal energy.
expensive to build, and they require extremely high standards and calculations for
 Also, known as a green source of energy because it does not release hazardous
their construction. greenhouse gases. Thus, it is safe for both environmental and human health.
2. It becomes important that the hydropower plant must serve for many decades because
 Geothermal energy systems can adjust to various conditions.
of its high cost of construction, and this totally depends on the availability of water
resources.  One of the best advantages of geothermal energy is that cold countries use geothermal
energy to heat greenhouses or heat water for irrigation.
3. If flooding happens due to natural calamities or the failure of dams, it would impact a
large area of land, which means that the natural environment can be destroyed.  Iceland mostly uses geothermal energy to heat buildings and water using magma and
molten rock resources.
4. People are forcibly removed from the particular area where a hydropower plant is
going to be assembled. This affects the day-to-day life of people living in that area.  It is a renewable, carbon-free, and sustainable source of energy. The Earth will
In the United States, there are legal concerns about underwater land ownership and continuously transmit heat from its core for billions of years.
5. A serious geological damage can be caused due to the construction of large dams. environmental impact. Investors are not enthusiastic about tidal energy because there is not a
6. To construct a hydro plant, it is important to block the running water source due to strong guarantee that it will make money or benefit consumers. Engineers are working to Disadvantages of Geothermal Energy
which the fishes can‘t arrive at their favourable place, and as the water stops improve the technology of tidal energy generators to increase the amount of energy they
streaming, the areas along the riverside start to vanish out which eventually influences produce, to decrease their impact on the environment, and to find a way to earn a profit for  Geothermal energy emits sulphur dioxide and hydrogen sulphide.
the life of creatures that depend on fish for food. energy companies.
 The regions that consist of geothermal plants often experience minor seismic activity.
Advantages of Tidal Energy  The power plants can also damage roadways, buildings, pipelines, and natural
drainage systems.
TIDAL ENERGY  Environment-friendly  Land subsidence can also occur in case geothermal energy yielders fail to inject back
 A highly predictable energy source the extracted water from the reservoir into the Earth.
This is another form of hydro energy that uses twice-daily tidal currents to drive turbine By harnessing the natural heat below the earth‘s surface, geothermal energy can be used to
generators. Although tidal flow unlike some other hydro energy sources isn‘t constant, it is  High energy density heat homes directly or to generate electricity. Although it harnesses a power directly below  The method of drilling geothermal plants deep under the Earth proves to be dangerous
our feet, geothermal energy is of negligible importance in the UK compared to countries such for the people involved in the process that is one of the greatest disadvantages of
highly predictable and can therefore compensate for the periods when the tide current is low.  Operational and maintenance costs are low
Find out more by visiting our marine energy page. as Iceland, where geothermal heat is much more freely available. geothermal energy.
 An inexhaustible source of energy
 It is hard for developing countries to build thermal plants because of their high initial
Tidal energy is produced by the surge of ocean waters during the rise and fall of tides. Tidal Used for thousands of years in some countries for cooking and heating, geothermal energy is
Disadvantages of Tidal Energy cost.
energy is a renewable source of energy. During the 20th century, engineers developed ways derived from Earth‘s internal heat. On a large scale, underground reservoirs of steam and hot
water can be tapped through wells that can go a two kilometers deep or more to generate  Geothermal energy emits out at a gradual speed from the Earth's mantle.
to use tidal movement to generate electricity in areas where there is a significant tidal  High tidal power plant construction costs
range—the difference in area between high tide and low tide. All methods use special electricity. On a smaller scale, some buildings have geothermal heat pumps that use  The construction of geothermal sites may be hazardous for the environment as the
generators to convert tidal energy into electricity.  Negative influence on marine life forms temperature differences several meters below ground for heating and cooling. Unlike solar process may discharge highly toxic gases.
 Location limits
  It is a relatively clean fuel when compared to fossil fuels. In a way biomass also data centers, communication facilities, and modern security monitoring centers. The DER may also help reduce the cost of power system augmentation, helping to reduce the
cleans our environment by trapping carbon- di-oxide advantages of DERs in emergency power applications include quick start-up, rapid raping to overall cost of supply faced by consumers.
BIOMASS ENERGY full load, low duration of power interruptions, no interruption of the security system, and
Disadvantages support of continuous operation in various sectors of the economy. However, the operating  Increased electric system reliability
This is the conversion of solid fuel made from plant materials into electricity. Although hours of the diesel generators, gas turbines, and microturbines are limited owing to high  An emergency supply of power
fundamentally, biomass involves burning organic materials to produce electricity, and  Drudgery involved in collection of fuel emissions of air pollutants.
nowadays this is a much cleaner, more energy-efficient process. By converting agricultural,  Reduction of peak power requirements
 During indoor cooking and in the absence of sufficient ventilation fuels such as dung
industrial and domestic waste into solid, liquid and gas fuel, biomass generates power at a cause air pollution which is a serious health hazard Examples of distributed energy resources that can be installed include:  Offsets to investments in generation, transmission, or distribution facilities that would
much lower economic and environmental cost. otherwise be recovered through rates
 Unsustainable and inefficient use of biomass often leads to destruction of vegetation  roof top solar photovoltaic units
and hence environmental degradation.  Provision of ancillary services, including reactive power
 wind generating units
 Improvements in power quality
 battery storage
 Reductions in land-use effects and rights-of-way acquisition costs
 batteries in electric vehicles used to export power back to the grid
DISTRIBUTED SOURCES OF ENERGY  Reduction in vulnerability to terrorism and improvements in infrastructure resilience
 combined heat and power units, or tri-generation units that also utilise waste heat to
A distributed energy resource (DER) is a small-scale unit of power generation that operates provide cooling DER is a faster and less expensive option compared to large high-voltage conventional
locally and is connected to a larger power grid at the distribution level. DERs include solar generating stations. The main benefits of a DER include (DER, 2020b):
 biomass generators, which are fuelled with waste gas or industrial and agricultural by-
panels, small natural gas-fueled generators, electric vehicles and controllable loads, such as
products.
HVAC systems and electric water heaters. An important distinction of a DER is that the  Lower cost
energy it produces is often consumed close to the source.  open and closed cycle gas turbines
 High reliability
 reciprocating engines (diesel, oil)
When using renewable power sources, the intermittent nature of some resources creates a  High power quality
need for using multiple renewable resources, as well as a means to tie them together, manage  hydro and mini-hydro schemes
 Higher efficiency
and store their output. Energy storage such as batteries and fly wheels are required for  fuel cells.
hardware such as wind and other turbine types, solar panels, and tidal generation units. In  Energy independence
order to get the most of the energy produced, these power sources and storage devices need to While DER provides a range of benefits, it also includes a range of relatively new and
be tightly managed by way of electronic management devices, which include inverters and developing technologies. Power systems and networks need to adjust to the effects of these Increased penetration of DER may also help reduce the overall emissions intensity of the
software such as Storage Distributed Resource Schedulers (SDRS). new technologies. It is important that these initial issues are recognised and addressed, in NEM, by displacing other more emissions-intensive generation.
Biomass energy includes biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel, wood, wood waste, biogas
order to ensure that the benefits of DER can be fully realised.
from landfills, and municipal solid waste. Like solar power, biomass is a flexible energy
DERs are commonly used to manage a number of smaller power generation and storage DER units are classified according to their size (installed capacity).
source, able to fuel vehicles, heat buildings, and produce electricity. But biomass can raise
methods in residential, commercial and industrial sectors. They may be used by utility
thorny issues.
providers, businesses and individuals in the production and storage of renewable power or for Classification Technical definition Typical installation
backup power sources. The technologies are fundamental requirements of more advanced Benefits of distributed energy resources (DER)
Critics of corn-based ethanol, for example, say it competes with the food market for corn and
power grids such as smart grids. Micro
Less than 2kW and connected to low
Rooftop solar PV
supports the same harmful agricultural practices that have led to toxic algae blooms and other The inclusion of distributed energy resources into the grid has several benefits. Customers voltage network
environmental hazards. Similarly, debates have erupted over whether it's a good idea to ship
Distributed energy resources (DER) refers to often smaller generation units that are located with DER assets can expect to pay less for electricity because they can sell power back to the
wood pellets from U.S. forests over to Europe so that it can be burned for electricity. Greater than 2kW and up to 10kW single Fuel cells, combined heat and power
on the consumer‘s side of the meter. grid. Mini
phase or 30kW three phase systems
Meanwhile, scientists and companies are working on ways to more efficiently convert corn
stover, wastewater sludge, and other biomass sources into energy, aiming to extract value DERs are also designed for emergency power solutions in off-grid and grid-connected In areas where there is a high reliance on wind, solar and other variable energy resources Greater than 10kW single phase or 30kw
from material that would otherwise go to waste. Small Biomass, small hydro
systems. DERs for emergency power solutions encompass the full range of enabling (VERs), distributed energy resources can be used to help improve quality of service and three phase but no more than 1MW
technologies such as renewable and nonrenewable DERs, energy storage systems, and reliability of service.
Advantages Greater than 1MW but no more than
intelligent control technology. DERs‘ power solutions also ensure the power supply Medium
5MW
Biomass, hydro, local wind generating units
sustainability and cost-effectiveness in an extensive scope of utilizations. DERs are used for Consumers who install DER units may be able to reduce the price they pay for electricity or
 Available locally and to some extent abundantly may obtain improved reliability outcomes.
emergency power solutions in a variety of settings such as residential, commercial, industrial, Large Greater than 5MW Co-generation, hydro, solar thermal. Many

energy into rotational energy. This rotational energy is transferred by a shaft which to the power. One of the world‘s largest offshore active wind farms, the London Array, spans an 2. Irregularities of the earth's surface
Classification Technical definition Typical installation
generator, thereby producing electrical energy. area of 122 square km (about 47 square miles) in the outer approaches of the Thames estuary 3. The rotation of the earth.
wind farms are distribution connected and produces up to 630 megawatts of power. Hornsea One, which will come online in 2020
Wind power, form of energy conversion in which turbines convert the kinetic energy of wind and span an area of 407 square km (about 157 square miles) near England‘s Yorkshire coast, Wind flow patterns and speeds vary greatly across the United States and are modified by
into mechanical or electrical energy that can be used for power. will be even larger, producing about 1,200 megawatts of power. By comparison, a typical bodies of water, vegetation, and differences in terrain. Humans use this wind flow, or motion
Environmental Impacts of Distributed Generation new coal-fired generating plant averages about 550 megawatts. energy, for many purposes: sailing, flying a kite, and even generating electricity.

Distributed generation can benefit the environment if its use reduces the amount of electricity By 2016 wind was contributing approximately 4 percent of the world‘s total electricity. The terms "wind energy" and "wind power" both describe the process by which the wind is
that must be generated at centralized power plants, in turn can reduce the environmental Electricity generation by wind has been increasing dramatically because of concerns over the used to generate mechanical power or electricity. This mechanical power can be used for
impacts of centralized generation. Specifically: cost of petroleum and the effects of fossil fuel combustion on the climate and environment. specific tasks (such as grinding grain or pumping water) or a generator can convert this
From 2007 to 2016, for example, total installed wind power capacity quintupled from 95 mechanical power into electricity.
 Existing cost-effective distributed generation technologies can be used to generate gigawatts to 487 gigawatts worldwide. China and the United States possessed the greatest
electricity at homes and businesses using renewable energy resources such as solar amount of installed wind capacity in 2016 (with 168.7 gigawatts and 82.1 gigawatts, A wind turbine turns wind energy into electricity using the aerodynamic force from the rotor
and wind. respectively), and that same year Denmark generated the largest percentage of its electricity blades, which work like an airplane wing or helicopter rotor blade. When wind flows across
 Distributed generation can harness energy that might otherwise be wasted—for from wind (nearly 38 percent). The wind power industry estimates that the world could the blade, the air pressure on one side of the blade decreases. The difference in air pressure
example, through a combined heat and power system. feasibly generate nearly 20 percent of its total electricity from wind power by 2030. Various across the two sides of the blade creates both lift and drag. The force of the lift is stronger
estimates put the cost of wind energy as low as 2–6 cents per kilowatt-hour, depending on the than the drag and this causes the rotor to spin. The rotor connects to the generator, either
 By using local energy sources, distributed generation reduces or eliminates the ―line location. This is comparable to the cost of coal, natural gas, and other forms of fossil energy, directly (if it‘s a direct drive turbine) or through a shaft and a series of gears (a gearbox) that
loss‖ (wasted energy) that happens during transmission and distribution in the which ranges between 5 and 17 cents per kilowatt-hour. speed up the rotation and allow for a physically smaller generator. This translation of
electricity delivery system.
aerodynamic force to rotation of a generator creates electricity.
Challenges to the large-scale implementation of wind energy include siting requirements such
However, distributed generation can also lead to negative environmental impacts: as wind availability, aesthetic and environmental concerns, and land availability. Wind farms
Wind power is considered a renewable energy source. Historically, wind power in the form of are most cost-effective in areas with consistent strong winds; however, these areas are not
 Distributed generation systems require a ―footprint‖ (they take up space), and because
windmills has been used for centuries for such tasks as grinding grain and pumping water. necessarily near large population centres. Thus, power lines and other components of Types of Wind Turbines
they are located closer to the end-user, some distributed generation systems might be
Modern commercial wind turbines produce electricity by using rotational energy to drive an electrical distribution systems must have the capacity to transmit this electricity to
unpleasant to the eye or cause land-use concerns.
electrical generator. They are made up of a blade or rotor and an enclosure called a nacelle consumers. In addition, since wind is an intermittent and inconsistent power source, storing The majority of wind turbines fall into two basic types:
 Distributed generation technologies that involve combustion—particularly burning that contains a drive train atop a tall tower. The largest turbines can produce 4.8–9.5 power may be necessary. Public advocacy groups have raised concerns about the potential
fossil fuels—can produce many of the same types of impacts as larger fossil-fuel-fired disruptions that wind farms may have on wildlife and overall aesthetics. Although wind 1. Horizontal-Axis Turbines
megawatts of power, have a rotor diameter that may extend more than 162 metres (about 531
power plants, such as air pollution. These impacts may be smaller in scale than the feet), and are attached to towers approaching 240 metres (787 feet) tall. The most common generators have been blamed for injuring and killing birds, experts have shown that modern  Horizontal-axis wind turbines are what many people picture when thinking of
impacts from a large power plant, but may also be closer to populated areas. types of wind turbines (which produce up to 1.8 megawatts) are much smaller; they have a turbines have a small effect on bird populations. The National Audubon Society, a large wind turbines. Most commonly, they have three blades and operate "upwind,"
 Some distributed generation technologies, such as waste incineration, biomass blade length of approximately 40 metres (about 130 feet) and are attached to towers roughly environmental group based in the United States and focused on the conservation of birds and with the turbine pivoting at the top of the tower so the blades face into the
combustion, and combined heat and power, may require water for steam generation or 80 metres (about 260 feet) tall. Smaller turbines can be used to provide power to individual other wildlife, is strongly in favour of wind power, provided that wind farms are wind.
cooling. homes. Wind farms are areas where a number of wind turbines are grouped together, appropriately sited to minimize the impacts on migrating bird populations and important
2. Vertical-Axis Turbines
providing a larger total energy source. wildlife habitat.
 Distributed generation systems that use combustion may be less efficient than  Vertical-axis wind turbines come in several varieties, including the eggbeater-
centralized power plants due to efficiencies of scale. How Do Wind Turbines Work?
Wind resources are calculated based on the average wind speed and the distribution of wind style Darrieus model, named after its French inventor. These turbines are
speed values occurring within a particular area. Areas are grouped into wind power classes omnidirectional, meaning they don‘t need to be adjusted to point into the wind
that range from 1 to 7. A wind power class of 3 or above (equivalent to a wind power density Wind turbines work on a simple principle: instead of using electricity to make wind—like a to operate.
of 150–200 watts per square metre, or a mean wind of 5.1–5.6 metres per second [11.4–12.5 fan—wind turbines use wind to make electricity. Wind turns the propeller-like blades of a
WIND ENERGY SYSTEMS turbine around a rotor, which spins a generator, which creates electricity.
miles per hour]) is suitable for utility-scale wind power generation, although some suitable
Wind is used to produce electricity by converting the kinetic energy of air in motion into sites may also be found in areas of classes 1 and 2. In the United States there are substantial
Wind is a form of solar energy caused by a combination of three concurrent events: Wind Turbine components and their functions
electricity. In modern wind turbines, wind rotates the rotor blades, which convert kinetic wind resources in the Great Plains region as well as in some offshore locations. As of 2018
the largest wind farm in the world was the Jiuquan Wind Power Base, an array of more than
1. The sun unevenly heating the atmosphere
7,000 wind turbines in China‘s Gansu province that produces more than 6,000 megawatts of

In order to successfully convert wind energy to electricity, a Wind Turbine depends on its 15. The Transformer Taller towers are capable of reaching high-speed wind currents at high altitude. However, in 5). The Main Shaft Bearing as one of the Wind Turbine Components
specified components or parts. Wind turbine components are discussed in this article along 16. The Transmission System turbine design, efforts are usually made to make the height of the tower to be equal to the
with their functions, in the order given below; diameter of the blades when rotating. The main shaft bearing of a wind turbine is designed to support the low-speed shaft, by
effectively transmitting the rotary motion from the rotor, toward the gearbox. It is also
The tower of a wind turbine plays the important role or function, of bearing the rotor and the designed to minimize friction between the (rotary) moving parts of the turbine.
1). The Base or Foundation as one of the Wind Turbine Components nacelle [5]. There are various types of wind turbine towers, which are selected based on the
existing needs, and conditions. These types include the lattice tower, steel tubular tower, Because of the position and function of the main shaft bearing, it must be designed to
In most cases, the foundation of a wind turbine is installed deep in the ground, and cannot be hybrid tower, guyed tower and concrete tower. withstand large, changing magnitudes of radial and axial load. The main shaft bearing is
seen above it. This is one of the most relevant parts of the turbine; whose function is to hold connected directly to the low-speed shaft, and usually has speeds that range between 8 and 60
the entire structure upright and firmly in place. 3). The Rotor as one of the Wind Turbine Components rpm as well.

In addition to supporting the weight of the wind turbine itself; the foundation helps to ensure Composed of the turbine blades and the hub which connects them at the center; the rotor can The fact that the main shaft bearing is exposed to harsh conditions implies that this is one of
that the turbine is able to withstand the intense pressure from high-speed winds. This means be described as the component of the wind turbine which is in charge of capturing and the parts of a wind turbine which must be designed very carefully. Main shaft bearings are
that it needs to be one of the heaviest and sturdiest parts of the turbine. converting kinetic energy in the form of wind. generally expected to last for a minimum of 25 years.

Wind turbine foundations are of different types. These types are often decided on the basis of The rotor captures wind (kinetic) energy using the turbine blades, 6). The Gearbox as one of the Wind Turbine Components
the size and type of the wind turbine itself, among other factors which may be considered. In
general, different types of foundations are used between onshore and offshore wind turbines. The turbine blades are designed as airfoil-shaped, light, and resilient parts of a wind turbine. The gearbox is the component which occupies the position between the low-speed main shaft
There are usually three of such blades, and they are usually efficient at capturing as much bearing, and the high-speed shaft.
When designing a foundation for onshore wind turbines, the main factors which are wind energy within their vicinity as possible. They are also designed to be fairly resistant, so
as not to get damaged easily by intense winds. Specifically, the gearbox plays the role of increasing the rotational speed (derived from wind
considered include the site location and conditions. Asides these, the features of the turbine
itself are usually considered, such as its size and weight. energy and transmitted through the rotor and low-speed shaft) of the drivetrain, to a level
When the blades capture wind, it uses the kinetic energy to achieve rotary motion. Because which is sufficient to drive the generator and produce electricity.
The site conditions that determine how a wind turbine foundation will be designed include the three blades are connected at the center by the hub, their rotation is transmitted efficiently
the geotechnical conditions (nature and bearing capacity of soils, groundwater depth, etc.) through a low-speed shaft, to the rest of the wind turbine system. A typical gearbox is composed of a set of interlocked gears that transfer and amplify the
and land-use pattern. cyclic motion from the low-speed shaft. This setup implies that the gearbox is constantly
1. The Base or Foundation
This transmission signifies a conversion of kinetic energy from wind, to mechanical energy exposed to large and irregular cyclic loads as a result of varying wind speeds.
2. The Tower
Onshore wind turbine foundations may be concrete pile or slab design. The dimensions that causes rotary motion of the parts of a wind turbine. We can therefore say that the rotor
3. The Rotor converts kinetic-mechanical energy. The severity of cyclic stresses on the gearbox often leads to frequent failure and damage.
(width, depth) are also determined by the prevalent environmental conditions.
4. The Low-Speed Shaft Because of the important function of this component, the gearbox is one of the parts of a
Parts of an offshore wind turbine are often designed slightly different from those of an 4). The Low-Speed Shaft as one of the Wind Turbine Components wind turbine which has undergone continuous modification and improvement over the years.
5. The Main Shaft Bearing Increased efficiency and resilience of the gearbox will ultimately lead to increased electricity
onshore wind turbine. This includes the foundation. Offshore turbine foundations may be
6. The Gearbox Monopile, Gravity-based, Jacket, Floating, or Tripod type foundations. Each of these is Directly connected to the rotor, the low-speed shaft bears its name as a result of the fact that output.
discussed briefly below; the rotation speed and frequency produced by the rotor is usually slow compared to that
7. The High-Speed Shaft
which is needed to run the generator and produce electricity. 7). The High-Speed Shaft as one of the Wind Turbine Components
8. The Generator 2). The Tower as one of the Wind Turbine Components
The low-speed shaft transfers the rotary motion (mechanical energy) of the rotor, to the Unlike the low-speed shaft, the high-speed shaft rotates at relatively high speeds of a least
9. The Nacelle
In most wind turbines, the tower consists of steel which has a tubular or cylindrical shape and gearbox which amplifies it to produce higher-frequency rotation for the generator. Usually, 1000 rpm on the average.
10. The Yaw Drive the low-speed shaft rotates at speeds of between 8-30 rotations per minute (rpm), and may
a height of about 50m to over 100m.
11. The Pitch Control reach speeds of 60 rpm in exceptional cases. This is because the high-speed shaft is directly connected to the gearbox. Its function is to
The tower is one of the parts of a wind turbine, whose design must be planned carefully, with transmit the increased rotary speed from the gearbox to the generator. This increased rotary
12. The Braking System speed is what drives the electric coil of the generator, and causes it to produce electricity.
due consideration of different factors such as the size and weight of the turbine, and the
13. The Controller prevalent environmental conditions. It is generally agreed that the height of the tower of a
14. The Wind Vane and Anemometer wind turbine determines how much wind it will be able to capture, and hence its efficiency
[6].

The rotor, low-speed shaft, main shaft bearing, gearbox, high-speed shaft and generator, all 10). The Yaw Drive as one of the Wind Turbine Components While the aerodynamic braking system is spring-driven, and works based on hydraulic process. By increasing the voltage output of a wind turbine, the transformer ensures that
constitute what may be referred to as the drivetrain of the wind turbine. All energy pressure, the mechanical braking system works mainly by friction. Mechanical braking power is transmitted to (and distributed through) the utility grid, efficiently.
conversions and transmissions in a wind turbine, are handled by the drivetrain. It is important to note that the yaw drive is found primarily in a horizontal axis wind turbine. system in a wind turbine is usually composed of brake pads and a rotating disc which when
clamped together, bring the blades of the turbine to a stop. 17). The Transmission System as one of the Wind Turbine Components
8). The Generator as a one of the Wind Turbine Components The function of this component, is simply to ensure that the nacelle of the turbine is
constantly facing the direction of best wind intensity and speed. By doing so, the wind Mechanical braking system provides a means to bring the turbine blades to a complete halt, In wind turbines, the transmission system comprises of a series of electric circuits and cables
Responsible for the conversion of mechanical energy to electricity, the generator is another turbine is made to produce its maximal amount of electricity at every point in time [14]. and is therefore preferred only when it is necessary to achieve this motive. (transmission lines) that convey the power output of the turbine (after its voltage has been
example of the important parts of a wind turbine. stepped-up by the transformer) to the point(s) where this power is needed.
Yaw drives move the nacelle and turbine blades about the axis of the turbine tower in a 13). The Controller as one of the Wind Turbine Components
This component consists basically of an electric coil (usually made of copper) which is horizontal rotary fashion. This is what is described as yaw motion. The yaw drive, along with The transmission system is designed to reduce potential power losses to the barest minimum
stationed within a magnetic field, such that it is under the influence of magnetism. By a series of brakes and bearings, constitute the yaw system. With regards to regulating the operations of the entire system, the controller is one of the while transmitting the produced electricity. In several cases, the transformer is considered to
rotating this coil at high speed within the magnetic field, electricity is produced, through the most important parts of a wind turbine. be a component of the transmission system in a wine turbine.
process of electromagnetic induction [7]. 11). The Pitch Control as one of the Wind Turbine Components
Basically, this component carries out power management, by supervising, assisting and
The high-speed rotation which is needed to produce electricity is much higher than that which Adjusting the angular orientation of the turbine blades is the primary function of the pitch coordinating the operations of the other parts of the turbine. The controller helps to optimize
can be provided by natural wind (kinetic) energy through the rotor. For this reason, the rate of control system [10]. This function is very important, because it determines how much wind the power production of the wine turbine while minimizing the loads to which the system is INSTRUMENTATION FOR WIND VELOCITY MEASUREMENTS
rotation is multiplied by the gear box, and the resulting mechanical energy is transmitted to energy will be captured by the turbine blades, and prevents damage under extreme-wind- subjected.
the generator through the high-speed shaft. intensity conditions. We collect wind data with various instruments. You can call them gadgets or devices in a
In order to achieve this, a series of computers are used to continuously gather data concerning modern way. Anemometer is the most common of these tools. But there is more than one
There are different types of generators used in wind turbines. They include; the AC The pitch control system actively monitors the orientation of the blades and the condition of the environmental conditions as well as the operational health of the turbine [2]. instrument for measuring wind, considering that this is probably the most diverse weather
synchronous generator; the AC asynchronous generator (or alternator); and the DC dynamo. wind flow; using this information to continuously adjust the blades by rotating them, such parameter.
that they remain effective and operate within safe limits. By the function of the controller, the turbine operates within defined limits of wind speed,
9). The Nacelle as one of the Wind Turbine Components which is usually between 8 to 55 miles per hour (mph). This ensures that the turbine remains
12). The Braking System as one of the Wind Turbine Components productive and functions optimally without damage.
Nacelle has the function of protecting all the parts of a wind turbine that are directly involved
in converting kinetic energy from wind into mechanical energy, and then electricity. One of the parts of a wind turbine which is fully involved in safety insurance is the braking 14-15). The Wind Vane and Anemometer as Wind Turbine Components
system.
This implies that the nacelle is simply a housing component [11]. The parts which it protects An anemometer and a wind vane are usually installed in wind turbines, as part of the safety
include the rotor, shafts, gearbox, generator and controller systems. The main function of the braking system of a wind turbine is to automatically stop the rotor and controller systems. Respectively, these components help to acquire data concerning the
from moving [13]. This is necessary when the wind speed is above safe limits, or when speed and direction of prevailing winds within the vicinity of the turbine.
By enclosing these components in the nacelle, they are able to remain within a fixed and another part of the wind turbine is damaged or faulty. By stopping the rotor, hazards and
well-planned configuration. The nacelle is installed on top of the turbine tower and is usually damages are minimized or prevented. The data acquired by the anemometer and wind vane are sent to the yaw drive and controller
very large, weighing hundreds of tons and stretching for more than 50 ft. systems, which determine the mode of operation of the turbine.
Two kinds of braking systems can be found in a wind turbine. These are the aerodynamic and
The design of a wind turbine is always such that the nacelle is accessible for maintenance or the mechanical braking systems. 16). The Transformer as one of the Wind Turbine Components
repairs. In most cases, this is achieved by installing a system of lifts, ladders, and other climb- Anemometer
assist technologies [3]. Some modern offshore wind turbines are equipped with a helicopter- Aerodynamic braking system is usually the main braking system in a wind turbine. It Although it is not a major component, we can hardly discuss the parts of a wind turbine
hoisting platform on top of the nacelle to enable tools and personnel to be lowered onto the provides a relatively fast, efficient and effective way to stop the turbine, which involves without mentioning the transformer.
Anemometer is a small tool that usually consists of a base and three cups that rotate on the
turbine for service purposes. turning the turbine blades to a 90-degrees position relative to the horizontal axis. spire. In the process, they capture and measure wind speed and direction. Such instruments
Basically, the transformer is an intermediary component, which occupies the important
are also called "cup anemometers". What is important to know about them is that they are
The yaw drive is another component which is usually positioned underneath the nacelle. It The mechanical braking system is less efficient than the aerodynamic system and usually position between the turbine and the utility grid. The transformer‘s function is to step-up (that
usually set at an altitude of 10 meters (32 feet) above sea level, which is the optimal altitude
makes the nacelle and the turbine blades to revolve on the axis of the turbine tower to face the serves as an auxiliary (support) braking system. However, the mechanical braking system is; to increase or boost) the output voltage of the wind turbine [1].
for measuring the wind. So that the wind you see in the weather forecast is always measured
direction of the most favorable wind currents. This revolution of the nacelle and blades is rarely used in most wind turbines, as the safety function of stopping the turbine is usually
at this height. In extreme weather conditions, such as on top of mountains, a sonic
often called ‗yaw motion‘. well-handled by the aerodynamic braking system. When electricity is produced by the generator, it comes at a relatively low voltage compared
anemometer is usually used instead, which has no moving parts, so that they are not
to that which is needed to transmit the power through electric lines without much loss in the
damaged.
The cup anemometer is the simplest and most common style of an anemometer. It is They may look like a nightstand but not always. Yes, we can rather classify this tool as big
composed of 3 or 4 hemispherical cups that are mounted at equal angles to each other on and complex than small and simple, but we list it here to collect all the wind measurement
horizontal rods. The cups catch the wind which spins the device horizontally. The faster the tools in one place.
wind blows the faster the anemometer spins. A magnet is built into one of the arms which
creates a small current that counts the revolutions each time an arm rotates past a certain
point. This gives an accurate record of wind speed. An anemometer does not measure the
wind direction only the speed. These can be seen on many home weather stations.

Fig. Illustration of the hot wire anemometer working

Definition: The Hot Wire Anemometer is a device used for measuring the velocity and Windsock
direction of the fluid. This can be done by measuring the heat loss of the wire which is placed
in the fluid stream. The wire is heated by electrical current. The hot wire when placed in the Windsock is another old tool for measuring wind direction. Yes, it literally looks like a sock
stream of the fluid, in that case, the heat is transferred from wire to fluid, and hence the that is filled with air. This is how we know the direction of the wind. They also help you
temperature of wire reduces. The resistance of wire measures the flow rate of the fluid. visually understand wind speed: the stronger the windsock moves, the stronger the wind. For
Cup anemometer a better visibility, wind socks are usually painted white and red one by one and look
In the constant current method, the anemometer is placed in the stream of the fluid whose something like lighthouses. Even with today's devices, windsocks are most often found in
Anemometer is a device for measuring the speed of airflow in the atmosphere, in wind flow rate needs to be measured. The current of constant magnitude is passed through the airports as an ineffably simple and visible tool for determining wind direction.
tunnels, and in other gas-flow applications. Most widely used for wind-speed measurements wire. The Wheatstone bridge is also kept on the constant voltage. When the wire is kept in the
is the revolving-cup electric anemometer, in which the revolving cups drive an electric stream of liquid, in that case, the heat is transferred from the wire to the fluid. The heat is
generator. The output of the generator operates an electric meter that is calibrated in wind directly proportional to the resistance of the wire. If heat reduces, that means the resistance of
speed. The useful range of this device is approximately from 5 to 100 knots. A propeller may wire also reduces. The Wheatstone bridge measures the variation in resistance which is equal
also be used to drive the electric generator, as in the propeller anemometer. In another type of to the flow rate of the liquid.
wind-driven unit, revolving vanes operate a counter, the revolutions being timed by a WIND FARM
stopwatch and converted to airspeed. This device is especially suited for the measurement of
low airspeeds. Wind farms are areas where many large wind turbines have been grouped together. They
Wind vane ―harvest‖ the power of the wind. These large turbines look a bit like super-tall windmills.

Wind vane is an old tool for measuring wind direction. It looks like a windmill with a sail A large wind farm can have hundreds of wind turbines spread out over hundreds of miles.
A hot wire anemometer is an instrument used in fluid mechanics as a research tool. It
coming off it or as a construction of several rods crossed with each other. They can also have The land between the turbines may be used for other purposes, such as regular farming. Some
measures wind speed by running an electrical current across a very thin, short wire. The wire
figures of people and animals, houses, flags, and different objects on them — anything. Some wind farms are also located near bodies of water. There, they take advantage of winds that
is heated to a specific temperature. Since air flowing across an object cools it, the amount of
wind vanes are so interesting that they are works of art, and with the spread of more modern blow across lakes or oceans.
power needed to keep the wire at a constant temperature is used to calculate the wind speed.
wind gauges, they have even become real rarities, adorning the collections of meteorology
The faster the wind is blowing the more electricity is needed to keep the wire hot. This
enthusiasts around the world. Did you know that wind energy is actually another form of solar energy? Earth‘s shape and
anemometer does not indicate the direction of the wind only the velocity or speed. Since this
uses a very thin wire and can be used in very tight spaces, it is often used for calculating Wind profiler rotation work with the Sun‘s uneven heating of the atmosphere to make winds.
turbulent flow conditions in the manufacturing of cars and planes.
Wind profiler helps us to measure the wind at every 1,000 meters (3,280 feet) above sea Wind farms are built in areas known to be especially windy on a regular basis. The winds turn
level, up to the extent of the troposphere between 8 and 17 kilometers (4.9 to 10.5 miles). The the blades of the turbines. Then, the turbines turn the energy of the wind into mechanical
wind profilers use radar or sound waves (SODAR) to determine wind speed and direction.

power. Generators then turn the mechanical power into electricity. That electricity is then sites do not exhibit similar wind speed and direction trends and lack similar topographic display a base set over which overlays of other data sets are placed. Information is linked as it
used to power homes. exposures, they will probably not have sufficient correlation value. relates to the same geographical area. GIS mapping is an analysis tool, not simply a computer
system for making maps.
You can think of a wind turbine as the opposite of a fan. A fan uses electricity to make wind. These wind power stations should continue to collect data even after a wind farm is installed.
Wind turbines do the opposite: they use the wind to make electricity! As the wind turns the defined as the ratio of actual production of N wind turbines in the farm configuration to the The data improves siting of a wind farm and also provides reference sites for delineating Geographic Information Systems allows a user to associate information with a feature on a
blades of a wind turbine, the blades cause a shaft to spin. The spinning shaft connects to a theoretical production of N undistrubed turbines. Good farms should have a farm efficiency wind resources for single or distributed wind turbine in the region. map and create relationships that can determine the feasibilities of various locations, for
generator that creates electricity. of at least 85%. example, a hierarchical system for locating anemometer stations for wind prospecting.
Renewable Energy Production
Are you wondering why scientists looked to the wind as an energy source? There are plenty Wind Forecasting
of good reasons. Wind energy is free and renewable. Unlike most power plants, wind farms The number of met stations and duration of data collection to predict the energy production
don‘t emit pollution or greenhouse gases. for a wind farm vary depending on the terrain and the availability of long-term base data in Numerical models for predicting winds are becoming more accurate and useful, especially for
ASPECTS OF LOCATION OF WIND FARMS the vicinity. In general, numerical models of wind flow will predict wind speeds to within 5% areas of the world where surface wind data are scarce or unreliable. When using them, it is
However, wind farms can cost a lot of money to set up. Over time, though, their cost is for relatively flat terrain and 10% for complex terrain, which means an error in energy of 15– important to keep in mind that a small difference in wind speed can make a large difference
competitive with other types of generating systems. Unfortunately, you can‘t make the wind There are many factors to consider when choosing a location for a wind turbine or wind farm, 30%. A wind measurement program is therefore imperative before a wind farm is installed. in renewable energy production. In the final analysis, surface wind data is still required for
blow whenever you want it to. That means wind farms can‘t always meet electricity needs on such as (but not limited to) the wind resource potential in the area, proximity to existing However, if a number of wind farms are already in the region, one year of data collection wind farms.
demand. power lines, and potential environmental impacts. may suffice.
MesoMap: This system was developed specifically for near-surface wind forecasting. It uses
Over time, scientists believe new technologies will make wind power even more popular. This process of selecting a location for a wind energy project, known as ―siting,‖ includes For complex terrain, one met station per three to five wind turbines may be needed. For more historical atmospheric data spanning 20 years and a fine grid (typically 1–5 km). The model
They believe people may one day store wind power in batteries for on-demand use. Wind reviewing wind maps and data, securing permits and following ordinances, and ensuring best homogeneous terrain, a primary tall met station and one to four smaller met stations may provides descriptive statistics utilizing wind speed histograms, Weibull frequency parameters,
power already accounts for about 3% of the United States‘ electricity. Experts believe wind practices for the size and proposed location of a project. suffice. turbulence and maximum gusts, maps of wind energy potential within specific geographical
power will account for 20% of the nation‘s electricity by 2030. regions, and even the annual energy production data for a wind turbine of any height for
Careful siting requires thorough research and thoughtful public engagement. Resources from The money spent on micrositing (siting of wind turbines over an area the size of a wind farm, selected sites in a region.
the following categories aid in the critical project planning step of site selection for a wind about 5–20 km2) is a small fraction of project cost, but the value of the information gained is
turbine or wind farm. critical for estimating energy production accurately. Many problems with low energy WAsP: The Wind Atlas Analysis and Application Program software was developed by
production are the results of poor siting. Denmark‘s Risoe National Laboratory to predict wind climate and power production from a
How to Select a Location for a Wind Farm? wind turbine. The predictions are based on wind data measured at stations in the region. The
Digital Maps on Wind Speed program includes a complex terrain flow model.
Siting a Wind Turbine
Digital maps are useful for siting a wind farm as they give a general overview of wind Micro-siting of Wind Farms
The crucial factor in siting a wind farm (also called wind park or wind plant) is the annual resource, provide confidence in the data, and provide information about land use and
energy production and how the value of the energy produced compares to other sources of transmission lines, and other features can easily be displayed on the same maps. Wind maps, data compiled by meteorological towers, models, and other criteria are used to
energy. Using long-term is data therefore critical. Data should be collected at a potential site select wind farm locations. Further considerations for a wind farm developer are the type of
for 2–3 years, after which other questions arise: Wind Site Assessment Dashboard (formerly Wind navigator), a web platform based on terrain (complex to flat plain), wind shear, wind direction, and spacing of wind turbines based
Google Maps, is an interactive tool that includes wind resource maps and world data. The on predominant wind direction and availability, land cost, and requirements such as roads,
 What is the long-term annual variability? map provides wind speed data at custom height of 10–140m and a pointer to locate the turbine foundations, and substations. In complex terrain, such as mountains and ridges,
 How well can we predict the renewable energy production? Vaisala provides a similar interactive micrositing is particularly important.
wind resource map (map, satellite, hybrid, and terrain views) and data for much of the world,
Data on Wind Power which features wind speed data for 20, 50, and 80m and with Wind GIS Data Layers, Satellite and aerial images are used in micrositing and are available from various sources;
Larger areas can be covered by multiple wind turbines, forming a wind farm. Unfortunately, resolution is at 90m. Remember that wind speed maps provide useful indicators of wind some are free. Zoom Earth has the option of switching among sources, such as Google Maps,
adding a second or third turbine does not double or triple the energy yield. The wind farm To determine whether historical data from a site is adequate to describe long-term wind energy, and wind power maps are the next step. Microsoft VE, and others. Although micrositing techniques of wind farm developers are
efficiency is resources at another site, a rigorous analysis should be done. The annual hourly linear proprietary, satellite images show the layout of wind farms, and can provide good
correlation coefficient should be at least 0.90 between the reference site and off-site data. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) information about siting from the images and topographic maps.
Wind shear must also be factored in if the heights are different at the two locations. If the two
A Geographic Information System is a computer system capable of holding and using Economic and institutional issues also affect micrositing. An example is the Waubra wind
spatially oriented data. Geographic Information Systems typically link different data sets or farm project in Australia, which involves environmental, cultural, heritage, and

environmental management issues. Since installation, many residents have expressed The major contribution to the wind power available at a given site is actually made by winds 2. Availability of anemometry data: 7. Local Ecology
opposition, claiming health effects caused by wind farms. with speeds above the average. Nevertheless, the most suitable sites for wind turbines would
be found in areas where the annual average wind speeds are known to be moderately high or It is another improvement sitting factor. The aenometry data should be available over some If the surface is base rock it may mean lower hub height hence lower structure cost. If trees or
Offshore Wind high. time period at the precise spot where any proposed WECS is to be built and that this should grass or vegetation are present, all of which tend to destructure the wind, the higher hub
be accomplished before a sitting decision is made. heights will be needed resulting in larges system costs that the bare ground case.
Ocean wind observations provide complementary sources of information for siting of a The site choice for a single or a spatial array of WECS is an important matter when wind
offshore wind farm. The advantages of ocean wind maps are: electrics are looked at from the systemspoint of view of aeroturbine generators feeding power 3. Availability of wind V(t) Curve at the proposed site: 8. Distance to road or railways:
into a convertional electric grid.
 Some satellite wind maps are public domain This important curve determines the maximum energy in the wind and hence is the principal This is another factor the system engineer must consider for heavy machinery, structure,
If the WECS sites are wrongly or poorly chosen the net wind electrics generated energy per initially controlling factor in predicting the electrical output and hence revenue return o the materials, blades and other apparatus will have to be moved into any choosen WECS site.
 All offer global coverage allowing observation of large areas without large numbers
year may be sub optimal with resulting high capital cost for the WECS apparatus, high costs WECS machines.
of meteorological towers
for wind generated electric energy, and low Returns on Investment. Even if the WECS is to 9. Nearness of site to local centre/users:
 All are accessible in archives spanning several years It is desirable to have average wind speed ‗V‘ such that V>=12-16 km/hr (3.5 – 4.5 m/sec)
be a small generator not tied to the electric grid, the sitting must be carefully chosen if
 Accuracy is sufficient for wind resource screening inordinately long break even times are to be avoided. Technical, Economic, Environmental, which is about the lower limit at which present large scale WECS generators ‗cut in‘ i.e., start This obvious criterion minimizes transmission line length and hence losses and cost. After
Social and Other actors are examined before a decision is made to erect a generating plant on turning. The V(t) Curve also determines the reliability of the delivered WECS generator applying all the previous string criteria, hopefully as one narrows the proposed WECS sites to
 They quantify spatial variations one or two they would be relatively near to the user of the generated electric energy.
a specific site. power, for if the V(t) curve goes to zero there be no generated power during that time.
 They are available at resolutions of 400m, 1.6m, and 0.25 degree
Some of the main site selection consideration are given below: If there are long periods of calm the WECS reliability will be lower than if the calm periods 10. Nature of ground:
 Software has been developed for their use
are short. In making such realiability estimates it is desirable to have measured V(t) Curve
1. High annual average wind speed: over about a 5 year period for the highest confidence level in the reliability estimate. Ground condition should be such that the foundation for a WECS are secured. Ground
The major problems with ocean winds are:
surface should be stable. Erosion problem should not be there, as it could possibly later wash
2. Availability of anemometry data: out the foundation of a WECS, destroying the whole system.
4. Wind structure at the proposed site:
 Data are for 10m height and values of wind shear are not known
3. Availability of wind V(t) Curve at the proposed site:
 Standard deviations are around 1.2 to 1.5m/s on mean wind speed The ideal case for the WECS would be a site such that the V(t) Curve was flat, i.e., a smooth 11. Favourable land cost:
4. Wind structure at the proposed site:
 Data are not available or not as reliable within 25 km of shore steady wind that blows all the time; but a typical site is always less than ideal. Wind specially
5. Altitude of the proposed site: near the ground is turbulent and gusty, and changes rapidly in direction and in velocity. This Land cost should be favourable as this along with other siting costs, enters into the total
depature from homogeneous flow is collectively referred to as ―the structure of the wind‖. WECS system cost.
Geographic Information Systems provides very flexible and powerful tools for terrain 6. Terrain and its aerodynamic:
analysis relevant to wind energy prospecting. They can help reclassify existing wind maps
7. Local Ecology 5. Altitude of the proposed site: 12. Other conditions such as icing problem, salt spray or blowing dust should not present at
and identify areas showing potential as possible wind farm sites. In addition, Geographic
8. Distance to road or railways: the site, as they may affect aeroturbine blades or environmental is generally adverse to
Information Systems can be used to quantify wind power potential and, in conjunction with
It affects the air density and thus the power in the wind and hence the useful WECS electric machinery and electrical apparatus.
numerical models, estimate annual energy production. 9. Nearness of site to local centre/users:
power output. Also, as is well known, the wind tend to have higher velocities at higher
After a location is selected, Geographic Information Systems and topographical maps can be 10. Nature of ground: altitudes. One must be carefully to distinguish altitude from height above ground. They are
used for micrositing. Wind turbines should be located within a wind plant area to maximize 11. Favourable land cost: not the same except for a sea level WECS site.
TYPES OF WIND TURBINES
annual energy production.
6. Terrain and its aerodynamic:
The majority of wind turbines fall into two basic types: HORIZONTAL-AXIS TURBINES,
1. High annual average wind speed: One should know about terrain of the site to be chosen. If the WECS is to be placed near the and VERTICAL-AXIS TURBINES.
SITE SELECTION CONSIDERATION FOR WECS top but not on the top of a not too blunt hill facing the prevailing wind, then it may be
The speed generated by the wind mill depends on cubic values of velocity of wind, the small possible to obtain a ‗speed-up‘ of the wind velocity over what it would otherwise be. Also the HORIZONTAL-AXIS TURBINES: Horizontal-axis wind turbines are what many people
increases in velocity markedly affect the power in the wind. For example, Doubling the wind here may not flow horizontal making it necessary to tip the axis of the rotor so that the picture when thinking of wind turbines. Most commonly, they have three blades and operate
The power available in the wind increases rapidly with the speed, hence wind energy
velocity, increases power by a factor of 8. It is obviously desirable to select a site for WECS aeroturbine is always perpendicular to the actual wind flow. "upwind," with the turbine pivoting at the top of the tower so the blades face into the wind.
conversion machines should be located preferable in areas where the winds are strong and
with high wind velocity. Thus a high average wind velocity is the principle fundamental
persistent. Although daily winds at a given site may be highly variable, the monthly and
parameter of concern in initially appraising WESCS site. For more detailed estimate value, It may be possible to make use of hills or mountains which channel the prevailing wind into a The working principle of a HAWT is based on a lift, which is the force that pushes an object
especially annual average are remarkably constant from year to year.
one would like to have the average of the velocity cubed. pass region, thereby obtaining higher wind power. upward when air flows over its surface. The blades of a HAWT are shaped like airfoils, which

create a pressure difference between their upper and lower surfaces when the wind blows.  The vertical axis wind turbine receives wind from any direction, and hence the
This pressure difference causes the blades to rotate around the horizontal axis, which in turn yawing system is not required.
drives the shaft and the generator to produce electricity.  The generator, gearbox, etc. can be installed at the bottom of the tower, hence their
tower design and installation is simple.
The rotor plane of a HAWT must be aligned with the wind direction to maximize its  Inspection and maintenance is easier.
efficiency. Therefore, a HAWT has a wind sensor and a yaw system that adjust the orientation  They are lighter in weight and cheaper in cost.
of the nacelle according to the wind direction. A HAWT also has a pitch system that changes
the angle of attack of the blades to control their rotational speed and power output. VAWTs are generally not self-starting and have a low power coefficient, these are the major
disadvantages. They require a mechanism to start from the stationary position. Additionally,
 Horizontal-axis turbines are similar to propeller airplane engines. Horizontal-axis there is a possibility of running the blades at a very high speed and causing damage to the
turbines have blades like airplane propellers, and they commonly have three blades. system.
The largest horizontal-axis turbines are as tall as 20-story buildings and have blades
more than 100 feet long. Taller turbines with longer blades generate more electricity. The advantages of VAWTs are:
Nearly all of the wind turbines currently in use are horizontal-axis turbines.
 Horizontal axis machines have emerged as the most successful type of turbines. These  They have lower installation and maintenance costs than HAWTs because they have
are being used for commercial energy generation in many parts of the world. fewer moving parts and electrical components.
 They have low cut-in wind speed, easy furling and, in general, show a high power Aerial photo of a horizontal wind turbine at the National Wind Technology Center (NWTC)  They have lower noise levels than HAWTs because they rotate at slower speeds.
coefficient. in Colorado.  They can be installed on rooftops or near buildings because they have lower heights
 However, their design is more complex and expensive as the generator and gearbox and smaller footprints than HAWTs. Vertical-axis wind turbines
VERTICAL-AXIS TURBINES: Vertical-axis wind turbines come in several varieties,
are to be placed at the top of the tower. Also, a tailor yaw drive is to be installed to
including the eggbeater-style Darrieus model, named after its French inventor. These turbines The disadvantages of VAWTs are:
orient them in the wind direction.
are omnidirectional, meaning they don‘t need to be adjusted to point into the wind to operate.
The advantages of HAWTs are:  They have lower efficiency than HAWTs because they have more drag and less lift.
Vertical-axis turbines look like egg beaters. Vertical-axis turbines have blades that are
 They have higher torque ripple and mechanical stress than HAWTs because they have
 They have higher efficiency than vertical axis wind turbines (VAWTs) because they attached to the top and the bottom of a vertical rotor. The most common type of vertical-axis
more changes in aerodynamic forces during each rotation.
turbine—the Darrieus wind turbine, named after the French engineer Georges Darrieus who
can capture more wind energy with less drag.  They cannot be installed offshore because they are less stable and durable than
patented the design in 1931—looks like a giant, two-bladed egg beater. Some versions of the
 They have lower torque ripple and mechanical stress than VAWTs because they have HAWTs.
vertical-axis turbine are 100 feet tall and 50 feet wide. Very few vertical-axis wind turbines
fewer changes in aerodynamic forces during each rotation.
are in use today because they do not perform as well as horizontal-axis turbines.
 They can be installed offshore on floating platforms or fixed foundations, where the
wind speed is higher and more consistent.
The working principle of a VAWT is based on drag, which is the force that opposes the
motion of an object when air flows over its surface. The blades of a VAWT are symmetrical
The disadvantages of HAWTs are:
or asymmetrical, which create different amounts of drag when they face or oppose the wind
direction. This drag difference causes the blades to rotate around the vertical axis, which in
 They require a tall tower and a large land area to avoid turbulence and interference
turn drives the generator to produce electricity.
from nearby structures or terrain.
 They are more expensive and complex to install and maintain than VAWTs because
The rotor plane of a VAWT does not need to be aligned with the wind direction because it can
they have more moving parts and electrical components.
capture wind from any direction. Therefore, a VAWT does not have a yaw system or a wind
 They are more susceptible to fatigue and damage from high winds, storms, lightning, sensor. However, a VAWT may have a pitch system that changes the angle of attack of the
birds, or ice. blades to control their rotational speed and power output. AERODYNAMIC AND MECHANICAL ASPECTS OF WIND MACHINE DESIGN
A wind turbine turns wind energy into electricity using the aerodynamic force from the rotor
 In these machines, the axis of rotation is perpendicular to the direction of the wind.
blades, which work like an airplane wing or helicopter rotor blade. When wind flows across
 The main advantages of a VAWT compared to HAWT are
the blade, the air pressure on one side of the blade decreases. The difference in air pressure
across the two sides of the blade creates both lift and drag. The force of the lift is stronger
than the drag and this causes the rotor to spin. The rotor connects to the generator, either Drag Force The magnitude of the drag force varies with the wind speed and the size and shape of the
directly (if it‘s a direct drive turbine) or through a shaft and a series of gears (a gearbox) that The drag force is friction caused by air, which opposes the motion. This force is made as little blade.
speed up the rotation and allow for a physically smaller generator. This translation of
as possible so that as much of the lift as possible can go into useful work (turning the
aerodynamic force to rotation of a generator creates electricity. turbine).
Aerodynamics is a branch of fluid dynamics, the study of the motion of air with forces and Drag is expressed in terms of the drag coefficient, which is a dimensionless number.
moments that act on the body. Aerodynamics plays a vital role in the flight of the aeroplane
Typically, the only area of a wind turbine blade used in the calculation of drag is the front
and helicopter, rocket technology, designing high speed and fuel-efficient cars, reducing the area (leading edge) of the blade.
drag on the athlete in sports events and a lot more engineering applications. For example, the
aerodynamics of the wind turbine is an important area to increase power output and design a Design engineers aim for the smallest amount of drag. The smaller the drag, the more
large turbine blade. efficient the turbine is in harvesting wind energy. To reduce drag, blades are made relatively
narrow.
The blade on a wind turbine can be thought of as a rotating wing, but the forces are different
on a turbine due to the rotation. This section introduces you to important concepts about Fig.: Forces acting on the wind blade A typical drag coefficient for wind turbine blades is 0.04; compare this to a well-designed
Drag force parameters
turbine blades. In normal operation, the rounded front portion of the blades is oriented in the automobile with a drag coefficient of 0.30.
Drag forces have a cantilever beam effect on the blade, causing the maximum stress at the
direction of rotation and the flat portion faces the wind. The front of the blade is referred to as Even though the drag coefficient for a blade is fairly constant, as the wind speed increases,
Lift Force joint between the blade and the hub which is connected to the main shaft of the wind turbine.
the leading edge and the back is referred to as the trailing edge, as illustrated in Figure 1a. the amount of drag force also increases. The lower the drag coefficient number, the better the
Lift is a component of an aerodynamic force exerted on a body that is perpendicular to a fluid aerodynamic efficiency.
(such as air) flowing past it. For an airplane wing, it is the force that lifts the plane, hence the
term lift. Drag forces are caused by the air molecules that hit the surface of the blade facing the wind.

In a wind turbine, the term lift is a bit of a misnomer because it does not lift the blade; rather,
it is a force exerted in a direction that is perpendicular to the apparent wind direction rather
than the true direction. See Fig 1. In this case, lift is shown related to the airflow rather than
the wing, as would be the case for an airplane wing.
Assume the flat part of the blade is facing the true wind. As the blade turns, air that flows
across the leading edge appears as a separate component of the wind; thus, the apparent wind
direction is shifted to oppose the direction of rotation.
The rotation of the blade causes a lift force that is perpendicular to the apparent wind Airfoil drag force
direction. A small portion of this force goes toward turning the blade.
The lift force rotates with the blades so it constantly changes direction. The motion of the A major component of the drag force acts in the direction that is parallel to the main shaft of
blades is opposed by the force required to spin the generator, friction in the system, and drag. the rotor.
Fig. 1: Air Moving Past a Turbine. (a) The rounded leading edge is oriented in the direction
of rotation. (b) A lift force is created by pressure differences that are perpendicular to the
apparent wind direction. This force tends to bend the blades and create a smaller rotational
Maximum Bending Moment at the Hub from drag forces
force.

Drag Force major component direction

stress is the frictional force tangential to the surface. The pressure difference between the leading edge to the trailing edge. A mean locus between the upper and bottom of the aerofoil
bottom of the blade and the top of the blade generates the lift force (perpendicular to is the mean camber line and the maximum distance between the chord and camber line is
freestream velocity) the wind turbine blade generates the power by rotating the generator. called camber. The well-known and basic aerofoil series is NACA aerofoil. NACA stands for
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, which designed aerofoil with a series to
understand the shape easily. For example, in a NACA-4 series aerofoil, the first digit
represents maximum camber at 0–9.5% chord, the second digit represents the location of
maximum camber at 0–90% chord and the last two-digit represents the thickness of the
aerofoil at 1–40% chord. NACA-0012 is a symmetrical aerofoil with zero camber at 12%
chord thickness. NACA-2412 is asymmetrical aerofoil with 2% chord of maximum camber,
location of camber at 40% of chord, and 12% thickness of chord.

Maximum Stresses from Drag forces

Lift Force A major component of the lift force acts in the ever-changing tangential direction as the rotor
rotates Cantilever beam effect of lift forces on the blade
When the wind passes over the blade, the pressure difference between the front and back of
the blade causes the lift forces.

Fig.: Aerodynamic forces in the aerofoil.

Airfoil lift Force

Lift force is given by, The tangential direction of the lift force

Where,
Maximum Stresses on Blade due to lift forces
 L = lift force (N) The drag forces and the lift forces are perpendicular to each other;so are their cantilever beam
Pressure difference across the airfoil  ρ = density of air (Kg/m3)
effects on the blades
 V = wind velocity (m/s)
 S = blade span area (m2)
 CL = coefficient of lift The tangential component of lift forces

The lift force on the wind turbine blade is proportional to the square of the wind velocity
gains essential parameters in the wind energy generation. The blade span area depends on the The magnitude of the lift force varies with the wind speed and the size, and the shape of the
length and width of the blade throughout the cross-section and CL depends on the shape blade. As generator load increases, the amount of lift must also increase, within the limits of
(aerofoil selection) and orientation (pitch angle) of the blade. Aerofoil is a streamlined, cross- prevailing wind conditions
Pressure difference direction sectional blade shape that produces high lift compared to other shapes. The aerofoils were
Lift forces also have a cantilever beam effect on the blade, causing the maximum stress at the
first used in the aeroplane wings to generate lift and are now widely used for energy
joint between the blade and the hub which is connected to the main shaft of the wind turbine
The forces and moments on the body are due to pressure and shear stress distribution. The production. Terminologies define the shape of the aerofoil, the frontal part is the leading edge
pressure acts perpendicular to the surface, which acts as a load on the wind turbine and shear and rearward part is the trailing edge, and the chord line is the straight line connecting the

Blades are specified for a maximum tip speed and they are tapered to reduce lift at the ends Changing direction wind blade particle
because the faster-moving tip can still generate sufficient lift.
High tip speed is defined as speeds between 65 and 85 m/s, which is about 145 to 190 mph.
High tip speeds are needed to make the turbine blade more efficient. At very high speeds, the
turbine blade may receive too much stress, which can cause deterioration due to micro-
fracturing.
A turbine blade must be designed to withstand the maximum stress. A specification that is
Fig. 2: Angle of Attack. As attack angle increases, lift increases until the airfoil begins to stall
important is the ratio of the tip speed to the wind speed, or the tip speed ratio (TSR).
at a high angle of attack. At this point, turbulence begins, causing the lift to decrease and drag
to increase. Stall begins at this point. Tip speed can be determined from the rotational speed, which is ωR where ω is the rotational
speed in radians per second and R is the radius of the turbine in meters.
The optimal tip speed ratio depends on the number of blades and is lower when there are
Lift and drag forces perpendicular to each other Lift-to-Drag Ratio
more blades.
The lift-to-drag ratio is a ratio of the lift force to the drag force, and it varies across the blade.
For three blades, a TSR of 6 to 7 is optimal. If it is less, not all the available energy is
The higher the lift-to-drag ratio, the more efficient the turbine blade is at converting wind captured; if it is more, the blades move into an area of turbulence from the last blade and are
energy into torque, which produces more electricity from the generator. not as efficient.
Centripetal acceleration
Turbine blades have the highest lift-to-drag ratio near the tip of the blade. The blade has more Because the speed of the blade is faster near the tip, the tip speed ratio is only valid at the
material with very high strength near the hub because of the higher stresses in that region, radius used in the calculation.
and less material near the narrow tip. For this reason, lift is increased and drag is reduced This acceleration is caused by the centripetal force. However, for rotating systems, such as
To optimize the angle of attack all along the blade, the blade is twisted from root to tip.
near the tip. wind turbine blades and their hub, it is common to explain the blade stress due to rotation in
Various factors affect drag, including the materials used to construct the blade, wind speed, terms of the fictional centrifugal inertial force, which is equal in magnitude to the centripetal
air density, and air temperature. Even dirt and bugs on the blade affect drag. Drag is also Centrifugal Force force, but in the opposite direction.
affected by how the blades are oriented. The velocity of each particle inside the blade changes direction as the rotor rotates. This
Stall occurs at very high angles to the wind and the blade no longer has lift. A wind turbine is change of direction is a form of acceleration of the particle toward the center, or axis, that the
The cantilever beam effect of lift and drag forces are perpendicular to each other subjected to the highest and lowest winds that flow at its location. blade revolves around

When high winds occur, the turbine blades increase their speed, and the output of the
Angle of Attack generator may increase to the point at which the generator becomes overheated and damaged.

The angle at which the wind strikes the turbine blade is called the angle of attack. Also, high winds may damage the turbine blades and the tower if the generator is allowed to
increase its output at an uncontrolled rate.
When the wind blows at a low angle over a blade, as shown in Figure 2a, the blade has a
certain amount of lift, as indicated by the vertical arrow.
As the angle of attack increases, the lift also increases, as shown in Figure 2b. Turbine Blade Tip Speeds

At a steep angle of attack, turbulence begins, reducing lift and increasing drag; this point is The tip of the turbine blade travels at the highest speed of any part of the turbine blade when
it is rotating. Because of this speed, the tip passes more air as it travels and hence generates Centripetal and Centrifugal forces
called stall and is shown in Figure 2c.
more lift.
Depending on the wind speed and blade shape, a critical angle of attack is reached, at which
point the lift is at a maximum. At steeper angles, the turbine blade begins to lose its ability to Tip speed is defined as the speed at the blade tip as it rotates through the air. The tensile stress builds up to reach its maximum at the joint between the blade and the hub.
convert energy from the wind. Because the tip is rotating at the highest speed, it comes under considerable stress caused by The centrifugal forces are always in the radial direction, causing tensile stress throughout the
centrifugal force. whole blade, from the root to the tip.

Maximum compressive stress along the radial direction

angular speeds affect centrifugal forces Maximum Stress at the HUB
Tensile Stress on the Blade from centrifugal forces
Gravitational Forces
While maximum bending stress happens when the blade is horizontal
The gravitational forces acting on any part of the blade vary with the mass density, size, and
shape of the blade. The gravitational forces are always toward the center of the earth,
CONVERSION TO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
therefore, the gravitational forces have a variable effect on the blade as the rotor rotates.
Maximum tensile or compressive stresses occur along the radial direction when the blade is A wind turbine transforms the mechanical energy of wind into electrical energy. A turbine
vertical takes the kinetic energy of a moving fluid, air in this case, and converts it to a rotary motion.
As wind moves past the blades of a wind turbine, it moves or rotates the blades. These blades
turn a generator.

Maximum Tensile Stress

The centrifugal forces vary with the size, shape, and mass density of the blade, as well as the
angular speed of the rotor. Centrifugal forces increase rapidly as the rotor gains speed.
Maximum Bending Stress
The maximum stress caused by the drag forces, the lift forces, the centrifugal forces, and the
gravitational forces, concentrates at the joint between the blade and the hub. Therefore, the
proper installation and maintenance of the joints between the root of the blades and the hub
are critical to the safe operation of wind turbines.

Maximum Tensile stress along the radial direction

Details of the conversion system are as follows,

 Blades are attached to the hub.

 The Drive Train is the mechanism that transfers the energy from the rotor shaft to the
Mass density of blades affects centrifugal forces generator. There are two drive train design concepts:
 Integrated: Shaft, gearbox and generator in one unit. Compact, but makes replacing
difficult.
  Modular: Gearbox, shaft and generator separate. Synchro generators, like a PMSG, can be powered directly by the low-ratio gearbox system; Before we can purchase or install our wind turbine we need to measure and understand the
 Gearbox: Required if generator is asynchronous. Otherwise, optional. Drawback: an interesting feature is one or two gearboxes. With the decline in the cost of electronic wind speed and strength for our given location and use this data collected by an anemometer
gearbox makes noise and suffers from wear and tear, potentially leading to higher power converters, the wind turbine is becoming a great option. Direct PMSG-based or other device to produce a wind speed distribution graph as shown:
O&M costs. Advantage: works well with asynchronous generators, which are configurations are an attractive alternative for WECS compared to other wind turbine
cheaper. generators with a variable rpm. In contrast to the DFIG wind turbine system, the WT-PMSG
 Generator: Either synchronous or asynchronous. Enercon is one of the few companies does not necessitate a gearbox and slip-ring to allow high-performance WECS construction,
that successfully deploy asynchronous devices without gearbox. stable operation and low maintenance. In the wind turbines industry, the efficient generation
 Inverters: Two inverters to transform the generator's output frequency to the grid- of more power by onshore and offshore wind turbines using PMSGs is continuously being
required frequency. If the WEC has a fixed rotor speed (with no pitch), inverters are investigated.
not required. Most WECs have a variable rotor speed (as they operate at fixed tip The power curve illustrates the power curve into four areas. Region I: Standby, Region II: full
speed ratio). the inverters can control both frequency of current and speed of the power regulation, Region III: regulation of power rating and Region 4: shutdown of turbines.
asynchronous generator. Region I: Standby type. Considering that Region II has low wind speeds and its blades below
The first graph on the left shows the actual wind speed for our location varying over a period
turbine capacity, maximum power can be extracted at the highest output. Area 3 is a control
of time. Each time period used can be anywhere from a few days to many years and will give
region that mainly conserves low noise and rotor torque. The pitch angle in Region III is
us the raw data to plot our site distribution and site characteristics curves. Wind speed data
The available power will rely upon the wind speed so it is important that the power at isolated from its maximum power conversion angle by power measurement Fig.: An offshore wind farm
can be collected every minute, every hour or every day depending upon our location.
different wind speeds is controlled and restricted in order to avoid grid disruption. In general In its most common configuration, the rotor has 3 blades rotating around a horizontal axis. Offshore, winds are more powerful and regular than on land, which has driven the
they are the three most common forms of conventional wind generator systems. One type is a The sweep diameter of these blades ranges from 80 to more than 200 meters. The longer the development of offshore wind farms in recent years. Larger and more powerful (6 to 10 MW,
continuous wind turbine system with a regular squirrel cage induction generator (SCIG), blades, the greater the electricity production capacity. or even 18 MW for some recent models), wind turbines installed in the sea supply more
which is connected to the power supply network explicitly. The second type is a wind turbine However, this data must be collected on a regular basis and not just one day of data every
As they rotate, the rotor drives a generator that produces electric energy. With conventional energy per machine than wind turbines on land. They have a limited impact on the landscape,
variable speed system with Double Fed Induction Generator (DFIG). The power rate of the hour then nothing for two weeks, etc. Also the more data that is collected the more accurate
wind turbines, the electric generator requires a rotation speed of 1,000 to 2,000 rpm, whereas making it possible to have larger wind parks, with more turbines. Manufacturing, installation
winding rotor electric converter is approximately 30%; the DFIG winding stator is connected will be the resulting graphs allowing the correct wind turbine to be purchased. By collecting
the blades turn more slowly (5 to 25 rpm). With these wind turbines, a multiplier (or gear and production costs are higher than the onshore equivalent but they are likely to fall over
directly to the grid. The third type is a variable wind turbo with a fully-rated, synchronous wind speed data in this way, we may find that our original and possibly convenient location
box) is installed between the rotor and the generator to increase the rotation speed. More time.
generator or SCIG electronic conversion system. Usually, two generators use amulti-stage next to a building has less wind energy potential or available wind power than another
transmission. Synchronous generators can be driven directly by low ratio gear box systems, recently, direct-drive machines have been designed: with these, the generators operate with a When it comes to anchoring wind turbines to the seabed, there are two options, depending on location away from the building, so think about data collection around different points.
such as permanent synchronous magnet generator (PMSG). An interesting alternative is one variable rotation speed (5 to 2,000 rpm) and do not use a multiplier. The assembly composed water depth:
of the multiplier and the generator forms the nacelle. Once we have our raw site data we can then use it to generate a ―wind speed distribution‖
or two-phase gear box. graph, (second graph). This shows the probability of the various wind speeds for our
 fixed wind turbines: at depths of up to 60 meters, the wind turbines are fixed to the
The nacelle is installed at the top of a tower that is between 50 and over 200 m high. A proposed site(s). Using this graph we can define the maximum and average wind speed (the
seabed. Fixed offshore wind power technologies are already well developed, but
rotation system turns the rotor and blades so that they are always facing into the wind. Wind centre of the graph) and the width of the wind speed window from the minimum cut-in speed
bigger and more powerful turbines will be needed to reduce operating costs. In
turbines generally operate at wind speeds of between 10 and 90 km/h. Beyond this maximum to the maximum cut-out speed.
Europe, the UK leads the way in terms of installed capacity, followed by Germany,
speed, they stop automatically to avoid any accidents.
the Netherlands and Denmark; The final graph on the right shows the number of hours a particular wind speed or wind
The electric energy produced by the generator is transported down the tower via cables to a  floating wind turbines: at depths of over 60 meters, fixing to the seabed becomes too velocity is available to us throughout the data period giving the characteristics of the site or
transformer, before being injected into the electricity grid by underground cables. expensive and difficult. The wind turbines are therefore connected to a floating location for our renewable wind energy system. On this graph we can also draw or super-
support on the surface of the water, or just below it. They can be located further from impose the proposed wind turbines operating window (cut-in to cut-out speed) given by the
the shore and therefore benefit from stronger and more regular winds. The floating manufactures data sheet to see the average time and how much power will be generated by
support is anchored to the seabed using cables. Several types of floaters can be used, the turbine.
including a barge, a steel column or several steel columns, etc. These structures have
to be able to tolerate extreme sea conditions and their manufacturing costs have to be Most domestic roof mounted wind turbines are designed to operate with a wind speed from
Fig.: Power curve for the wind turbine showing power generated in relation to speed of the
kept under control. about 10mph (15kph) up to a maximum of about 60mph (100kph) giving a wind speed
wind
window of about 50mph or 85kph. The rotational speed of the wind turbine also plays an
The power level for the electrical converter supplying the winding rotor is around 30 percent; important role in the production of wind energy.
the winding statistics for the DFIG are connected directly to the grid. The third category is a
WIND MAPS Generally, on a calm still day, the turbine sits idle and the blades are not spinning. As the
variable speed wind turbine with a full-speed electronic transmission system and a
synchronous generator or SCIG. Usually, the two first generators use a multi-stage gearbox. wind picks up it eventually reaches the cut-in speed of the turbine (usually around 10 mph).

At this wind speed, the turbine blades will spin up to their cut-in operating speed and start Showing wind direction in India; [Link] Fig.: India wind resource map at 100 m height, modelled at 3 km spatial resolution.
generating electricity and as the wind speed increases, the rotor blade velocity increases so
the generator output increases.

Wind turbines deliver maximum power at a wind speed of around 30 – 35mph (varies by
turbine model) so a generator that has a name-plate rated capacity of 100kW, will be ESTIMATES OF WIND ENERGY POTENTIAL
outputting 100kW at the rated wind speed, but will deliver less than a quarter (1/4) of their The Power in the Wind
rated power at the lower cut-in wind speeds of only 15mph.
Then we can see that Wind Power, which is measured in Watts, is the power we can expect to
Wind speeds above 30 mph, the generator maintains its rated capacity (i.e. 100kW) until wind extract from the wind to drive our turbine. Wind power is determined by the size of the rotor Then we can see that at a wind velocity of 8m/s the theoretical output power is calculated at
speeds reach 55 to 60 mph, and then the turbine reaches its cut-out speed and its built in blades, the wind velocity and the air density. Then the theoretical power in moving air is the 14.2kW and at 16m/s is calculated at 113.5kW. Since the wind power, P and therefore the
flow rate of kinetic energy per second by a wind turbine and is given by the equation: wind energy vary with the cube of the wind velocity, (V3) doubling of wind velocity from
safety circuit stops generating electricity.
8m/s to 16m/s results in eight times (x8) the amount of available power being produced. By
So we can see that the wind speed or wind velocity, is a very important factor to consider for Wind Power Equation plotting different values of wind speed against theoretical power output calculated from the
above equation we can produce a simple power curve of any wind turbine given the
the correct and safe operation of a wind turbine generator. Wind speed data is used to
manufacturers operational characteristics of the turbine.
calculate the winds power when deciding where to erect a suitable wind turbine, whether on
the ground or on a roof. Wind Energy Curve
Where: P is the Wind Power, ρ (rho) is the air density in Kg/m3, A is the circular area in m2
swept by the rotors, V is the air velocity in m/s or mph and Cp is the power coefficient
(efficiency) which is the percentage of power in the wind that is converted into mechanical
energy, typically 0.35 to 0.45, (35 – 45%).
You will notice from the equation that if the rotor area in m2 is fixed, and the air density is
fixed for a given location, the energy contained in the wind is only dependant upon the wind
speed. Then we can simplify the above equation to give K.V3 where K is a fixed constant
representing the combined fixed rotor blade area, air mass and efficiency of the turbine. This
means then that the ―available wind energy is proportional to the cube of the wind speed‖ or
wind velocity, and this statement is very important as a small change in wind speed makes a
big change in the power contained within it.
Wind Energy Example No1

Lets assume that we live in an area slightly above sea level that has an air density of
1.225Kg/m3 and we have installed a 40% efficient wind turbine which has a rotor blade
radius of six ( 6 ) metres. Calculate the output power from the turbine at a wind speed of 8
metres/second, ( 8m/s ) and again at double the velocity of 16 metres/second ( 16m/s ). Finding a good windy site to install a wind turbine and maximising the wind speed becomes
an important part of making renewable wind energy economical. Wind speed histograms can
1. at 8 metres/second: be purchased, used or drawn for any particular site to show the number of hours, days or
weeks, or whatever time period is used, that the wind blew for each sampled period of time.

Since the movement of the wind mass varies from seconds to years, wind power and wind
energy will also vary over the same time scale. Therefore, by taking the data first of ―how
windy‖ is the proposed site for a wind turbine, helps decide what size and type of turbine best
suits the location. Increasing the rotor blade length, or increasing the height of the wind
turbine above the ground will also increase the power output.

2. at 16 metres/second:

The power in the wind is proportional to the cube of the wind speed or velocity. It is therefore land geologically spread across India. This information is essential for the Policy makers,
essential to have detailed knowledge of the wind and its characteristics, if the performance of Private players, Government Agencies and other stakeholders of the industry to move Similar exercise without any validation has been carried out for 80 m level with the KAMM
wind turbines is to be estimated accurately. Various parameters need to be known of the wind towards achieving the ambitious goal of 60,000 MW of wind power by 2022 as envisaged by
generated meso scale map and the results are calculated and given in an attached table. The
energy are mean wind speed, directional data and velocity variations periodically the government. NIWE (formerly C-WET) had already performed the potential estimation estimated installable potential at 80 m level is found to be 102788 MW (See the Table.1.).
daily/yearly/monthly and height of the anemometer. These parameters are used to assess the study corroborating meso-scale derived wind maps and micro-scale measurements and Wind power density map at 80 m level is given in figure 1.
performance and economics of the wind plant. released Indian Wind Atlas at 50mand indicative values at 80m hub heights with 5km
resolution in April 2010 in collaboration with RISO-DTU, Denmark.
Harnessing of wind energy could play a significant role in the energy mix of a region.
Windmills have been used for centuries to grind grain and pump water in rural areas. Wind Estimated potential (MW)M
[Link] States / UTs
energy is renewable and environmentally benign. It has the advantage of being harnessed @ 50 m ($) @ 80 m (* #$)
1 Andaman & Nicobar 2 365
locally for applications in rural and remote areas. Wind driven electric generators could be
2 Andhra Pradesh 5394 14497
utilized as an independent power source, and for purposes of augmenting the electricity 3 Arunachal Pradesh* 201 236
supply from grids. In densely populated taluks, decentralized production of electricity would 4 Assam* 53 112
5 Bihar - 144
help local industries, especially seasonal agro-processing industries, etc. 6 Chhattisgarh* 23 314
7 Dieu Damn - 4
The extent to which wind can be exploited as a source of energy depends on the probability
8 Gujarat 10609 35071
density of occurrence different speeds. To optimize the design of a wind energy device, data 9 Haryana - 93
on speed range over which the device must operate to maximize energy extractions are 10 Himachal Pradesh * 20 64
11 Jharkhand - 91
required, which requires the knowledge of frequency distribution of the wind speed. Data on 12 Jammu & Kashmir * 5311 5685
mean monthly and annual wind speeds for a long time (30 - 50 years) are available at 13 Karnataka 8591 13593
meteorological observatories and the data on frequency distribution is available from various 14 Kerala 790 837
15 Lakshadweep 16 16
locations. Various parameters need to be known of the wind energy are mean wind speed, 16 Madhya Pradesh 920 2931
directional data and velocity variations periodically - daily / yearly / monthly and height of 17 Maharashtra 5439 5961
the anemometer. These parameters are used to assess the performance and economics of the 18 Manipur* 7 56
19 Meghalaya * 44 82
wind plant. 20 Nagaland * 3 16
21 Orissa 910 1384
What is the Wind Power Potential in India? 22 Pondicherry - 120
 India ranks 4th globally after China, the United States and Germany, in terms 23 Rajasthan 5005 5050
24 Sikkim * 98 98
of installed wind energy capacity, with 42.8 GW (onshore wind) as of April 2023. In order to estimate the installable potential of the country, the KAMM generated meso scale 25 Tamil Nadu 5374 14152

 Wind resource assessment by the National Institute of Wind Energy reveals an wind power density map of 50 m level was integrated with the wind power density map 26 Uttarakhand * 161 534
27 Uttar Pradesh * 137 1260
estimated wind power potential of approximately 695.5 GW at 120 meters and 1,164 generated with actual measurements (wherever data is available) and re-plotted the final wind 28 West Bengal* 22 22
GW at 150 meters above ground level across the nation. power density maps by using GIS tool. Weightage is given only for the topographical features Total 49130 102788
of the area. Later the total area of each wind power density range is calculated. Due to Table 1. Estimation of installable wind power potential at 80 m level
 Best Performing States: various reasons (habitat, forest, water bodies etc.), the entire land area covered by the
* Wind potential has yet to be validated with actual measurements. # Estimation is based on meso
scale modelling (Indian Wind Atlas). $ As actual land assessment is not done on a conservative
o Wind Power Potential (in GW) at 120 m Above Ground Level: isopleths cannot be expected to be available for installing wind farms. As land availability consideration 2 % land availability for all states except Himalayan & North eastern states, Andaman
assessment was not a part of the project, the real land availability for wind farm development Nicobar Islands and Poor windy states has been assumed. In other area 0.5% land availability has
 Gujrat (142.56), Rajasthan (127.75), Karnataka (124.15), Maharashtra been assumed.
is not assessed for estimating the installable potential. On a conservative consideration, a
(98.21), and Andhra Pradesh (74.90).
fraction of uniform 2% land availability for all states except for Himalayan states,
o Wind Power Potential (in GW) at 150 m Above Ground Level: Northeastern states and Andaman Nicobar Islands has been assumed for energy estimation. In
 Rajasthan (284.25), Gujarat (180.79), Maharashtra (173.86), Karnataka Himalayan states, Northeastern states and Andaman & Nicobar Islands, it is assumed as
(169.25), and Andhra Pradesh (123.33). 0.5%. However the potential would change as per the real land availability in the windy area
of each state. The installable wind power potential (name plate power) is calculated for each
wind power density range by assuming 9 MW could be installed per square kilometer area .
Under the direction of MNRE, NIWE has assessed India's wind power potential at 100m hub
Finally the potential in the country at 50 m level with clearly stated assumptions is estimated
height with scientific rigor and based on authentic latest available data-sets of wind as well as
as 49 GW (Refer Indian Wind Atlas published by NIWE for more information).

Fig. Wind potential map for Andhra Pradesh and other States.
[Link]

Fig.: Annual mean wind power density of Ethiopia at 50 m height without excluding
protected areas

Figure. Wind power density map at 80 m level

Wind energy resources in Ethiopia without excluding protected areas are shown [Ethiopian
Resource Group (ERG) 2009]. This geographical distribution of wind diagram also helps us
to promote the locations with poor-to-excellent wind resources in the country. The
classification of wind resources and extent of associated land areas as given by SWERA. As
recommended, further ground measurements are necessary to verify the estimation when
planning and deployment of wind turbines are concerned to a particular site. The wind
regions of the country are classified into seven broad categories and land areas; under each
category, it is calculated and presented at regional level indicating suitable areas for various
purposes of wind energy development. However, it can be clearly observed from Figure that,
the annual mean power densities are falling under class 1 (poor); an attempt has been made to
investigate the wind energy resource assessment in eight selected locations of Tigray region
in Ethiopia.