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Table of Contents
Section One................................................................................................................................3

Understanding Technical Communication.................................................................................3

Objectives of Technical Writing, Understanding the Rhetorical Situation............................3

The Development Process......................................................................................................5

The 40-20-40 writing process............................................................................................7

Writing Constructively.......................................................................................................7

The 7 C's of Professional Writing......................................................................................9

Using Precise Wording....................................................................................................11

Section Two.............................................................................................................................17

Forms of Technical Communication........................................................................................17

Online Communication........................................................................................................17

Text Messages......................................................................................................................19

Email....................................................................................................................................19

Memos..................................................................................................................................22

Letters...................................................................................................................................25

Strategies for Effective Letters.........................................................................................25

Letters with Specific Purposes.........................................................................................26

Laboratory/Scientific Experiment Reports..........................................................................27

Technical descriptions and definitions.................................................................................32

Technical Description of a Mechanism................................................................................33

Technical Instructions..........................................................................................................36

Preliminary Steps for Technical Instructions...................................................................37

Illustrating Your Instructions:..............................................................................................41

Revision Checklist for Written Instructions.........................................................................42

Technical Proposal and What It Should Include..................................................................43

Types of Proposals...........................................................................................................43

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Format of a Progress Report................................................................................................46

Progress Reports – Structural Overview..........................................................................46

Feasibility Reports...............................................................................................................48

Recommendation Reports....................................................................................................49

Evaluation Reports...............................................................................................................50

Typical Contents of Recommendation and Feasibility Reports.......................................50

Structure of a Formal Report................................................................................................56

Research Terminology.........................................................................................................62

Primary Data....................................................................................................................63

Secondary data.................................................................................................................63

Quantitative data..............................................................................................................64

Qualitative data................................................................................................................64

How to Structure the Analysis of Research Data.................................................................65

Typical Research Sources for Technical Projects................................................................65

Evaluating the Authority, Content, and Purpose of Information.........................................67

Common Logical Fallacies..................................................................................................69

Defining the Scope of a Project...........................................................................................71

Why Project Proposals Might be Rejected...........................................................................74

Presentation Skills................................................................................................................75

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 Section One

Understanding Technical Communication

Technical writing is a type of expository writing that is used to convey information for
technical or business purposes. Engineers write technical reports usually to communicate
pertinent information that is needed by upper management to make intelligent decisions that
will effect a company’s future.

Technical writing is a genre of non-fiction writing that encompasses not only technical
materials such as manuals, instructions, specifications and software documentation which
also includes writing produced in many day-to-day business
operations. Other examples of technical communications can include correspondence,
proposals, internal communications (Memos) and media releases.
Technical writing is NOT to entertain, create suspense, and invite differing interpretations.

Objectives of Technical Writing, Understanding the Rhetorical Situation

The “rhetorical situation” is a term used to describe the components of any situation in which
you may want to communicate, whether in written or oral form. To define a “rhetorical
situation,” ask yourself this question: “who is talking to whom about what, how, and
why?” There are five main components, which are purpose, writer, audience, message and
the context/culture.

Purpose

Purpose refers to the why you are writing. Determining your purpose requires that you
engage in Task Analysis — that is, determine what you hope to accomplish by writing this
document. Ask yourself what you hope the reader(s) will do/think/decide/ or how they will
behave as a result of reading the text.

The three general purposes for communication in the workplace are to:

1) Create a record,

2) Give or request information, and

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 3) Persuade.

For example, your purpose may be to propose an innovative solution to a specific problem. In
this case, you want the reader to agree to explore the idea further, or approve funding for
further research and development, which would fall under the general purpose of writing to
persuade.

Writer

The writer refers to you, the writer/creator/designer of the communication. It is important to

examine your own motivation for writing and any biases, past experiences, and knowledge
you bring to the writing situation.

These elements will influence how you craft the message, whether positively or negatively.
This examination should also include your role within the organization, as well as your
position relative to your target audience.

Audience

Audience refers to your readers, users or listeners. Audience Analysis is possibly the most
critical part of understanding the rhetorical situation.

Is your audience internal (within your company) or external (such as clients, suppliers,
customers, other stakeholders)? Are they lateral to you (at the same position or level),
upstream (senior management) or downstream from you (employees, subordinates)?

Who is the primary audience? Who are the secondary audiences? These questions, and
others, help you to create an understanding of your audience that will help you craft a
message that is designed to effectively communicate specifically to them.

Message

Message refers to what information you want to communicate. This is the content of your
document. It should be aligned to your purpose and targeted to your audience.

While it is important to carefully choose what content your audience needs, it is equally
critical to cut out content that your audience does not need or want. “Time is money” may be
a tired old cliché, but it is important to avoid wasting your audience’s time with information

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that is unnecessary or irrelevant to them. Your message should be professional, and expressed
in an appropriate tone for the audience, purpose, and context.

Context

Context refers to the situation that creates the need for the writing. In other words, what has
happened or needs to happen that creates the need for communication?

The context is influenced by timing, location, current events, and culture, which can be
organizational or social. Ignoring the context/culture for your communication could result in
awkward situations, or possibly offensive ones. It will almost certainly impact your ability to
clearly convey your message to your audience.

The Development Process

There is no single process that works for everyone in every situation. The key is to recognize
the various steps in a typical writing process and figure out how to use or adapt them most
effectively for your situation.

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Figure 1.1: Writing Process

As shown in Figure 1.1, a design process flow chart encourages you to revisit previous steps
as needed.

Prewriting

This stage is for generating ideas, understanding the ideas of others, and collecting
information (note taking, free-writing, brainstorming, looping).

Planning

Here, you are organizing and focusing ideas. This may involve mind mapping, clustering,
listing, and creating outlines.

Drafting

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In the drafting stage you are writing initial drafts of a text focusing mainly on the
development, organization, and elaboration of ideas.

Reflection

In the reflection stage, you can let the work sit and come back to it at a later point. You may
cycle back between drafting a reflection a number of times before moving on.

Peer/Tutor Review

Now you can get feedback from others. This may require you to return to the drafting and
reflecting stages

Revision

Here you are further developing and clarifying ideas and the structure of the text. This may
require you to return to the drafting and reflecting stages. If the work requires additional
research or idea generation, return to the planning stage.

Editing and Proofreading

Here the focus is on surface-level features of the text

The 40-20-40 writing process

The 40-20-40 writing process, which suggests that you should break up the amount of time
you spend on the writing task into three distinct stages of planning, drafting and revising, and
give each one a specific percentage of the time you have available.

Stage 1 – Planning: spend 40% of your time planning your document (task analysis,
thinking, discussing, free-writing, researching, brainstorming, concept mapping, focusing
ideas, outlining, etc.)

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Stage 2 – Drafting: spend 20% of your time writing a rough draft (quickly getting all your
ideas down in print, in more or less complete sentences and paragraphs, in more or less the
right order, without agonizing over style or grammar choices).

Stage 3 – Revising: spend 40% of your time revising, editing, and proofreading (polishing
your draft, making sure the content is complete and well supported, ideas flow logically,
formatting meets expectations, expression is grammatically correct and has the appropriate
tone and vocabulary).

These percentages are a helpful guideline, as they emphasize the need to allot significant time
for revision, but do not always work for all people in all situations. It also does not clearly
account for the need to iterate; sometimes while revising your draft (stage 3), you may have
to go back to the planning stage (stage 1) to do additional research, adjust your focus, or
reorganize ideas to create a more logical flow. Writing, like any kind of design work,
demands an organic and dynamic process.

Writing Constructively
Striking the appropriate tone involves understanding your purpose, context, and audience. It
also involves an understanding that workplaces are often hierarchical, and that cooperation
and teamwork are required. Therefore, it is important to consider how you want your reader
to feel, and what may make your reader feel that way. Your goal is to write constructively,
which means to use positive phrasing to convey your message to your reader

Considering how your reader may feel after reading your document is an important part of
revision. Did your tone come across as you hoped it would? Could it be misconstrued? Often
this is where peer reviewing can be helpful. Asking a colleague to review your document
before sending it off to its intended audience is a common professional practice.

Sometimes, you will need to communicate information that is unpleasant, such as delivering
bad news or rejecting a request. Communicating constructively is possible—and arguably
even more important—in these situations. Regardless of message, how can you ensure you
are communicating constructively?

Consider the following approaches:

The adult-to-adult approach

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Adopt an adult-to-adult approach: that is to say, avoid talking down to your reader, and
likewise avoid sounding petulant or unwilling to take responsibility. Aim to communicate
respectfully, responsibly, confidently, and cooperatively — as one responsible adult to
another.

Be courteous
Be courteous: focus on the reader as much as possible. Use “you” unless it results in blaming
(one effective use of passive verbs is to avoid assigning blame: “mistakes were made”).
Use traditionally accepted forms of courtesy and politeness. Use gender-neutral phrasing and
plural forms, unless you are referring to a specific person and you know their gender.

Focus on the positive

Focus on the positive: emphasize what you can do rather than what you cannot.

Try to avoid negative wording and phrasing (no, not, never, none, isn’t, can’t, don’t, etc.).
Focus on what can be improved.

Be genuine

Be genuine: apologize if you have made a mistake. Take responsibility and promise to do
better. Be authentic in your expression.

Avoid sounding like marketing material (ad-speak). Make reasonable claims that can be
backed with evidence.

Table 1.1: Writer-Centred vs. Reader-Centred Writing

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The 7 C's of Professional Writing

Two key characteristics of professional technical communication are that it

is precise and concise. This precision and concision must be evident at all levels, from the
overall document, to paragraphing, to sentence structure to word choice, and even to
punctuation. Every word or phrase should have a distinct and useful purpose. If it does not,
cut it or revise.

The 7Cs of Communication is a useful way to help ensure that you create high-quality
communications, both for written as well as verbal communications. Applying the 7 C’s of
professional communication will result in writing that is:

1. Clear

Clear writing involves knowing what you want to say before you say it. Lack of clarity comes
from unclear thinking or poor planning.
Clear writing conveys the purpose of the document immediately to the reader; it matches
vocabulary to the audience, avoiding jargon and unnecessary technical or obscure language
while at the same time being precise. In clarifying your ideas, ensure that each sentence
conveys one idea, and that each paragraph thoroughly develops one unified concept.

2. Coherent

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Coherent writing ensures that the reader can easily follow your ideas and your train of
thought. One idea should lead logically into the next through the use of transitional words and
phrases, structural markers, planned repetition, sentences with clear subjects, headings that
are clear, and effective and parallel lists.

Writing that lacks coherence often sounds “choppy” and ideas seem disconnected or
incomplete. Coherently connecting ideas is like building bridges between islands of thought
so the reader can easily move from one idea to the next.

3. Concise

Concise writing uses the least words possible to convey the most meaning while still
maintaining clarity. Avoid unnecessary padding, awkward phrasing, overuse of “to be” forms
(is, are, was, were, am, be, being), long preposition strings, vagueness, unnecessary repetition
and redundancy.

Use active verbs whenever possible, and take the time to choose a single word rather than a
long phrase or clichéd expression. Think of your word count like a budget; be cost effective
by making sure every word you choose does effective work for you.

4. Concrete

Concrete writing involves using specific, precise language to paint a picture for your readers
so that they can more easily understand your ideas. If you have to explain an abstract concept
or idea, try to use examples, analogies, and precise language to illustrate it. Use measurable
descriptors whenever possible; avoid vague terms like “big” or “good.” Try to get your
readers to “see” your ideas by using specific terms and descriptions.

5. Correct

Correct writing uses standard English punctuation, sentence structure, usage, and grammar.
Being correct also means providing accurate information, as well as using the right document
type and form for the task.

6. Complete

Complete writing includes all requested information and answers all relevant questions. The
more concrete and specific you are, the more likely your document will be complete as well.

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Review your checklist of specifications before submitting your document to its intended
reader.

7. Courteous

Courteous writing entails designing a reader-friendly, easy-to-read document; using tactful

language and appropriate modes of addressing the audience; and avoiding potentially
offensive terminology, usage, and tone.

Using Precise Wording

The following are some guidelines and examples to follow for using precise wording.

1. Replace abstract nouns with verbs

Verbs, more than nouns, help convey ideas concisely, so where possible, avoid using nouns
derived from verbs. Often these abstract nouns end in –tion and –ment. See examples in table
1.2 below.

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Table 1.2: Replace abstract nouns with verbs

2. Choose short words over long words and phrases

The goal is to communicate directly and plainly so use short, direct words whenever possible.
In other words, don’t use long words or phrases when short ones will do. Write to express,
not impress. See the examples in the table 1.3 below.

Table 1.3: Choose short words over long words and phrases

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3. Avoid clichés

Clichés are expressions that you have probably heard and used hundreds of times. They are
over-used expressions that have largely lost their meaning and impact.

Table 1.4: Clichés and Alternatives

4. Avoid cluttered constructions

This category includes redundancies, repetitions, and “there is/are” and “it is” constructions.
See examples in table 1.5 below.

Table 1.5: Redundancies

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5. Use accurate wording

Sometimes this requires more words instead of fewer, so do not sacrifice clarity for
concision. Make sure your words convey the meaning you intend. Avoid using words that
have several possible meanings; do not leave room for ambiguity or alternate interpretations
of your ideas.

Keep in mind that readers of technical writing tend to choose literal meanings, so avoid
figurative language that might be confusing (for example, using the word “decent” to
describe something you like or think is good). Separate facts from opinions by using phrases
like “we recommend,” “we believe,” or “in our opinion.” Use consistent terminology rather
than looking for synonyms that may be less precise.

Qualify statements that need qualifying, especially if there is possibility for misinterpretation.
Do not overstate through the use of absolutes and intensifiers. Avoid overusing intensifiers
like “extremely,” and avoid absolutes like “never, always, all, none” as these are almost never
accurate. See more examples in table 1.6 below.

Table1. 6: Overused Intensifiers

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6. Use the active voice

The active voice emphasizes the person/thing doing the action in a sentence. For example,
The outfielder throws the ball. The subject, “outfielder” actively performs the action of the
verb “throw.”

The passive voice emphasizes the recipient of the action. In other words, something is being
done to something by somebody: The ball was thrown (by the outfielder). Passive
constructions are generally wordier and often leave out the person/thing doing the action.

Table 1.7: Active and Passive Voice

While the passive voice has a place—particularly if you want to emphasize the receiver of an
action as the subject of the sentence, or the action itself, or you want to avoid using first
person—its overuse results in writing that is wordy, vague, and stuffy. When possible, use the
active voice to convey who or what performs the action of the verb.

Writing to Persuade

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Sometimes, you may want to persuade your reader to take a particular action or position on
an issue. To be effective, you should consider the following elements of persuasion, often
referred to as Rhetorical Appeals, which are derived from the ancient Greek words
are ethos, pathos, logos, and kairos.

Ethos – Appeal to Credibility/Authority: this element of persuasion involves establishing

your credibility, expertise, or authority to be making the argument.

- What experience or expertise do you have?

- What knowledge or skills do you possess?

- What’s your role within the organization, and/or in relation to the reader?

- Why should the reader trust you as a reliable, knowledgeable, authoritative, and
ethical source of information?

Pathos – Appeal to Emotion/Interest/Values: this element involves appealing to the

emotions, values, and/or interests of the reader.

- How does your proposal benefit them?

- Why should they care about it?

- How does it relate to the goals of the organization?

- How can you build “common ground” with your reader?

- What will make your reader feel “good” about your project?

- How can you evoke emotions such as pride or outrage?

Logos – Appeal to Reason/Logic: this element involves grounding your argument in logic,
reason, and evidence.

What evidence supports your claims? On what facts and data is your reasoning based?

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Arguments grounded in reason and evidence are often considered the strongest. Government
organizations and companies alike generally like to make “evidence-based decisions.”

Kairos – Appeal to Timeliness/Appropriateness: using this appeal means being aware of

what is appropriate and timely in a given rhetorical situation. Sometimes, a well-crafted
argument can fail because it comes at the wrong time.

Kairos involves knowing what is “in” or “hot” right now, what is an important topic or issue,
and how best to discuss it; knowing when it is the “right time” to broach a topic or propose an
idea; knowing how to use the appropriate tone, level of formality and decorum for the
specific situation.

Section Two

Forms of Technical Communication

Technical writing comes in many forms and each form has key conventions that must be
observed.

Online Communication

We create personal pages, post messages, and interact via online technologies as a normal
part of our careers, but how we conduct ourselves can leave a lasting image. The photograph
you posted on your Instagram page or Twitter feed may have been seen by your potential
employer, or that insensitive remark in a Facebook post may come back to haunt you later.

Guidelines for Communicating Online:

Know your context

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 - Introduce yourself

- Avoid assumptions about your readers; remember that culture influences

communication style and practices

- Familiarize yourself with policies on Acceptable Use of IT Resources at your

organization.

Remember the human

- Remember there is a person behind the words; ask for clarification before making
judgement.

- Check your tone before you publish; avoid jokes, sarcasm, and irony as these can
often be misinterpreted and get “lost in translation” in the online environment.

- Respond to people using their names.

- Remember that culture, age, and gender can play a part in how people
communicate.

- Remain authentic and expect the same of others.

- Remember that people may not reply immediately. People participate in different
ways, some just by reading the communication rather than jumping into it.

Recognize that text is permanent

- Be judicious and diplomatic; what you say online may be difficult or even
impossible to retract later.

- Consider your responsibility to the group and to the working environment.

- Agree on ground rules for text communication (formal or informal; seek

clarification whenever needed) if you are working collaboratively.

Avoid flaming: research before you react

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 - Seek clarification before reacting; what you heard is not always what was said

- Accept and forgive mistakes.

- Consider your responsibility to the group and to the working environment

Netiquette

We create personal pages, post messages, and interact via online technologies as a normal
part of our careers, but how we conduct ourselves can leave a lasting image, literally. The
photograph you posted on your Instagram page or Twitter feed may have been seen by your
potential employer, or that insensitive remark in a Facebook post may come back to haunt
you later.

Respect privacy and original ideas

- Quote the original author if you are responding with a specific point made by someone else.

- Ask the author of an email for permission before forwarding the communication.

Text Messages

Whatever digital device you use, written communication in the form of brief messages, or
texting, has become a common way to connect. It is useful for short exchanges, and it is a
convenient way to stay connected with others when talking on the phone would be
cumbersome. Texting is not useful for long or complicated messages, and careful
consideration should be given to the audience.

When texting, always consider your audience and your company, and choose words, terms,
or abbreviations that will deliver your message appropriately and effectively.

Guidelines for Effective Business Texting:

Know your recipient

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“? % dsct” may be an understandable way to ask a close associate what the proper discount is
to offer a certain customer, but if you are writing a text to your boss, it might be wiser to
write, “what % discount does Murray get on $1K order?”

Anticipate unintentional misinterpretation

Texting often uses symbols and codes to represent thoughts, ideas, and emotions. Given the
complexity of communication, and the useful but limited tool of texting, be aware of its
limitation and prevent misinterpretation with brief messages.

Use appropriately

Contacting someone too frequently can border on harassment. Texting is a tool. Use it when
appropriate but don’t abuse it.

Email

Email is familiar to most students and workers. In business, it has largely replaced print hard
copy letters for external (outside the company) correspondence, and in many cases, it has
taken the place of memos for internal (within the company) communication.

Email can be very useful for messages that have slightly more content than a text message,
but it is still best used for fairly brief messages. Many businesses use automated emails to
acknowledge communications from the public, or to remind associates that periodic reports
or payments are due. You may also be assigned to “populate” a form email in which standard
paragraphs are used but you choose from a menu of sentences to make the wording suitable
for a particular transaction.

Emails may be informal within personal contexts, however, business communication requires
attention to detail, awareness that your email reflects you and your company, and a
professional tone so that it may be forwarded to any third party if needed. Email often serves
to exchange information within organizations. Although email may have an informal feel,
remember that when used for business, it needs to convey professionalism and respect. Never
write or send anything that you wouldn’t want read in public or in front of your company
president.

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Guidelines for Effective Business Emails:

Open with a proper salutation

An email is not a text message, and the audience may not find your wit cause to ROTFLOL
(roll on the floor laughing out loud).

Include clear, brief and specific subject line

This helps the recipient understand the essence of the message. For example, “Proposal
attached” or “Electrical specs for project Y.”

Be brief but avoid abbreviations

An email is not a text message, and the audience may not find your wit cause to ROTFLOL
(roll on the floor laughing out loud). However, it is also important to be brief and omit any
unnecessary words.

Use a good format

Divide your message into brief paragraphs for ease of reading. A good email should get to the
point and conclude in three small paragraphs or less.

Reread, revise and review

Catch and correct spelling and grammar mistakes before sending your message. It will take
more time and effort to undo the problems caused by a hasty, poorly written email than to
take the time to get it right the first time. If you include a web link, test it to make sure it is
working.

Reply promptly

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Watch out for an emotional response—never reply in anger—but make a habit of replying to
all emails within twenty-four hours, even if only to say that you will provide the requested
information in forty-eight or seventy-two hours.

Use Reply All sparingly

Do not send your reply to everyone who received the initial email unless your message
absolutely needs to be read by the entire group.

Avoid using all caps

Capital letters are used on the Internet to communicate emphatic emotion or yelling and are
considered rude.

Email ahead of time if you are going to attach large files

Audio and visual files are often quite large; be careful to avoid exceeding the recipient’s
mailbox limit or triggering the spam filter.

Give feedback or follow up

If you do not get a response in twenty-four hours, email or call. Spam filters may have
intercepted your message, so your recipient may never have received it.

Close with a signature

Identify yourself by creating a signature block that automatically contains your name and
business contact information.

Memos

Memoranda, or memos, are one of the most versatile document forms used in professional
settings. Memos are “in house” documents (sent within an organization) to pass along or
request information, outline policies, present short reports, and propose ideas. While they are

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often used to inform, they can also be persuasive documents. A company or institution
typically has its own “in house” style or template that is used for documents such as letters
and memos. The main formatted portions of a memo are the Logo or Letterhead (optional),
the Header Block, and the Message.

Memo Header Block

The Header Block appears at the top left side of your memo, directly under the
word MEMO or MEMORANDUM in large, bold, capitalized letters. This section contains
detailed information on the recipient, sender, and purpose. It includes the following lines:

TO: give the recipient’s full name, and position or title within the organization: give
the recipient’s full name, and position or title within the organization.

FROM: include the sender’s (your) full name and position or title.

DATE: include the full date on which you sent the memo.

SUBJECT or RE: write a brief phrase that concisely describes the main content of
your memo.

Place a horizontal line under your header block, and place your message below.

Memo Message

The length of a memo can range from a few short sentences to a multi-page report that
includes figures, tables, and appendices. Whatever the length, there is a straightforward
organizational principal you should follow. Organize the content of your memo so that it
answers the following questions for the reader:

Opening: Do I have to read this? Why do I have to read this?

Details: What do I need to know?

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 Closing: What am I expected to do now?

Memos are generally very direct and concise. The opening sentences of the memo’s message
should make it clear to the reader whether they have to read this entire memo and why. The
middle section of the message should give all of the information needed to adequately inform
the readers and fulfill the purpose of the memo. Start with the most general information, and
then add the more specific facts and details.

The final part of the message indicates what, if any, action is required or requested of the
readers. If you are asking your readers to do something, be as courteous as possible, and try
to indicate how this action will also benefit them.

Sample of In-House Memo Format

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Figure 2.1: Sample of In-House Memo Format

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Letters

Letters are brief messages sent to recipients that are often outside the organization. They are
often printed on letterhead paper that represents the business or organization, and are
generally limited to one or two pages. While email and text messages may be used more
frequently today, the business letter remains a common form of written communication. It
can serve to introduce you to a potential employer, announce a product or service, or even
serve to communicate feelings and emotions (compliant letters, for example).

There are many types of letters, and many adaptations in terms of form and content, but this
topic presents the elements of a traditional block-style letter. Letters may serve to introduce
your skills and qualifications to prospective employers (cover letter), deliver important or
specific information, provide documentation of an event or decision, or introduce an attached
report or long document (for example letter of transmittal).

Strategies for Effective Letters

A typical letter has 7 main parts:

 Letterhead/logo: Sender’s name and return address.

 The heading: names the recipient, often including address and date.
 Salutation: “Dear ______ ” use the recipient’s name, if known.
 The introduction: establishes the overall purpose of the letter.
 The body: articulates the details of the message.
 The conclusion: restates the main point and may include a call to action.
 The signature line: sometimes includes the contact information.

Keep in mind that letters represent you and your company in your absence. In order to
communicate effectively and project a positive image, remember that:

 Your language should be clear, concise, specific, and respectful.

 Each word should contribute to your purpose.
 Each paragraph should focus on one idea.
 The parts of the letter should form a complete message and should be free of errors.

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Letters with Specific Purposes

There are many possible reasons you might write a letter in a professional context. Letters
within the professional context may take on many other purposes, such as communicating
with suppliers, contractors, partner organizations, clients, government agencies, and so on.

Transmittal letters

When you send a report or some other document, such as a resumé, to an external audience,
send it with a cover letter that briefly explains the purpose of the enclosed document and a
brief summary.

Letters of inquiry

You may want to request information about a company or organization such as whether they
anticipate job openings in the near future or whether they fund grant proposals from non-
profit groups. In this case, you would send a letter of inquiry, asking for additional
information.

As with most business letters, keep your request brief, introducing yourself in the opening
paragraph and then clearly stating your purpose and/or request in the second paragraph. If
you need very specific information, consider placing your requests in list form for clarity.
Conclude in a friendly way that shows appreciation for the help you will receive.

Follow-up letters

Any time you have made a request of someone, write a follow-up letter expressing your
appreciation for the time your letter-recipient has taken to respond to your needs or consider
your job application.

For example, if you have had a job interview, the follow-up letter thanking the interviewer
for his/her time is especially important for demonstrating your professionalism and attention
to detail.

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Laboratory/Scientific Experiment Reports

Most basically, this report will describe the original hypothesis your work attempts to test, the
methodology you used to test it, your observations and results of your testing, your analysis
and discussion of what this data means, and your conclusions.

Science and Rhetoric

Some aspects of your report that might require you to think rhetorically are exemplified in
how you approach the following questions:

 Why is this research important? How does it solve a problem or contribute in some
way to expanding human knowledge?
 What have other researchers already discovered about this? How are you contributing
to this conversation?
 What gaps are there in our knowledge about this topic?
 Why have you chosen this methodology to test your hypothesis? What limitations
might it have?
 How and why do you derive these inferences from the data you have collected?
 What further research should be done? Why?

Your report will be based on the work you have done in the lab. Therefore, you must have a
plan for keeping careful notes on what you have done, how you have done it, and what you
observed. Researchers often keep a notebook with them in the lab, sometimes with pre-
designed tables or charts for recording the data they know they will be observing (you might
be given a lab manual to use while completing a particular experiment to record your
observations and data in a pre-organized format).

How you choose the content and format for your report will depend on your audience and
purpose. Lab reports typically contain some or all of the ten elements outlined in this topic.

29
Title

Create a descriptive and informative title that will enable readers to decide if this interests
them, and will allow key words to be abstracted in indexing services. Ask your instructor
about specific formatting requirements regarding title pages, and so on.

Abstract

This is a summary of your report that mirrors your report structure (Hypothesis, Methods,
Results, Discussion, Conclusion) in condensed form—roughly one sentence per section.
Ideally, sum up your important findings.

Introduction

Establish the context and significance of your work, its relevance in the field, and the
hypothesis or question your study addresses. Give a brief overview of your methodology for
testing your hypothesis and why it is appropriate. If necessary for your readers, provide a
specialized theoretical framework, background or technical knowledge to help them
understand your focus and how it contributes to the field. Your instructor may describe a
target audience for you; pay attention to that and write for that audience. More detailed
reports may require a Literature Review section.

Materials and Methods

This section of the lab report has two key purposes. Firstly, it must allow any reader to
replicate your method; therefore, you must provide a thorough description of what you used
and how you conducted your experiment.

Secondly, you must persuade your reader that your chosen methodology and the materials are
appropriate and valid for testing your hypothesis, and will lead to credible and valid results.

30
This section will generally include:

1) A list of all materials needed (which may include sub-lists, diagrams, and other
graphics), and

2) A detailed description of your procedure, presented chronologically. Traditionally, the

Sciences have required writers to describe what they did using the Passive Voice, as passive
mode emphasizes the materials and actions taken and de-emphasizes the role of the scientist
in the process. This is slowly changing, as the use of Active Voice is more concise; however,
you should consult your instructor about which is preferred in your context.

Results

This section presents the raw date that you generated in your experiment, and provides the
evidence you will need to form conclusions about your hypothesis. Present only the data that
is relevant to your results (but if you omit data, you may have to explain why it is not
relevant). You can organize this section based on chronology (following your methodology)
or on the importance of data in proving (or negating) the hypothesis (most important to least
important). Present data visually whenever possible (in tables, graphs, flowcharts, etc.), and
help readers understand the context of your data.

Make sure you present the data honestly and ethically; do not distort or obscure data to make
it better fit your hypothesis. If data is inconclusive or contradictory, be honest about that. In
the Results section, you should avoid interpreting or explaining your data, as this belongs in
your Discussion section.

Discussion

The discussion section includes your analysis and interpretation of the data you presented in
the Results section in terms of how well it supports your original hypothesis. Start with the
most important findings. It is perfectly fine to acknowledge that the data you have generated
is problematic or fails to support the hypothesis. This points the way for further research. If
your findings are inconsistent, try to suggest possible reasons for this.

31
Conclusion

In 1-2 short paragraphs, review the overall purpose of your study and the hypothesis you
tested; then summarize your key findings and the important implications. This is your
opportunity to persuade the audience of the significance of your work.

Acknowledgements

Formally express appreciation for any assistance you have received while preparing the
report (financial/funding support, help from colleagues or your institution, and so on.).

References

List all references you have cited in your report (such as those you may have included in a
“literature review” in your introduction, or sources that help justify your methodology).
Check with your instructor or publication guidelines for which citation style to use.
Appendices

Any information that does not fit within the body sections, but still adds valuable information
to your report, can be placed in an appendix. Where your Results section may present
summarized data, the full data tables may appear in an appendix. You may also include logs,
calculations, or notes on analytical methods. Be sure to refer to your appendices in the body
of your report to signal where readers can find additional information.

Final Considerations for Writing Lab Reports

How you write up the results of a scientific experiment will generally follow the formulaic
pattern described in the previously, but may vary depending on the audience and purpose. As
a student, you are often writing to demonstrate to your instructor that you have mastered the
knowledge and skills required in a particular course. But remember that science writing
generally focuses on the observable results, not on your “learning experience.” Your report
should include what anyone doing this experiment might observe and conclude; these do not
typically include personal reflections.

In the professional academic world, your report may have to pass through a rigorous peer
review process before being published in a scholarly journal. As a professional, your work
may result in the development of products and services that will be used by the public, so

32
documenting your process and findings has financial, safety, and legal implications. It is
therefore critical that your writing is accurate and ethical.

Lab reports are often written using past tense, 3rd person, and passive verb constructions
when describing what was done and what was observed. Why do you suppose that is? Strict
adherence to this style has in recent years been relaxed somewhat, and you might find more
science writing that use first person and active rather than passive verb constructions.

33
Technical descriptions and definitions

Descriptive technical writing uses a combination of visuals and text to both “show” and “tell”
the reader about the information being conveyed. Like more creative descriptions, technical
descriptions sometimes draw on the “five senses” and metaphorical comparisons (analogies)
to allow the reader to fully conceptualize what is being described.

More often, however, they rely on concrete, measurable descriptors. Technical descriptions
can take many forms, depending on purpose and audience. Descriptions can range from a
brief sentence, to a paragraph, a whole section of a report, or an entire manual.

Poorly written technical descriptions can cause confusion, waste time, and even result in
catastrophe! Technical product descriptions are often legally required to ensure safety and
compliance. Attention to detail is critical.

Product specifications require detailed descriptions of design features; instructions often

require specific descriptive detail to “show” the reader what to do. Some general categories
of technical descriptions include the following:

Mechanism Descriptions: provide a detailed overview the physical aspects of a tool,

machine or other mechanical device that has moving parts and is designed to perform
a specific function. These could be product descriptions for sales or manufacturing,
documentation of design specifications, info-graphics, etc. This chapter focuses in
detail on this kind of description.

Process Descriptions: detail a series of events (natural/biological/ecological,

mechanical, social, or psychological phenomenon) that happen in particular sequence
in order to achieve a specific outcome. These can be categorized into non-
instructional processes (such as a process analyses of how an internal combustion
engine works, or natural processes like photosynthesis) and instructional process
(such as recommended/required procedures and explicit step-by-step instructions to
be followed).

Definitions: clarify the specific meaning, often related to a specific context, or

express the essential nature of the terms being defined. These can range in length
from a simple clarifying phrase to an extended document of several pages. Definitions

34
 will often include detailed descriptions and visuals to illustrate ideas. Click on the link
below to view a student PowerPoint presentation on how to write effective definitions
for technical purposes. This presentation is included with express permission of the
student.

Technical Description of a Mechanism

Mechanism descriptions should provide a clear understanding of the object being described,
including:

 General appearance and physical properties.

 Overall function/purpose.

 Component parts.

 How the parts interact to create a functioning whole.

The reader should be able to clearly picture, and therefore understand, the nature of the object
being described, what it does, and how it works. In order to achieve this clarity for the reader,
the writer must choose significant details and organize information logically. Select details
that can be described precisely and measurably, such as:

Colour materials texture, smell, taste

Shape component parts finish

Size properties patterns, designs

Dimensions principles at work interactions

35
Depending on the reader’s need, the description may range from a general overview requiring
only a few sentences to a multi-chapter manual detailing every aspect of the mechanism’s
parts and functions in order to troubleshoot technical problems and complete repairs.

Before you begin to draft your description, you must consider your purpose and audience:
Why does your audience need this description? What will they use it for? Are you describing
different types of solar panels for the average consumers to help them choose the one that
best fits their needs? Are you giving schematics to technicians and installers?

Once you have your purpose and audience clearly in focus, draft a description that includes
the following elements:

Definition: What is it, and what is its main purpose?

Overview: Describe the mechanism’s overall appearance (“big picture”).

Components: Describe the main component parts in labeled sections; consider the
order of information carefully here. Create a logical connection between each
component described.

Explanation: how do the parts work together to fulfill its function? What key
principles govern its functioning? Consider how much detail is necessary here for
your intended audience.

Visuals: include graphics that clearly illustrate the mechanism and/or its parts. Show
the device as a whole; consider showing specific details in expanded views, cut-
aways, or labeled diagrams. You may even embed or link to videos showing the
device in action.

Conclusion: depending on the purpose, you might review product’s history,

availability, manufacturing, costs, warnings, and so on.).

References: Sources you have used in your description, or additional sources of

information available (if relevant).

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You might consider using a template, like the Technical Description Template below,
keeping in mind that while templates can be helpful guides, they do not provide much
flexibility and may not work for all situations.

Table 2.1: Technical Description Template

In refining the details of your description and its component parts, consider the following:

Organization

Use a logical principle to organize your description:

- Top to bottom (or foundation upward).

- Left to right (or right to left).

- Inside to outside (or outside to inside).

- Most important to least important features.

- Central component to peripherals.

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 - Material properties, and so on.

Language

Use specific, precise, and concrete terms – avoid vague or overly-general terms:
- Use specific, precise, concrete terms – avoid vague or overly-general terms.
- Use analogy to describe an unfamiliar thing in terms of a familiar thing.
- Use objective language – no “ad speak” or subjective terms.
- Use present tense, active verbs to describe how the device appears and what it does.
- Use words that create vivid and specific pictures in the reader’s mind.

Technical Instructions

One of the most common and important uses of technical writing is to provide instructions,
those step-by-step explanations of how to assemble, operate, repair, or do routine
maintenance on something.

Although they may seems intuitive and simple to write, instructions are some of the worst-
written documents you can find. Most of us have probably had many infuriating experiences
with badly written instructions. This topic will show you what professionals consider the best
techniques in providing instructions.

An effective set of instruction requires the following:

 Clear, precise, and simple writing.

 A thorough understanding of the procedure in all its technical detail.

 The ability to put yourself in the place of the reader, the person trying to use
your instructions.

 The ability to visualize the procedure in detail and to capture that awareness
on paper.

 Willingness to test your instructions on the kind of person you wrote them for.

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Preliminary Steps for Technical Instructions

At the beginning of a project to write a set of instructions, it is important to determine the

structure or characteristics of the particular procedure you are going to write about. Here are
some steps to follow:

Common Sections in Instructions

The following is a review of the sections you will commonly find in instructions. Do not
assume that each one of them must be in the actual instructions you write, nor that they have
to be in the order presented here, nor that these are the only sections possible in a set of
instructions. A set of instructions often includes the following:

1. Introduction: plan the introduction to your instructions carefully. It might include any of
the following (but not necessarily in this order):

 Indicate the specific tasks or procedure to be explained as well as the scope (what will
and will not be covered).

 Indicate what the audience needs in terms of knowledge and background to

understand the instructions.

 Give a general idea of the procedure and what it accomplishes.

 Indicate the conditions when these instructions should (or should not) be used.

 Give an overview of the contents of the instructions.

The introduction can include different types of instructions such as:

 General warning, caution, danger notices

 Technical background or theory

 Equipment and supplies

Types of instructions that can be featured in writing instructions:

 General warning, caution, danger notices: instructions often must alert readers
to the possibility of ruining their equipment, screwing up the procedure, and

39
 hurting themselves. Also, instructions must often emphasize key points or
exceptions. For these situations, you use special notices—note, warning, caution,
and danger notices. Notice how these special notices are used in the example
instructions listed above.
 Technical background or theory: at the beginning of certain kinds of
instructions (after the introduction), you may need a discussion of background
related to the procedure. For certain instructions, this background is critical—
otherwise, the steps in the procedure make no sense. For example, you may have
had some experience with those software applets in which you define your own
colors by nudging red, green, and blue slider bars around. To really understand
what you are doing, you need to have some background on color. Similarly, you
can imagine that, for certain instructions using cameras, some theory might be
needed as well.
 Equipment and supplies: notice that most instructions include a list of the things
you need to gather before you start the procedure. This includes equipment, the
tools you use in the procedure (such as mixing bowls, spoons, bread pans,
hammers, drills, and saws) and supplies, the things that are consumed in the
procedure (such as wood, paint, oil, flour, and nails). In instructions, these
typically are listed either in a simple vertical list or in a two-column list. Use the
two-column list if you need to add some specifications to some or all of the items
—for example, brand names, sizes, amounts, types, model numbers, and so on.

2. Discussion of the steps: when you get to the actual writing of the steps, there are several
things to keep mind:

 The structure and format of those steps.

 Supplementary information that might be needed.
 The point of view and general writing style.

Structure and format:

Normally, we imagine a set of instructions as being formatted as vertical numbered lists. And
most are in fact. Normally, you format your actual step-by-step instructions this way. There a
re some variations, however, as well as some other considerations:

40
Fixed-order steps

Fixed-order steps are steps that must be performed in the order presented.
For example, if you are changing the oil in a car, draining the oil is a step that
must come before putting the new oil. These are numbered lists (usually, vertical numbered
lists).

Variable-order steps

Variable-order steps are steps that can be performed in practically any order. Good examples
are those troubleshooting guides that tell you to check this, check that where you are trying to
fix something.

You can do these kinds of steps in practically any order. With this type, the bulleted list is the
appropriate format.

Alternate

Alternate steps are those in which two or more ways to accomplish the same thing are
presented. Alternate steps are also used when various conditions might exist. Use bulleted
lists with this type, with OR inserted between the alternatives, or the lead-in indicating that
alternatives are about to be presented.

Nested steps

Nested steps may be used in cases when individual steps within a procedure are rather
complex in their own right and need to be broken down into sub-steps. In this case, you
indent further and sequence the sub-steps as a, b, c, and so on.

“Step-less” instructions

“Step-less” instructions can be used when you really cannot use numbered vertical list or
provide straightforward instructional-style directing of the reader. Some situations must be so
generalized or so variable that steps cannot be stated.

41
Supplementary discussion: often, it is not enough simply to tell readers to do this or to do
that. They need additional explanatory information such as:

 How the object/thing should look before and after the step?
 Why they should care about doing this step?
 What mechanical principle is behind what they are doing?

In addition, it may be even necessary to include an even more micro-level explanation of the
step — discussion of the specific actions that make up the step.

The problem with supplementary discussion, however, is that it can hide the actual step. You
want the actual step, the specific actions the reader is to take to stand out. You do not want it
all buried in a heap of words.

There are at least two techniques to avoid this problem: you can split the instruction from the
supplement into separate paragraphs; or you can bold the instruction.

Writing Style

Placing the key user steps in bold can a very helpful way to signal clearly what the reader
needs to do. Often the command verb is bolded; sometimes bold font highlights the key
component being discussed.

Use of the passive voice in instructions can be problematic. For some strange reason, some
instructions sound like this: “The Pause button should be depressed in order to stop the
display temporarily.” Not only are we worried about the pause button’s mental health, but we
wonder who’s supposed to depress the thing (ninjas?). It would be more helpful to indicate
when the reader must “press the Pause button.”

Consider this example: “The Timer button is then set to 3:00.” Again, one might ask, “is set
by whom? Ninjas?” The person following these instructions might think it is simply a
reference to some existing state, or she might wonder, “Are they talking to me?” Using the
third person can also lead to awkwardness: “The user should then press the Pause button.”
Instructions should typically be written using command verb forms and using “you” to make
it perfectly clear what the reader should do.

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Illustrating Your Instructions:

Perhaps more than in any other form of technical writing, graphics are crucial to instructions.
Sometimes, words simply cannot explain the step. Illustrations are often critical to the
readers’ ability to visualize what they are supposed to do. Be sure that the graphics represent
the image from the reader’s perspective.

Formatting Your Instructions

Since people rarely want to read instructions, but often have to, format your instructions for
reluctant readability. Try to make your reader want to read them, or at least not resistant to
the idea of consulting them. Highly readable format will allow readers who have figured out
some of the instructions on their own to skip to the section where they are stuck.

Use what you have learned about headings, lists, visuals, and passive space to create effective
and readable instructions:

 Headings: normally, you’d want headings for any background section you might
have, the equipment and supplies section, a general heading for the actual instructions
section, and subheadings for the individual tasks or phases within that section.

 Lists: similarly, instructions typically make extensive use of lists, particularly

numbered vertical lists for the actual step-by-step explanations. Simple vertical lists or
two-column lists are usually good for the equipment and supplies section. In-sentence
lists are good whenever you give an overview of things to come.

 Special Notices: you may have to alert readers to possibilities in which they may
damage their equipment, waste supplies, cause the entire procedure to fail, injure
themselves or others—even seriously or fatally. Companies have been sued for lack
of these special notices, for poorly written special notices, or for special notices that
were out of place. See special notices for a complete discussion of the proper use of
these special notices as well as their format and placement within instructions.

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Revision Checklist for Written Instructions

As you reread and revise your instructions, check that they do the following:

 Clearly describe the exact procedure to be explained.

 Provide an overview of content.

 Indicate audience requirements.

 Use various types of lists wherever appropriate; in particular, use numbered lists for
sequential steps.
 Use headings and subheadings to divide the main sections and subsections in a
logical, coherent order.
 Use special notices as appropriate.
 Use graphics to illustrate key actions and objects.
 Provide additional supplementary explanation of the steps as necessary.
 Create a section listing equipment and supplies if necessary.

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Technical Proposal and What It Should Include

Proposals can have various purposes and thus take many forms. It may include sections such
as the following:

 Introduction and/or background

 Problem statement

 Purpose/motivation/goal/objectives

 Definition of scope and approach

 Review of the state of the art

 Technical background

 Project description

 Schedule of work/timeline

 Budget

 Qualifications

 Conclusion

Types of Proposals

Four types of proposals are discussed below.

Solicited Proposals

An organization identifies a situation or problem that it wants to improve or solve and issues
a Request for Proposals (RFP) asking for proposals on how to address it. The requesting
organization will vet proposals and choose the most convincing one, often using a detailed
scoring rubric or weighted objectives chart to determine which proposal best responds to the
request.

45
Unsolicited Proposals

With an unsolicited proposals, a writer perceives a problem or an opportunity and takes the
initiative to propose a way to solve the problem or take advantage of the opportunity (without
being requested to do so). This can often be the most difficult kind of proposal to get
approved.

Internal Proposals:

Internal Proposals are written by and for someone within the same organization. Since both
the writer and reader share the same workplace context, these proposals are generally shorter
than external proposals, and usually address some way to improve a work-related situation
(productivity, efficiency, profit, etc.). As internal documents, they are often sent as memos, or
introduced with a memo if the proposal is lengthy.

External Proposals

These are sent outside of the writer’s organization to a separate entity (usually to solicit
business). Since these are external documents, they are usually sent as a formal report (if
long), introduced by a cover letter (letter of transmittal). External proposals are usually sent
in response to a Request for Proposals, but not always.

Proposal Layout

Each proposal will be unique in that it must address a particular audience, in a particular
context, for a specific purpose. However, the following offers a fairly standard organization
for many types of proposals:

46
Table2.2: Sample Proposal Layout

Each proposal will be unique in that it must address a particular audience, in a particular
context, for a specific purpose. However, the following offers a fairly standard organization
for many types of proposals

47
Format of a Progress Report

Depending on the size of the progress report, the length and importance of the project, and
the recipient, a progress report can take forms ranging from a short informal conversation to a
detailed, multi-paged report. Most commonly, progress reports are delivered in following
forms:

 Memo: a short, semi-formal report to someone within your organization (can range in
length from 1-4 pages).
 Letter: a short, semi-formal report sent to someone outside your organization.
 Formal report: a long, formal report sent to someone within or outside of your
organization.
 Presentation: an oral presentation given directly to the target audience.

The recipient of a progress report wants to see what you’ve accomplished on the project,
what you are working on now, what you plan to work on next, and how the project is going in
general. The information is usually arranged with a focus either on time or on task, or a
combination of the two:

 Focus on time: shows time period (previous, current, and future) and tasks completed
or scheduled to be completed in each period.
 Focus on specific tasks: shows order of tasks (defined milestones) and progress made
in each time period.
 Focus on larger goals: focus on the overall effect of what has been accomplished.

Progress Reports – Structural Overview

Information can also be arranged by report topic. You should refer to established milestones
or deliverables outlined in your original proposal or job specifications. Whichever
organizational strategy you choose, your report will likely contain the elements described
below.

48
1. Introduction

Review the details of your project’s purpose, scope, and activities. The introduction may also
contain the following:

- Date the project began; date the project is scheduled to be completed.

- People or organization working on the project.

- People or organization for whom the project is being done.

- Overview of the contents of the progress report

Project status

This section (which could have sub-sections) should give the reader a clear idea of the current
status of your project. It should review the work completed, work in progress, and work
remaining to be done on the project, organized into sub-sections by time, task, or topic. These
sections might include:

- Direct reference to milestones or deliverables established in previous documents

related to the project.

- Timeline for when remaining work will be completed.

- Any problems encountered or issues that have arisen that might affect completion,
direction, requirements, or scope.

Conclusion

The final section provides an overall assessment of the current state of the project and its
expected completion, usually reassuring the reader that all is going well and on schedule. It
can also alert recipients to unexpected changes in direction or scope, or problems in the
project that may require intervention. References section may also be included if required

49
Feasibility Reports

Typical questions addressed in these reports include:

1. Is it possible?

Can this be done within the allotted budget, time frame, legal and regulatory conditions, and
technical capabilities?

2. Is it financially viable?

Even if it falls within our budget, should we do it? Will it have long term benefits that
outweigh costs? Is there a less expensive or financially risky way to achieving the same
result? How does it compare to the cost of doing nothing about this situation?

3. Will it be accepted by the community?

Will people be in favor of this idea? Will anyone be opposed to it? How much public support
is necessary to make this successful? (What kind of stakeholder consultation might be
necessary to determine this?).

50
Recommendation Reports

A recommendation reports starts from a stated need; it offers a selection of solution options,
presents a detailed comparative analysis of the options, and then recommends one, some, or
none. For example, a company might be looking at grammar-checking software and want a
recommendation on which product is the best fit for them.

As the report writer on this project, you could study the market for this type of application
and recommend one particular product, 2-3 possible products (differing perhaps in their
strengths and their weaknesses), or none (maybe none of them are appropriate for the client’s
specific needs).

The recommendation report answers the question “Which option should we choose?” (or in
some cases “Which are the best options?) by recommending Product B, or maybe both
Products B and C, or none of the products.

These recommendations might arise from questions such as:

 What should we do about Problem X?

 What is the best way to provide Function or Service A?
 Should we use Technology X or Technology Y to perform Function Z?

51
Evaluation Reports

An evaluation report provides a judgment or assessment rather than a yes-no-maybe answer

or a recommendation. It provides a studied opinion on the value or worth of something. For
example, for over a year the city of Austin had free bus transportation in an attempt to
increase ridership and reduce automobile traffic. Did it work? Was it worthwhile? These are
questions an evaluation report would attempt to answer.

This type of report compares a thing to a set of requirements (or criteria) and determines how
well it meets those requirements. (And of course, this may result in a recommendation: to
continue the project, scrap it, change it, or other possibilities.)

As you can see, these distinctions are rather fine, and they overlap somewhat. In real-world
writing, these types often combine; you might see elements of the recommendation report
combine with the feasibility report, for example.

Typical Contents of Recommendation and Feasibility Reports

Whatever variety of feasibility or recommendation report you write, whatever name people
call it—most of the sections and the organization of those sections are roughly the
[Link] structural principle fundamental to this type of report is this: you provide not only y
our
recommendation, choice, or judgment, but also the data, analysis, discussion, and the conclusi
ons leading to it. That way, readers can check your findings, your logic, and your conclusions
to make sure your methodology was sound and that they can agree with your recommendatio
n. Your
goal is to convince the reader to agree with you by using your careful research, detailed analy
sis, rhetorical style, and documentation.

The general problem-solving approach for a Recommendation Report entails the steps shown
in the example below.

52
Table 2.3: Typical Recommendation Report Elements

Typical Contents of Recommendation and Feasibility Reports

These steps generally coincide with how you will organize your information. Your report will
be divided into several sections that will likely include most or all of the following elements:

Introduction

The introduction should clearly indicate the document’s purpose. Your introduction will
discuss the “unsatisfactory situation” that has given rise to this report and the requirements
that must be met (the Problem Definition). Your reader may also need some background.
Finally, provide an overview of the contents of the report.

53
Technical Background

Some recommendation or feasibility reports may require technical discussion in order to

make the rest of the report meaningful. The dilemma with this kind of information is whether
to put it in a section of its own or to fit it into the comparison sections where it is relevant.
For example, a discussion of power and speed of tablet computers is going to necessitate
some discussion of RAM, megahertz, and processors.

Should you put that in a section that compares the tablets according to power and speed?
Should you keep the comparison neat and clean, limited strictly to the comparison and the
conclusion? Maybe all the technical background can be pitched in its own section—either
toward the front of the report or in an appendix.

Requirements and Criteria

A critical part of feasibility and recommendation reports is the discussion of the requirements
(objectives and constraints) you’ll use to reach the final decision or recommendation.
Requirements can be defined in several ways:

- Numerical Values: many requirements are stated as maximum or minimum numerical

values. For example, there may be a cost requirement—the tablet should cost no more than
$900.

- Yes/no Values: some requirements are simply a yes-no question. Does the tablet come
equipped with Bluetooth? Is the car equipped with voice recognition?

- Ratings Values: in some cases, key considerations cannot be handled either with numerical
or yes/no values. For example, your organization might want a tablet that has an ease-of-use
rating of at least “good” by some nationally accepted ratings group. Or you may have to
assign ratings yourself.

Discussion of Solution Options:

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In certain kinds of feasibility or recommendation reports, you’ll need to explain how you
narrowed the field of choices down to the ones your report focuses on. Often, this follows
right after the discussion of the requirements. Your basic requirements may well narrow the
field down for you. But there may be other considerations that disqualify other options—
explain these as well.

Additionally, you may need to provide brief technical descriptions of the options themselves.
Don’t get this mixed up with the comparison that comes up in the next section. In this
description section, you provide a general discussion of the options so that readers will know
something about them. The discussion at this stage is not comparative. It’s just a general
orientation to the options. In the tablets example, you might want to give some brief, general
specifications on each model about to be compared.

Comparative Analysis

One of the most important parts of a feasibility or recommendation report is the comparison
of the options. Remember that you include this section so that readers can follow the logic of
your analysis and come up with different conclusions if they desire. This comparison can be
structured using a “block” (whole-to-whole) approach, or an “alternating” (point-by-point)
approach.

You might compare 3 options (1, 2, and 3) using three criteria for comparison (A, B, and C).
If you were comparing tablets, you’d likely use the point-by-point approach, having a section
that compared all three options based on cost (criteria A), another section that compared them
on battery function, and so on. You wouldn’t have a section that discussed everything about
option 1, another that discussed everything about option 2, and so on. That would not be
effective or efficient, because you still have to make direct comparisons somewhere near the
end of your discussion (such as in a weighted objective chart).

Summary Table

After the individual comparisons, include a summary table (such as a Weighted Objectives
Chart) that summarizes the conclusions from the comparative analysis section. Some readers

55
are more likely to pay attention to details in a table than in paragraphs; however, you still
have to write up a clear summary paragraph of your findings.

Conclusions
The conclusions section of a feasibility or recommendation report amalgamates all of the
conclusions you have already reached in each of the comparison sections. In this section, you
restate the individual conclusions, for example, which model had the best price, which had
the best battery function, and so on. You could give a summary of the relative strengths and
weakness of each option based on how well they meet the criteria.

Thus, the conclusion section first lists the primary conclusions—the simple, single-category
ones. Then it must state secondary conclusions—the ones that balance conflicting primary
conclusions. For example, if one tablet is the least inexpensive but has poor battery function,
but another is the most expensive but has good battery function, which do you choose and
why? The secondary conclusion would state the answer to this dilemma.

Recommendations:

The final section of feasibility and recommendation reports states the recommendations
which flow directly from your conclusions and directly address the problem outlined in the
introduction. These may sometimes be repetitive, but remember that some readers may skip
right to the recommendation section. Also, there will be some cases where there may be a
best choice but you wouldn’t want to recommend it. Early in their history, laptop computers
were heavy and unreliable—there may have been one model that was better than the rest, but
even it was not worth having. You may want to recommend further research, a pilot project,
or a re-design of one of the options discussed.

The recommendation section should outline what further work needs to be done, based
solidly on the information presented previously in the report and responding directly to the
needs outlined in the beginning. In some cases, you may need to recommend several ranked
options based on different possibilities.

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Revision Checklist for Feasibility and Recommendation Reports

As you reread and revise your feasibility or recommendation report, ensure that you have
included all of the sections and elements described below.

Table 2.4: Revision Checklist for Recommendation Reports

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Structure of a Formal Report
A technical report follows a specific layout and format as specified by the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI).

Front matter
The front matter is used to help potential readers find the report. Once found, the front matter
will help the reader to decide whether the material contained within the report pertains to
what they are investigating.
The front matter may include the following:
i. Cover - A cover and label are used if the report is over 10 pages long. The cover
(front and back) provides physical protection for the printed report. Plastic spiral
bindings and thick, card-stock paper are recommended.

Figure: Illustration of a cover page with label

ii. Label - A label is placed on the cover to identify the Title of the Report and subtitle
(if a subtitle is appropriate), Author’s name, Publisher (It is suggested that the school

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 and class title be used in place of the publisher for instructional purposes. If a report
tracking number is used, it should also appear on the label. Many companies and
organizations have their own labeling standards.) and Date of publication.

Figure: Illustration of a report label

iii. Title Page - The title page duplicates the information found on the front cover (if one
is used).

iv. Abstract - is a short summary that provides an overview of the purpose, scope, and
findings contained in the report.

Purpose - identifies the issue, need, or reason for the investigation

Scope - reviews the main points, extent and limits of the investigation

Findings - includes condensed conclusions and recommendations

v. Table of Contents - The table of contents lists the title and beginning page number of
each major section within the report (excluding the title page and the table of
contents).

vi. Lists of Figures and Tables - A list of figures and tables helps the reader to locate
illustrations, drawings, photographs, graphs, charts, and tables of information
contained in the report.

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The front matter may also contain other optional items which may or may not pertain to a
student’s technical report:

vii. Forward - an introductory statement that presents background material or that places
in context a report that is part of a series. It is written by an authority in the field other
than the author of the report. The name and affiliation of the author of the foreword
follow the last paragraph.

viii. Preface - an introductory statement that announces the purpose and scope of the
report and acknowledges the contributions of individuals not identified as authors or
editors. Sometimes a preface specifies the audience for whom a report is intended; it
may also highlight the relationship of the report to a specific project or program.
Material that is necessary for understanding the report belongs in the introduction, not
in the Preface. A foreword and a preface are not interchangeable, and the information
in them is not redundant. A foreword precedes a preface, if both are included.

ix. Acknowledgements - Acknowledgments of technical assistance that contributed to

the content of the report are made at an appropriate place in the preface or in the body.
However, lengthy acknowledgments are often made in a special optional section titled
“Acknowledgments.” This optional section follows the preface, in which case the
preface does not contain acknowledgments.

Main Text
This is the part of a technical report in that the author describes the methods, assumptions and
procedures. The author also presents and discusses the results, draws conclusions, and makes
recommends based on the results.
i. Introduction/Objective - The Introduction prepares the reader to read the main
body of the report.
 Explains the research problem and its context
 Explains importance of the problem (why does it matter?)
 Applications of the experiment or theory
 Explains reason and goals for study
 Motivation
ii. Background - Includes the theory for the experiments
 Any equations required for the calculations

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  Each equation should be numbers
iii. Methodology/Assumption/Procedure
 How did you discover the problem?
 What measuring tools were used?
 What measurement system was used?
 Assumptions: What do you think, but cannot substantiate as fact?
 Procedures: How did you gain a better understanding of the problem?
Describes the experimental procedure and data collection
Included a schematic/diagram of the apparatus
iv. Results and Discussion
The results and discussion section describes what you learned about the problem as a
result of your research, identifies the degree of accuracy related to your findings, and
gives the reader your view of the significance of your findings.
– State the results in the text before presenting any graphs, figures or tables.
• Text points out the most significant portions of research findings
• Indicates key trends or relationships
• Highlights expected and/or unexpected findings
– Visual representation of results:
• Graphs, tables or figures
• Included error analysis
Results: What did you learn about the problem through your research?
Discussion: How accurate are your findings? What is the significance of the results
of the research?
v. Conclusion
– Restatement of Results:
What are the factual findings that resulted from your research?
What are you implying as a result of these findings?
– Concluding Remarks:
What are your opinions based on the findings and results?
vi. Recommendations
This section is often included in reports that are the result of tests and experiments,
field trials, specific design problems, and feasibility studies.
The author may recommend additional areas of study and suggest a course of action,
such as pursuing an alternate design approach.
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 – Additional Studies
Is there information that still needs to be learned?
– Suggested Actions
What does the author want the reader to do with the information?
vii. References
The references section is the place where the author cites all of the secondary research
sources that were used to develop an understanding of the problem and support the
information contained in the report.
Cite sources whenever you are quoting, paraphrasing, or summarizing work that is not
your own
– Quoting directly is discouraged
– DO NOT COPY
Sources include:
– Books
– Journal, magazine, or newspaper articles
– Interviews
– Conference Proceedings
– Lectures
Referencing Styles include APA, IEEE and Harvard.

The Back Matter

The back matter supplements and clarifies the body of the report, makes the body easier to
understand, and shows where additional information can be found.
i. Appendixes
Anything that cannot be left out of a report, but is too large for the main part of the
report and would serve to distract or interrupt the flow belongs in the appendixes.
Examples include:
• Large tables of data
• Flowcharts
• Mathematical analysis
• Large illustrations
• Detailed explanations and descriptions of test techniques and apparatus
• Technical drawings

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ii. List of Symbols, Abbreviations, and Acronyms
If more than five symbols, abbreviations, or acronyms are used in the report, they are
to be listed with their explanation.
If five or fewer symbols, abbreviations, or acronyms exist, then they are to be defined
the first time they are used in the report and lists are not required.
When they occur in lists, symbols, abbreviations, and acronyms are presented in
descending order, as follows:
 Roman (English) alphabet capital letters
 Roman (English) alphabet lowercase letters
 Greek alphabet capital letters
 Greek alphabet lowercase letters
 Subscripts
 Superscripts
 Special notes

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Research Terminology

Research methods include the use of tools and techniques for collecting, sorting, and analyzing
the information and data you find. The better the tools and more comprehensive the techniques
you employ, the more effective your research will be. By extension, the more effective your
research is, the more credible and persuasive your argument will be. Here are some basic terms
and definitions you should be familiar with:

Research: the systematic process of finding out more about something than you already
know, ideally so that you can prove a hypothesis, produce new knowledge and
understanding, and make evidence-based decisions.

Research Methods: techniques of collecting, sorting, and analyzing information/data.

o The typical kinds of research sources you will use can be grouped into three broad
categories:

Primary Sources: research you might conduct yourself in lab experiments and
product testing, through surveys, observations, measurements, interviews, site visits,
prototype testing, beta testing, etc.

These can also include published statistical data, historical records, legal documents,
firsthand historical accounts, and original creative works.

Secondary Sources: written sources that discuss, analyze, and interpret primary data,
such as published research and studies, reviews of these studies, meta-analyses, and
formal critiques.

Tertiary Sources: reference sources such as dictionaries, encyclopedias, and

handbooks that provide a consolidation of primary and secondary information.

They are useful to gain a general understanding of your topic and major concepts, lines
of inquiry, or schools of thought in the field.

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Primary Data

Data that has been directly observed, experienced and recorded close to the event. This is data
that you might create yourself by:

- Measurement: collecting numbers indicating amounts (temperature, size, and so on.).

- Observation: with your own senses or with instruments (camera, microscope).

- Interrogation: conducting interviews, focus groups, surveys, polls, or questionnaires.

- Participation: experience of doing or seeing something (visit the site, tour the facility,
manipulate models or simulations, Beta test, and so on.).

Research methods are often categorized as quantitative, qualitative or “mixed method.” Some
projects, like a science, require the use of the scientific method of inquiry, observation,
quantitative data collection, analysis and conclusions to test a hypothesis. Other kinds of projects
take a more deductive approach and gather both quantitative and qualitative evidence to support
a position or recommendation. The research methods you choose will be determined by the
goals and scope of your project, and by your intended audience’s expectations.

Secondary data

Comes from sources that record, analyze, and interpret primary data. It is critical to evaluate the
credibility of these sources. You might find such data in:

- Academic research: refereed academic studies published in academic journals.

- Print sources: books, trade magazines, newspapers, popular media, etc.

- Online research: popular media sources, industry websites, government websites, non-profit
organizations.

- Non-written Material: TV, radio, film, such as documentaries, news, podcasts, etc.

- Professional Documents: annual reports, production records, committee reports, survey

results, and so on.

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Research methods are often categorized as quantitative, qualitative or “mixed method.” Some
projects, like a science, require the use of the scientific method of inquiry, observation,
quantitative data collection, analysis and conclusions to test a hypothesis. Other kinds of projects
take a more deductive approach and gather both quantitative and qualitative evidence to support
a position or recommendation. The research methods you choose will be determined by the
goals and scope of your project, and by your intended audience’s expectations.

Quantitative data

Uses numbers to describe information that can be measured quantitatively. This data is used to
measure, make comparisons, examine relationships, test hypotheses, explain, predict, or even
control.

Research methods are often categorized as quantitative, qualitative or “mixed method.” Some
projects, like a science, require the use of the scientific method of inquiry, observation,
quantitative data collection, analysis and conclusions to test a hypothesis. Other kinds of projects
take a more deductive approach and gather both quantitative and qualitative evidence to support
a position or recommendation. The research methods you choose will be determined by the
goals and scope of your project, and by your intended audience’s expectations.

Qualitative data

Uses words to record and describe the data collected; often describes people’s feelings,
judgments, emotions, customs, and beliefs that can only be expressed in descriptive words, not
in numbers. This includes “anecdotal data” or personal experiences.

Research methods are often categorized as quantitative, qualitative or “mixed method.” Some
projects, like a science, require the use of the scientific method of inquiry, observation,
quantitative data collection, analysis and conclusions to test a hypothesis. Other kinds of projects
take a more deductive approach and gather both quantitative and qualitative evidence to support
a position or recommendation. The research methods you choose will be determined by the
goals and scope of your project, and by your intended audience’s expectations.

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How to Structure the Analysis of Research Data

More specific methodologies, such as ways to structure the analysis of your data, include the
following:

 Cost/benefit Analysis: determines how much something will cost vs what measurable
benefits it will create.
 Life-cycle Analysis: determines overall sustainability of a product or process, from
manufacturing, through lifetime use, to disposal (you can also perform comparative life-
cycle analyses, or specific life cycle stage analysis).
 Comparative Analysis: compares two or more options to determine which is the “best”
solution (given specific problem criteria such as goals, objectives, and constraints).
 Process Analysis: studies each aspect of a process to determine if all parts and steps
work efficiently together to create the desired outcome.
 Sustainability Analysis: uses concepts such as the “triple bottom line” or “three pillars
of sustainability” to analyze whether a product or process is environmentally,
economically, and socially sustainable.

In all cases, the way you collect, analyze, and use data must be ethical and consistent with
professional standards of honesty and integrity. Lapses in integrity can not only lead to poor
quality reports in an academic context (poor grades and academic dishonesty penalties), but in
the workplace, these lapses can also lead to lawsuits, loss of job, and even criminal charges.

Typical Research Sources for Technical Projects

In this “information age” when so much information is available at our fingertips on the Internet,
it is crucial to be able to critically search through the reams of information in order to select
credible sources that can provide reliable and useful data to support your ideas and convince
your audience. In the era of “fake news,” deliberate misinformation, and “alternative facts,”
developing the skill to evaluate the credibility of sources is critical.

Academic Journals, Conference Papers, Dissertations, and others.

Scholarly (peer-reviewed) academic sources publish primary research done by professional

researchers and scholars in specialized fields, as well as reviews of that research by other
specialists in the same field.

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For example, the Journal of Computer and System Sciences publishes original research papers
in computer science and related subjects in system science; International Journal of Robotics
and Animation is one of the most highly ranked journals in the field.

Reference work

Specialized encyclopaedias, handbooks and dictionaries can provide useful terminology and
background information.

For example, the Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology is a widely recognized

authoritative source. Do not cite Wikipedia or [Link] in a technical report.

Books
Books written by specialists in a given field and contain a References section can be very helpful
in providing in-depth context for your ideas.

For example, Designing Engineers by Susan McCahan et al. has an excellent chapter on
effective teamwork

Trade magazines and popular science magazines

Reputable trade magazines contain articles relating to current issues and innovations, and
therefore they can be very useful in determining the “state of the art” or what is “cutting edge” at
the moment, or finding out what current issues or controversies are affecting the
industry. Examples include Computerworld, Wired, and Popular Mechanics.

Newspapers and journalism

Newspaper articles and media releases can offer a sense of what journalists and people in
industry think the general public should know about a given topic. Journalists report on current
events and recent innovations; more in-depth “investigative journalism” explores a current issue
in greater detail. Newspapers also contain editorial sections that provide personal opinions on
these events and issues. Choose well-known, reputable newspapers such as The New York
Times.

Industry websites
Commercial websites are generally intended to “sell,” so you have to select information carefully,
but these websites can give you insights into a company’s “mission statement,” organization,
strategic plan, current or planned projects, archived information, White Papers, technical reports,
product details, costs estimates, and so on.

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Organization websites
A vast array of .org sites can be very helpful in supplying data and information. These are
often public service sites and are designed to share information with the public.

Government publications and public sector websites

Government departments often publish reports and other documents that can be very helpful
in determining public policy, regulations, and guidelines that should be followed.

Patents
You may have to distinguish your innovative idea from previously patented ideas; you can
look these up and get detailed information on patented or patent-pending ideas

Public Presentations
The importance of critically evaluating your sources for authority, relevance, timeliness, and
credibility cannot be overstated. Anyone can put anything on the internet; and people with
strong web and document design skills can make this information look very professional and
credible—even if it is not.

Evaluating the Authority, Content, and Purpose of Information

Authorities, researchers, authors and creators

 - Authoritative Sources: written by experts for a specialized audience, published

in peer-reviewed journals or by respected publishers, and containing well-
supported, evidence-based arguments.

- Popular Sources: written for a general (or possibly niche) public audience, often in an
informal or journalistic style, published in newspapers, magazines, and websites with a
purpose of entertaining or promoting a product; evidence is often “soft” rather than hard.

When evaluating data sources; keep the following questions in mind:

- Who are the researchers/authors/creators? Who is their intended audience?

- What are their credentials/qualifications? What else has this author written?
- Is this research funded? By whom? Who benefits?
- Who has intellectual ownership of this idea? How do I cite it?
- Where is this source published? What kind of publication is it?

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Content

Methodology:

- What is the methodology of their study? Or how has evidence been collected?
- Is the methodology sound? Can you find obvious flaws?
- What is its scope? Does it apply to your project? How?
- Content How recent and relevant is it? What is the publication date or last update?

Data:

- Is there sufficient data here to support their claims or hypotheses?

- Do they offer quantitative and/or qualitative data?

- Are visual representations of the data misleading or distorted in some way?

Purpose, intended use and intended audience

- Why has this author presented this information to this audience?

- Why am I using this source?
- Will using this source bolster my credibility or undermine it?
- Am I “cherry picking” – the use of inadequate or unrepresentative data that only supports my
position (and ignores substantial amount of data that contradicts it)?
- Could “cognitive bias” be at work here? Have I only consulted the kinds of sources I know will
support my idea? Have I failed to consider alternative kinds of sources?
- Am I representing the data I have collected accurately?
- Are the data statistically relevant or significant?

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Common Logical Fallacies

There are many logical fallacies that both writers and readers can fall prey to. It is important to
use data ethically and accurately, and to apply logic correctly and validly to support your ideas.

Table 4.1: Common Logical Fallacies

Argument from popularity – e.g. “Everyone else is doing it, so

Bandwagon Fallacy we should too!”

Using insufficient data to come to a general conclusion - e.g.

Hasty Generalization "An Australian stole my wallet; therefore, all Australians are
thieves!"

Using data from a particular subset and generalizing to a larger

Unrepresentative set that may not share similar characteristics - e.g. giving a
Sample/Cherry Picking survey to only females under 20 and generalizing results to all
females.

“Either/or fallacy” – presenting only two options when there are

False Dilemma usually more possibilities to consider - e.g. "You’re either with us
or against us."

Claiming that a single cause will lead, eventually, to

Slippery Slope
exaggerated catastrophic results.

Using language loaded with emotional appeal and either

Slanted Language
positive or negative connotation to manipulate the reader.

We all have biases when we write or argue; however, when evaluating sources, you want to be
on the look out for bias that is unfair, one-sided, or slanted. Consider whether the author has
acknowledged and addressed opposing ideas, potential gaps in the research, or limits of the
data. Other common logical fallacies include:

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 Table 4.2: Common Logical Fallacies

Comparing your idea to another that is familiar to the audience but which may
False Analogy not have sufficient similarity to make an accurate comparison - e.g.
"Governing a country is like running a business."

Just because one thing happened first, does not necessarily mean that the
Post hoc, ergo
first thing caused the second thing - e.g. "A happened, then B happened;
prompter hoc
therefore, A caused B."

Begging the Circular argument – assuming the truth of the conclusion by its premises
Question - e.g. "I never lie; therefore, I must be telling the truth".

An attack on the person making an argument does not really invalidate that
Ad hominem person’s argument. It might make them seem a bit less credible, but it does
not dismantle the actual argument or invalidate the data.

Straw Man Making a “straw man” argument means restating the opposing idea in an
Argument inaccurately absurd or simplistic manner to more easily refute or undermine
it.

Often, when you are first given a project, the problem is fairly general and open-ended. This
allows you to approach the problem in a variety of ways, but also requires you to do some work
to decide which particular approach you will take. Most projects will require careful consideration
of scope.

Who is your audience? What is your purpose? What are the limitations placed on what can be
expected or achieved? What are the constraints you have to work within? Clearly, no project will
be relevant to all people in all places at all times. You must define the scope by considering:

 Who is your primary audience? Who else might read this?

 What is the best format to use to present this project to these readers? (what format or
specific information have they requested?).
 What is the specific outcome you want this document or project to achieve? Is there a
time frame and budget?
 What do you want your readers to do, think, or decide after reading it?
 Who are the people who will be affected by this project? Who are stakeholders?
 Are there limitations (or a potential to apply limits) in terms of geography, demographics,
or available technology? Could you consider a Pilot Project or Beta-Test?

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  Are there legal considerations, regulations, policies, and guidelines that must be taken
into account?

Defining the Scope of a Project

Your project will first require background research to clearly define the problem you are tackling.
How do you know there is a problem? What measurable impacts can you point to? What will you
need to prove that this is a significant problem that needs to be addressed? Can you provide
data to show the extent of the “unsatisfactory situation” and how it negatively affects people? Is
there an expected goal or target that any proposed solution is expected to meet?

The process of coming up with a focused idea for your research can take many forms. Strategies
for narrowing and focusing include the following:

 Free–writing: write for 10 minutes straight without stopping or self-editing.

 Mind-mapping or Concept-mapping: create a graphic organizer listing ideas and
indicating how they are connected.
 Questioning: who, what, where, when, why, how? What do I already know? What do I
need to find out?
 Brainstorming: list all ideas without censoring or rejecting any, no matter how ridiculous
they might seem at first.

For instance, in engineering fields, projects most often take a Problem-Solution approach. This
entails clearly defining the problem in as open-ended a way as is feasible, possibly considering
its causes and effects, and potentially coming up with or evaluating solution ideas.

In presenting your solution, you will have to find research to provide support for the basic
premise of your research question (is this idea feasible?) and prove your hypothesis (it will be
effective/beneficial). You might do this by showing that similar ideas have been implemented
and/or researched in other areas, or that the ideas you are presenting are based on sound
evidence. Collecting your own primary data (such as a questionnaire or site visit) may also help
show how your ideas are feasible in the local community context.

Using appropriate methods and finding the right sort of research allows you to convince people
that your ideas have validity and merit, and that the knowledge you have acquired or created is
evidence-based. Research gives you the tools to inform and persuade by doing the following:

 Categorize, Classify

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  Describe, Document
 Explain, Analyze, Evaluate
 Compare, Correlate
 Predict

The first step in most projects is figuring out what you don’t know and what you need to know.
Without, it’s difficult to work your way to finding relevant sources that can support your own
argument or recommendation.

A problem-solving approach offers many ways to narrow your focus. Try creating a concept map
like in Figure 5.3.1 to get a sense of the many ways you might approach your topic, and then
narrow down your focus to one of those approaches. This will help you think of key words to use
in your search for sources. The more you brainstorm, the more potential key words and
synonyms you can come up with. The “mind map” below shows various ways to consider the
larger context of your problem and find a specific area to focus on. This kind of “graphic
brainstorming” can help you consider many different ways your topic can be approached.

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Figure 4.1: Concept map for refining a topic on climate change

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Figure 4.2 below shows a more specifically problem-
based approach to concept mapping the general idea and finding areas of potential focus.

Figure 4.2: Refining your project scope using a problem-based approach to concept mapping

Why Project Proposals Might be Rejected

A proposal or recommendation needs research to convince the reader that the idea is worth
pursuing or implementing. A project proposal could be rejected for any of the of following reasons
related to insufficient research:

 Unclear Problem: research problem is not clearly defined so research plan has no clear
focus (your ideas is too vague and not well thought out).
 Unnecessary Project: this issue is already well-known or the problem has already been
solved (or is in the process of being solved). For example, proposing that the school
cafeteria should replace plastic cutlery with compostable cutlery, when it has already
done so, would result in a rejected proposal.
 Impractical Scope: access to information, resources, and equipment needed to
complete your proposed study may not be available; adequate conclusions cannot be
reached in designated time frame and resources available. For example, if you propose
to do a study that will take 2 years, but your project is due in 2 months, the proposal will
be rejected.

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Presentation Skills

Like any kind of advanced communication skill, the art of giving effective presentations is
not in-born; it requires deliberate practice. An excellent way to learn more about delivering
effective presentations is to follow a systematic process:

Step 1: Observation

You can learn a lot simply by observing how successful public speakers “work the room” and
engage their audience. Observe what they do.

How do they use their voice to make it work as a tool of communication? How do they
deploy tone, pausing, pacing, and projection? What do they do with their hands? How do they
make use of the physical space around them? Take note of how speakers physically operate,
either in person or on media: identify what they do, make note of what you feel works well
and what does not, then put what you have learned into practice.

Study and reflect

Learning from experts who lay out a set of simple techniques is a confidence builder because
it shows that great speakers are made, not born. With deliberate practice, anyone can do this.
There are no mysteries, just specific, applicable strategies that anyone can adopt to establish
rapport with an audience and make a meaningful impact.

Select, practice and assess your progress

Now that you have identified strategies that you find effective and think might work for you,
try putting them into practice. See if they add some extra “oomph” to your presentation style.
Afterwards, either by engaging in self-reflection, or by asking for feedback, consider how
well these strategies worked for you and whether you need to further hone, adapt, or change
the way you used them.

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Videos are helpful because they not only provide information, but visually demonstrate the
ideas (both showing and telling); however, you can also learn from many books on the
subject. Here are four classic books by public speaking experts designed to help you develop
your own strong presentation skills. By focusing on aspects such as“voice,” or by getting you
to create effective slideshows, they offer a range of practical, “tried and tested” approaches
designed to help you build confidence, speak fluently, and hold an audience’s attention with
relevant, well designed visuals.

Visual Aids – PowerPoint Basics

Even the most dynamic speakers often make use of visual aids to accompany their
presentation and help illustrate their ideas. Having well designed visuals as part of your
presentation is one way for beginners and those honing their skills can add interest and
audience engagement to their talks.

PowerPoint is probably the most common form of visual aid used in presentations, so much
discussion has been focused on the pros and cons of this medium. Indeed, a Google search of
“death by PowerPoint” brings up over 90 million results!

While there are many other presentation tools out there that you should explore, PowerPoint
is a standard workplace tool, so it would be wise to gain proficiency with it. The key concept
to remember is that your visual aids should supplement and illustrate what you want to say
to your audience.

When designing a PowerPoint presentation, it is helpful to be familiar with key terminology

used to discuss the various elements.

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1. Deck: the entire presentation (all the slides in the presentation; see Figure 4.4).

Figure 4.4: What the Deck looks like in Powerpoint

2. Gloss: what the speaker says about each slide. The speaker should not simply read what
is on the slide. Slides should have minimal text in the form of key words and short bullet
points. It might include key quotations. The speaker should elaborate on what is written or
shown on the slide.

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3. Slide: one “page” of the presentation (Figure 4.5 shows one slide from the deck
above) with the various elements identified.

Figure 4.5.: Sample PowerPoint Slide (2)

4. Slide Titles: usually at the top of the slide, the titles acts as “headings” indicating the
topic to be discussed in each slide.

5. Body Text: written text on the slide, often in the form of bullet points or key terms. This
text should be kept to a minimum (key words/phrases; quotations you want to read out loud).
Don’t write your “script” in the slide’s body text.

6. Decorative Graphics: Slide motifs, themes, and other non-essential images that add
visual appeal to the slides, but do not illustrate substantive ideas.

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7. Exhibits: illustrative graphics on the slides that are glossed in the presentation. You should
discuss graphics and explain what is important about them.

8. Notes: The section underneath the slide where you can write notes you want to cover in
your gloss. The audience will not see the “notes” portion.

Visual Rhetoric

PowerPoint is not the only visual medium you might use. Pamphlets, posters, billboards, and
other kinds of displays can also work to effectively convey your message if they are well
designed. Considering how to present ideas visually can be as important as determining what
to say.

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