Module 3 Digital Engine Control Systems and Control Units

DIGITAL ENGINE CONTROL FEATURES

➢ The primary purpose of the electronic engine control system is to regulate the air fuel mixture,
ignition timing, and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR).
➢ Ignition timing and EGR are controlled separately to optimize performance and fuel
economy.
➢ The engine control system as shown Fig 1. is a microcontroller implemented with a specially
designed microprocessor and operating under program control.
➢ The associated ROM contains the program for each mode as well as calibration parameters
and lookup tables. The earliest such systems was incorporated in 8-bit microprocessors, but
the trend is toward implementation with 32-bit microprocessors.
➢ The microcontroller under program control generates output electrical signals to operate the
fuel injectors to maintain stoichiometric mixture and ignition to optimize performance.

Fig 3.1 : Components of an Electronically Controlled Engine

➢ The correct stoichiometric mixture is obtained by regulating the quantity of fuel delivered
into each cylinder during the intake stroke in accordance with the air mass.

➢ The quantity of fuel delivered by the fuel injector is determined by the operation of the fuel
injector, the fuel injector is a solenoid-operated valve.

➢ When the injector valve is opened, fuel flows at a rate 𝑅𝑓(in gal/sec) that is determined by
the regulated pressure and by the geometry of the fuel injector valve.

➢ The quantity of fuel F delivered to any cylinder is proportional to the time T, the valve is

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opened

F =𝑅𝑓T

➢ The engine control system then determines the correct quantity of fuel to be delivered to each
cylinder via measurement of mass air flow rate.
➢ The controller then generates an electrical signal that opens the fuel injector valve for the
appropriate time interval „T‟ to deliver the desired fuel quantity to the cylinder such that a
stoichiometric air/fuel ratio is maintained.

➢ The controller also determines the correct time for fuel delivery to correspond to the intake
stroke for the relevant cylinder. Quantity of fuel depends on the particular engine operating
condition as well as the controller mode of operation.

CONTROL MODES FOR FUEL CONTROL

➢ The engine control system is responsible for controlling fuel and ignition for all possible
engine operating conditions.

➢ For a typical engine there are seven different engine operating modes that affect fuel control
are 1) Engine crank 2) Engine warm-up 3) Open-loop control 4) Closed-loop control
5) Hard acceleration 6) Deceleration 7) Idle speed.

➢ The program for mode control logic determines the engine operating mode from sensor data
and timers.

➢ The mode control logic automatically selects an engine start control scheme that provides the
low air/fuel.

➢ When the ignition key is switched on initially, the mode control logic automatically selects
an engine start control scheme that provides the low air/ fuel ratio required for starting the
engine.

➢ Once the engine RPM rises above the cranking value, the controller identifies the “engine
started” mode and passes control to the program for the engine warm-up mode.

➢ This operating mode keeps the air/fuel ratio low to prevent engine stall during cool weather
until the engine coolant temperature rises above some minimum value.

➢ When the coolant temperature rises sufficiently, the mode control logic directs the system to
operate in the open-loop control mode until the EGO sensor warms up enough to provide
accurate readings.

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➢ This condition is detected by monitoring the EGO sensor‟s output for voltage readings
above a certain minimum rich air/fuel mixture voltage set point. When the sensor has
indicated rich at least once the control mode selection logic selects the closed-loop mode for
the system.

➢ The engine remains in the closed-loop mode until either the EGO sensor cools or fails to
read a rich mixture for a certain length of time or a hard acceleration or deceleration occurs.
If the sensor cools, the control mode logic selects the open-loop mode again
➢ During hard acceleration or heavy engine load, the control mode selection logic chooses the
duration of the acceleration or heavy load. it provides maximum torque but relatively poor
emissions control and poor fuel economy regulation as compared with a stoichiometric
air/fuel ratio.
➢ After the need for enrichment has passed, control is returned to either open- loop or closed-
loop mode, depending on the control mode logic selection conditions that exist at that time.

Fig 3.2: Digital Engine Control System Diagram

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➢ During periods of deceleration, the air/fuel ratio is increased to reduce emissions of HC and
CO due to unburned excess fuel.

➢ When idle conditions are present, the engine speed is controlled to reduce engine roughness
and stalling that occur.

➢ In modern engine control systems, the controller is a special-purpose digital computer built
around a microprocessor as shown in Fig 3.2. The controller also includes ROM containing
the main program, RAM for temporary storage of data during computation.

➢ The sensor signals are connected to the controller via an input/output (I/O) subsystem. The
I/O subsystem provides the output signals to drive the fuel injectors as well as to trigger
pulses to the ignition system.

➢ The solid-state control system includes hardware for sampling and analog-to-digital
conversion such that all sensor measurements are in a format suitable for reading by the
microprocessor.

1. Engine Crank
➢ When the engine is being cranked, the fuel control system must provide an intake air/fuel ratio
of 2:1 to 12:1, depending on engine temperature. The correct air/fuel ratio [(A/F )d]is selected
from a ROM lookup table as a function of coolant temperature.
➢ Low temperatures affect the ability of the fuel metering system to atomize or mix the
incoming air and fuel.
➢ At low temperatures, the fuel tends to form into large droplets in the air, which do not burn as
efficiently as tiny droplets.
➢ The larger fuel droplets tend to increase the apparent air/fuel ratio, because the amount of
usable fuel in the air is reduced therefore, the fuel metering system must provide a decreased
air/fuel ratio to provide the engine with a more combustible air/fuel mixture.

➢ During engine crank the primary issue is to achieve engine start as rapidly as possible. Once
the engine is started the controller switches to an engine warm-up mode

2. Engine Warm Up
➢ When the engine is warming up, an enriched air/fuel ratio is still needed to keep it running
smoothly, but the required air/fuel ratio changes as the temperature increases.
➢ The fuel control system stays in the open-loop mode, but the air/fuel ratio commands

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continue to be altered due to the temperature changes.

➢ The controller selects a warm-up time from a lookup table based on the temperature of the
coolant. During engine warm-up the air/fuel ratio is still rich, but it is changed by the
controller as the coolant temperature increases.

➢ The measured coolant temperature (CT) is converted to an address for the lookup table. This
address is supplied to the ROM table via the system address bus (A/B).

Fig 3.3 Lookup Table for Desired Air/Fuel Ratio

➢ The data stored at this address in the ROM is the desired air/fuel ratio (A/F ) for that
temperature. This data is sent to the controller via the system data bus (D/B) as shown in Fig
3.3.

➢ The controller is configured to switch from engine warm-up mode to an open- loop mode
after a sufficient time by means of an internal timer.

➢ The quantity of fuel to be injected during the intake stroke of any given cylinder is determined
by the mass of air (A).The quantity of fuel is given by the air charge divided by the desired
air/fuel ratio.

➢ The quantity of air drawn into the cylinder „A’ is computed from the mass air flow rate and
the RPM. The mass air flow rate (MAF) will be given in kg/sec. If the engine speed in
revolutions/minute is RPM, then the number of revolutions/second (which we call r)is

➢ The mass air flow is distributed approximately uniformly to half the cylinders during each
revolution. If the number of cylinders is N then the air charge (mass) in each cylinder during
one revolutions

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➢ In this case, the mass of fuel delivered to each cylinder is

➢ The fuel injector pulse duration T corresponding to this fuel quantity is compute during the
known fuel

injector delivery rate 𝑅𝑓

➢ This pulse width is known as the base pulse width.

3. Open-Loop Control
➢ For a warmed-up engine, the controller will operate in an open loop. The engine may be
warmed sufficiently but the EGO sensor may not provide a usable signal. It is important to
have a stoichiometric mixture to minimize exhaust emissions.

Fig 3.4 : Engine Control System Using the Speed-Density Method

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➢ Corrections of the base pulse width occur whenever it affects the accuracy of the fuel
delivery.
➢ The base pulse width 𝑇𝑏is computed as described above, except that the desired air/fuel ratio
(A/F ) is14.7 (stoichiometry) From the fig 3.4. an alternate method of computing EGR is
𝑑
computed from RPM and volumetric efficiency.
➢ The volume rate for air is found by subtracting the EGR volume flow rate from the
combined air and EGR.
➢ The mass air flow rate is computed as the product of the volume flow rate for air and the
intake air density.
➢ The speed-density method can be implemented either by computation in the engine control
computer or via lookup tables. From the fig 3.5: the lookup table implementation as three
variables need to be determined: volumetric efficiency (nv), intake density (da), and EGR
volume flow rate (RE ).
➢ The volumetric efficiency is read from ROM with an address determined from RPM and
MAP measurements. The intake air density is read from another section of ROM with an
address determined from MAP and Ti measurements. The EGR volume flow rate is read
from mass air flow rate is the speed-density method.
➢ Although the speed-density method has essentially been replaced by direct mass air flow
measurements.
➢ An measurements of manifold absolute pressure (MAP), RPM, and intake air temperature Ti.
➢ The air density da is computed from MAP and Ti, and the volume flow rate Rv is determined
from differential pressure (DP) and EGR valve position. These variables are combined to
yield the mass air flow rate:

where D is the engine displacement.

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Fig 3.5: Lookup Table Determination of da, RE, and nv

4. Closed-Loop Control
➢ The most important adjustment to the fuel injector pulse duration comes when the control is
in the closed-loop mode.
➢ In the open-loop mode the accuracy of the fuel delivery is dependent on the accuracy of the
measurements of the important variables.

➢ In any closed-loop control system a measurement of the output variables is compared with the
desired value for those variables.

➢ The variables being regulated are exhaust gas concentrations of HC, CO, and NOx, direct
measurement of these exhaust gases is not feasible in production automobiles.

➢ The closed-loop mode can only be activated when the EGO sensor is sufficiently warmed.

➢ The output voltage of the sensor is high when the exhaust oxygen concentration is low. The
EGO sensor voltage is low whenever the exhaust oxygen concentration is high.

➢ Fuel delivery is regulated by the engine control system by controlling the pulse duration (T)
for each fuel injector..

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➢ A representative algorithm for fuel injector pulse duration for a given injector during the nth
computation cycle, T(n), is given by

➢ Whenever the EGO sensor indicates a rich mixture , then the integral term is reduced by the
controller for the next cycle is I (n +1) = I(n) – 1

➢ Whenever the EGO sensor indicates a lean mixture, the controller increments I(n) for
the next cycle

I (n +1) = I(n) + 1

➢ Fig 3.6 During relatively lean periods the closed-loop correction term increases for each
computation cycle, where as during relatively rich intervals this term decreases.

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Fig 3.6: Closed-Loop Correction Factor

5. Acceleration enrichment

➢ During periods of heavy engine load such as during hard acceleration, fuel control is adjusted
to provide an enriched air/fuel ratio to maximize engine torque and neglect fuel economy and
emissions.

➢ The computer detects this condition by reading the throttle angle sensor voltage. High throttle
angle corresponds to heavy engine load and is an indication that heavy acceleration is called
for, by the driver.

➢ The fuel system controller responds by increasing the pulse duration of the fuel injector signal
for the duration of the heavy load. Enrichment of the air/fuel ratio is about 12:1.

6. Deceleration leaning
➢ During periods of light engine load and high RPM such as during coasting or hard
deceleration, the engine operates with a very lean air/fuel ratio to reduce excess emissions of
HC and CO.

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➢ Deceleration is indicated by a sudden decrease in throttle angle or by closure of a switch

when the throttle is close.
➢ When these conditions are detected by the control computer, it computes a decrease in the
pulse duration of the fuel injector signal. The fuel may even be turned off completely for very
heavy deceleration.

7. Idle speed control

➢ The goal of Idle speed control is to allow the engine to low an RPM as possible.

➢ The control mode selection logic switches to speed control, when the throttle angle reaches
its zero (completely closed) position and engine RPM falls below a minimum value, and
when the vehicle is stationary.

➢ Idle speed is controlled by using an electronically controlled throttle bypass valve that allows
air to flow around the throttle plate and produces the same effect as if the throttle had been
slightly opened.

➢ There are various schemes for operating a valve to introduce bypass air for idle control. One
relatively common method for controlling the idle speed bypass air uses a special type of
motor called a stepper motor.

➢ A stepper motor moves in fixed angular increments when activated by pulses on its two sets
of windings as shown in Fig 3.7a

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Fig3.7a Idle Air Control

Fig 3.7b Idle Air Control

➢ From fig 3.7b the engine control computer can know the position of the value in a number of
ways. In one way the computer can send sufficient pulses to completely close the valve when
the ignition is first switched on. Then it can send open pulse to a specified position.

➢ The Idle speed is detected by the RPM sensor, and the speed is adjusted to maintain a constant

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idle RPM. The computer receives digital on/off status inputs from several power-consuming
devices attached to the engine.

➢ When the engine is not idling, the idle speed control valve may be completely closed so that
the throttle plate has total control of intake air.

➢ During periods of deceleration leaning, the idle speed valve may be opened to provide extra
air to increase the air/fuel ratio in order to reduce HC emissions.

EGR Control
➢ A second electronic engine control subsystem is the control of exhaust gas that is recirculated
back to the intake manifold.

➢ Under normal operating conditions, engine cylinder temperatures can reach more than 3000°F.
The higher the temperature, the more chance the exhaust will have Nox emissions.

➢ A small amount of exhaust gas is introduced into the cylinder to replace normal intake air.
This results in lower combustion temperatures, which reduces Nox emissions.
➢ The control mode selection logic determines when EGR is turned off or on.
➢ A valve is Positioned along this passageway whose position regulates EGR from zero to
some maximum value as shown in Fig 3.8. Typically the valve is operated by a diaphragm
connected to a variable vacuum source.

➢ The controller operates as a solenoid in a periodic variable-duty-cycle mode. The average

level of vacuum on the diaphragm varies with the duty cycle. By varying this duty cycle, the
control system has proportional control over the EGR valve opening and thereby over the
amount of EGR.

Fig 3.8: EGR Control

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➢ In many EGR control systems the controller monitors the differential pressure between the
exhaust and intake manifold via a differential pressure sensor (DPS). With this signal from
the sensor, the controller can calculate the valve opening for the desired EGR level.

Electronic Ignition control

➢ An engine must be provided with fuel and air in correct proportions, and the means to ignite
this mixture in the form of an electric spark.

➢ Before the development of electronic ignition the traditional ignition system included spark
plugs, a distributor, and a high-voltage ignition coil.

➢ The distributor would sequentially connect the coil output high voltage to the correct spark
plug. In addition, it would cause the coil to generate the spark by interrupting the primary
current in the desired coil, thereby generating the required spark.

➢ The time of occurrence of this spark in relation of the piston to TDC influences the torque
generated.

Fig 3.9a : Distributor less Ignition System

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➢ The coil fires the spark plugs for the two cylinders simultaneously. For the first cylinder, the
mixture is ignited and combustion begins for the power stroke. For the other the
combustion has already taken place and the spark has no effect.

➢ The variables that influence the optimum spark timing at any operating condition include
RPM, manifold pressure , barometric pressure, and coolant temperature.

➢ The correct ignition timing for each value of these variables is stored in a ROM lookup
table. The variation of spark advance (SA) with RPM for a representative engine as shown
in Fig 3.9a.

➢ The engine control system obtains readings from the various sensors and generates an
address to the lookup table (ROM). After reading the data from the lookup tables, the control
system computes the correct spark advance. An output signal is generated at the appropriate
time to activate the spark.
➢ The coil driver circuits generate the primary current in windings P1 and P2 of the coil packs
depicted in Figure 3.9a above.
➢ At the correct time the driver circuits interrupt the primary currents via a solid-state switch.
This interruption of the primary current causes the magnetic field in the coil pack to drop
rapidly, inducing a very high voltage (20,000–40,000 volts) that causes a spark.
The total spark advance, SA (in degrees before TDC), is made up of several components that are
added together: Fig 9:

SA = SA S + SAP + SA T
➢ The first component, SAS, is the basic spark advance, which is a tabulated function of RPM
and MAP.
➢ The second component, SAP, is the contribution to spark advance due to manifold pressure.
This value is obtained from ROM lookup tables.
➢ The final component, SAT, is the contribution to spark advance due to temperature.

Fig 3.9b: Distributor less Ignition System

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Closed loop Ignition timing

➢ The major disadvantage of open-loop control is that it cannot automatically compensate for
mechanical changes in the system.

➢ The spark relative to TDC increases the torque until a point is reached at which best torque is
produced. This spark advance is known as mean best torque or MBT.

Fig 3.10 Torque versus SA for Typical Engine

➢ When the spark is advanced too far, an abnormal combustion phenomenon occurs that is
known as knocking as shown in Fig 3. 11.

Fig 3.11 Cylinder Pressure (Knocking condition)

➢ The amplitude of knock is proportional to the fraction of the total air and fuel mixture that
auto ignites the fuel. It is an abnormally rapid rise in cylinder pressure during combustion

➢ The frequency of these oscillations is specific to a given engine configuration and the range is

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about few kilohertz. A excessive knock will damage the engine and must be avoided.

➢ One control strategy for spark advance under closed-loop control is to advance the spark
timing until the knock level becomes unacceptable. At this point, the control system reduces
the spark advance until acceptable levels of knock are achieved.

➢ A spark scheme advance control is based on limiting the levels of knocking requires a knock
sensor.

Instrumentation and Waveforms for Closed-Loop ignition control

Fig 3.12: Instrumentation and Waveforms for Closed-Loop Ignition Control

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Fig 3.13: Integrator Circuit Diagram

➢ The level of knock intensity is indicated by voltage (𝑇) at the end of the gate interval.
The spark control system compares this voltage with a threshold voltage to determine
whether knock has or has not occurred.

➢ The comparator output voltage is binary valued, depending on the relative amplitude of
(𝑇) and the threshold voltage.

Fig 3.14: Knock level detector circuits

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➢ Whenever (𝑇) is less than the threshold voltage, the comparator output is low, indicating
no knock. Whenever (𝑇) is greater than the threshold value, the comparator output is
high, indicating knock. as shown in fig 3.14:

Spark Advance Correction Scheme

➢ There are generally two classes of correction that are used fast correction and slow
correction.

➢ In the fast correction scheme, the spark advance is decreased for the next engine cycle
by a fixed amount (typically from 5° to 10°) whenever knock is detected.
➢ Then the spark advance is advanced in one degree increments every 5 to 20 crankshaft
revolutions. The fast correction ensures that minimum time is spent under heavy
knocking conditions
➢ In the slow correction scheme, spark advance is decreased by one (or more) degree
each time knock is detected, until no knocking is detected. The spark advance
proceeds in one- degree increments after many engine cycles.

➢ The slow correction scheme is more of an adaptive closed-loop control than is the fast

correction

Fig 3.15: Fast Correction Spark Advance

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Fig 3.16: Slow Correction Spark Advance

Integrated Engine Control System

➢ A fully integrated electronic engine control system can include these subsystems and
provide additional functions.
➢ The additional functions include - Secondary Air Management, Evaporative
Emissions Canister Purge, Torque Converter Lock-up Control, Automatic System
Adjustment & System Diagnosis

Secondary Air Management:

➢ Secondary air management is used to improve the performance of the catalytic converter
by providing extra (oxygen-rich) air to either the converter itself or to the exhaust
manifold.
➢ The catalyst temperature must be above 200°C to efficiently oxidize HC and CO and
reduce NOx.

➢ During engine warm-up when the catalytic converter is cold, HC and CO are oxidized in
the exhaust manifold by routing secondary air to the manifold.

➢ This creates extra heat to speed warm-up of the converter and EGO sensor, enabling the
fuel controller to go to the closed-loop mode more quickly.

➢ A large amount of HC and CO are oxidized in the manifold during periods of heavy loads,
which creates more heat and converter can be damaged In such cases, the secondary air is
directed to the air cleaner, where it has no effect on exhaust temperatures.

➢ After warm-up, the main use of secondary air is to provide an oxygen-rich atmosphere in the

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second chamber of the three-way catalyst, dual-chamber converter system.

➢ In a dual-chamber converter, the first chamber contains rhodium, palladium, and platinum to
reduce NOx and to oxidize HC and CO.

➢ The second chamber contains only platinum and palladium. The extra oxygen from the
secondary air improves the converter‟s ability to oxidize HC and CO in the second converter
chamber.

➢ The computer program for the control mode selection logic can be modified to include the
conditions for controlling secondary air.

➢ The computer controls secondary air by using two solenoid valves similar to the EGR valve.
One valve switches air flow to the air cleaner or to the exhaust system. The other valve
switches air flow to the exhaust manifold or to the converter.

➢ The air routing is based on engine coolant temperature and air/fuel ratio.

Figure 3.17 Secondary Air Control System

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Evaporative Emissions Canister Purge

➢ During engine-off conditions, the fuel stored in the fuel system tends to evaporate into
the atmosphere. To reduce these HC emissions, they are collected by a charcoal filter
in a canister.

➢ The collected fuel is released into the intake through a solenoid valve controlled by the
computer. This is done during closed-loop operation to reduce fuel calculation
complications in the open- loop mode.

Torque Converter Lock-up Control

➢ Automatic transmissions use a hydraulic or fluid coupling to transmit engine power to the
wheels. Because of slip, the fluid coupling is less efficient than the nonslip coupling of a
pressure-plate manual clutch used with a manual transmission.

➢ The automatic transmission to provide fuel economy near that of a manual transmission and
still retain the automatic shifting convenience.

Automatic System Adjustment

➢ Another important feature of microcomputer engine control systems is their ability to be
programmed to learn from their past experiences.

➢ Many control systems use this feature to enable the computer to learn new lookup table values
for computing open- loop air/fuel ratios.

➢ When the computer is in the closed-loop mode, the computer checks its open-loop calculated
air/fuel ratios and compares them with the closed-loop average limit-cycle values.

➢ If they match closely, nothing is learned and the open-loop lookup tables are unchanged.

➢ If the difference is large, the system controller corrects the lookup tables so that the open-loop
values more closely match the closed-loop values.

➢ This updated open-loop lookup table is stored in separate memory (RAM),which is always
powered directly by a car battery so that the new values are not lost while the ignition key is
turned off.

➢ The next time the engine is started, the new lookup table values will be used in the open-loop
mode and will provide more accurate control of the air/fuel ratio. This feature is very

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important because it allows the system controller to adjust to long-term changes in engine and
fuel system conditions.

System Diagnosis

➢ An important feature of microcomputer engine control systems is their ability to diagnose

failures in their control systems and alert the operator.

➢ Sensor and actuator failures or misadjustments can be easily detected by the computer.

➢ The computer will detect a malfunctioning of MAF sensor, if the sensor‟s output goes above
or below certain specified limits, or fails to change for long periods of time..
➢ If the computer detects the loss of a primary control sensor or actuator, it may choose to
operate in a different mode until the problem is repaired.

➢ The operator is notified of a failure by blinking lights or some other indicator on the
instrument panel.

CONTROL UNIT
➢ A large number of parameters can be included in the process to support optimal operation of
various systems.
➢ The control unit receives the electrical signals from the sensors, evaluates them, and then
calculates the triggering signals for the actuators.
➢ The Motronic control unit contains all of the algorithms for open and closed-loop control
needed to govern the engine-management processes (ignition, induction and mixture
formation, etc.).

OPERATING CONDITIONS
The control unit is subjected to very high demands with respect to
➢ Extreme ambient temperatures
➢ Extreme temperature changes
➢ Indirect materials and supplies
➢ The effects of moisture and Mechanical stress such as vibration from the engine
➢ The control unit must operate reliably when the vehicle is started with a weak battery

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(e.g. cold start) and with high charge voltages .
Design
➢ The printed circuit board with the electrical components is installed in a housing of
plastic or metal.
➢ A multiple plug connects the control unit to the sensors, actuators and electrical power
supply. The high-performance driver circuits that provide direct control of the actuators
are specially integrated within the housing
➢ The majority of the electrical components are of the surface-mounted device technology
type.

Data processing
Input signals
➢ The actuators and the sensors represent the interface between the vehicle and the control
unit in its role as the processing unit.
➢ The electrical signals of the sensors are routed to the control unit via a wiring harness and
the connector plug.
➢ These signals can be of the following type:
Analog input signals
➢ Analog input signals within a given range, analog input signals can assume practically
any voltage value.
➢ They are converted into digital values by an analog to digital converter in the
microcontroller of the control unit and used for calculations by the microcontroller CPU.
➢ The maximum resolution of these analog signals is 5 mV.
Digital input signals
➢ Digital input signals only have two states, They are either “high” or “low” (logical 1and
logical 0 respectively).Such signals are processed directly by the microcontroller.
Pulse-type input signals
➢ The pulse-shaped input signals from inductive-type sensors containing information on
rotational speed and reference mark are conditioned in their own control unit stage.
➢ spurious pulses are suppressed and the pulse-shaped signals converted into digital
rectangular signals.

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Signal conditioning
➢ Protective circuits limit the voltages of input signals to levels suitable for processing.
➢ Filters separate the useful signal from most interference signals.
➢ The signals are then amplified to the input voltage required by the microcontroller (0 to 5
V).
➢ Signal conditioning can take place completely or partially in the sensor depending upon
the sensor‟s level of integration.

Signal processing
➢ The control unit is the switching center governing all of the functions and sequences
regulated by the engine-management system.
➢ The closed and open-loop control functions are executed in the microcontroller.
➢ The input signals that are provided by the sensors and the interfaces to other systems
(such as the CAN bus) are used as input variables.
➢ The control unit program supports generation of the output signals used to control the
actuators.

Output signals
➢ The microcontroller uses the output signals to control output stages that usually provide
enough power for connecting the actuators directly.
➢ The output stages are proof against short circuits to ground or battery voltage, as well as
against destruction due to electrical or thermal overload.
➢ Such malfunctions, together with open-circuit lines or sensor faults are identified by the
output stage IC as an error and reported to the microcontroller.
➢ Switching signals Actuators can be switched on and off using the switching signals (e.g.
motor fans).

PWM signals
➢ Digital output signals can be in the form of PWM (Pulse-Width Modulated) signals.
➢ These are constant-frequency rectangular signals with variable on-times Fig 3.18.
➢ Various actuators can be moved to various operating positions using these signals.

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Fig 3.18: PWM signals

Control unit-internal communication

➢ The peripheral components must communicate within the microcontroller by using an
address/data bus.
➢ The microcontroller outputs the RAM address whose contents are to be read via the
address bus. Then the data bus is used to transmit the relevant data.
➢ The 8-bit data bus comprised 8 lines which together could transmit 256 values
simultaneously.
➢ 65,536 addresses can be accessed using the 16-bit address bus in this system.
➢ In order to save on pins at the components, the data and address buses can be combined
in a multiplex system.
➢ Serial interfaces with just a single data line are used for data that does not have to
transmitted extremely quickly.

EOL programming
➢ The different vehicle is differing with control programs and data records.

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➢ The Flash-EPROM‟s complete memory area can be programmed at the end of production
with the program and the variant-specific data record.
➢ Another way of reducing the type diversity is to store several data variants in the
memory, which are then selected using coding at the end of the production line. This
coding is stored in an EEPROM.

Digital modules in the control unit

Microcontroller

➢ A microcontroller consists of the following interacting components as shown in Fig.18:

Central processing unit (CPU): this contains the control unit and the arithmetic and
logic unit.
➢ The control unit executes the instructions from the program memory, where as the
arithmetic and logic unit performs arithmetical and logical operations.
Input and output devices (I/O, Input/output):
➢ which handle the exchange of data with peripheral devices.
➢ Peripheral devices include input and output devices and external data storage media.
Program memory: in which the operating program (user program) is permanently stored
(ROM, PROM, EPROM or flash EPROM).
Data memory: which is accessed for reading and writing (RAM).
➢ This contains the data that is currently being processed. Non-volatile memory EEPROM
is used for data that must not be deleted when the supply voltage is switched off.
The bus system connects the individual elements of the microcontroller.
A clock generator (oscillator) ensures that all operations in the microcontroller take
place within a defined timing pattern.
Logic circuits are modules with specialized tasks such as program interrupts. They are
integrated in individual I/O units.
➢ The chief components of a microcomputer are generally separate modules connected to
one another on a printed-circuit board.
➢ The CPU is not functioning on its own it is always part of a microcomputer
➢ the above mentioned functions are integrated on a silicon wafer
➢ The user program is fixed and is not replaced for different applications

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Programming
➢ The only command form capable of direct interpretation by a microprocessor is a bit
pattern.
➢ These are automatically translated by an assembler program into bit patterns (machine
code) that can be understood by the microprocessor.
➢ For more complex systems and programs, high-level programming languages such as C
are needed, as otherwise it would be impossible to keep extensive programs manageable
and free of errors.
➢ Such languages require sophisticated translation programs (compilers) which convert the
text of the high-level language into a form that can be processed by the microcontroller.
➢ The machine code is stored in the program memory, where it remains permanently.

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Fig 3.19 Microcontroller internal diagram

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Semiconductor memories

Applications
➢ Memories are used to store large volumes of Digital signals representing data
➢ Program code and
➢ Constants
Storage involves
➢ Recording (writing)
➢ Permanent retention (actual storage)and
➢ Location and retrieval (reading) of information
➢ Memories utilize physical effects that clearly and easily create and show two different
states (e.g. conducting/non-conducting or loaded/not loaded).
➢ The information that is to be stored must therefore exist in binary form, i.e. encoded as a
series of “yes or no” statuses (logical “1”or logical “0”).
➢ Memory modules are organized on a bit or word basis, depending on the application.
➢ A “word” is a group of bits that can be processed as a single unit.
➢ The word length is equal to the number of bits processed as a single unit. Eight bits are
referred to as a byte.

Random-access memory (RAM)

➢ Random-access memory or RAM is a short-term memory that allows direct access to any
storage location. Information can be read/written from/to the memory any number of times.

Static RAM (SRAM)

➢ Static RAMs use bistable switching elements as the data storage cells.
➢ Their functionality is similar to that of a flip-flop,
➢ a simple circuit with two transistors, of which either the one (logical “1”) or the other
(logical “0”) conducts at any one time.
➢ In SRAM, the information remains stored until the storage cell concerned is addressed
and overwritten, or the operating voltage is switched off. SRAM is therefore volatile
memory.

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Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

➢ SRAM, the information is stored as an electrical charge in the gate capacity of a CMOS
transistor in dynamic RAM(DRAM). As such capacitors are susceptible to leakage, the
charge is gradually lost.
➢ In order to retain the information, the charge has to be refreshed at regular intervals
(every few ms).

Read-only memory
➢ Read-only memory (ROM) is permanent storage memory that allows any memory
location to be accessed directly but as the name indicates allows the information only to
be read and not modified.
➢ A ROM is nonvolatile memory, i.e. the information it contains is retained even when the
operating voltage is switched off.
➢ It is usually used to store program code(control programs) and fixed data that need to be
retrievable at any time.
➢ The information may be indelibly entered in the memory by the manufacturer or the user
by means of appropriate programming of specially prepared memories (PROMs or
programmable ROMs).

Erasable ROM
➢ There are also ROMs whose contents can be erased and reprogrammed as outlined below.

EPROM (Erasable PROM)

➢ This type of erasable read-only memory can have its contents completely wiped by
irradiation with UV light and can then be reprogrammed using a programming device.

EEPROM (Electrical EPROM)

➢ The EEPROM (also known as E2PROM) can be electrically erased and reprogrammed.
➢ Every storage cell of an EEPROM be individually overwritten.
➢ this type of memory module can also be used as nonvolatile data memory

Flash EEPROM
➢ A more sophisticated variant of the EPROM and EEPROM is flash EEPROM.
➢ In this case, electrical flash pulses are used to erase specific storage areas or the entire
contents of the memory.

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➢ The erased areas can subsequently be reprogrammed.
➢ The flash memory can be reprogrammed on a programming station.
➢ The advantage of flash EEPROM is that is can also be reprogrammed while still inside
the sealed control unit.

Fig 3.20: Overview of semiconductor memories

Control unit software

Real-time capability
➢ The control procedures must react to input signals within an extremely short time is
called real-time capability
➢ Engine management systems make considerable real-time capability demands so that
crankshaft angles can be adhered to with extreme accuracy at fast engine speeds for
injection and ignition timing purposes.

Software structure

➢ The microcontroller in the control unit executes commands sequentially.

➢ The command code is obtained from the program memory.

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➢ The microcontrollers that are currently used in vehicles can execute upto 1 million
commands per second.
➢ The engine-management program has to react extremely quickly to signals from the
speed sensor, which records the engine speed and the crankshaft position.
➢ These signals arrive at short intervals that can be a matter of milliseconds, depending on
the engine speed.

Fig 3.20: CPU power distribution principle

Interrupt control

➢ As an event occurs that requires an extremely rapid response, the program that is
currently running must be interrupted. This can be done using the microcontroller‟s
interrupt control facility.
➢ Events can trigger a program execution interrupt, where upon the program jumps and
executes the “interrupt routine”.
➢ When this routine has been executed, the program resumes at the point at which it was
interrupted
➢ An interrupt can be triggered by an external signal
➢ The control unit program reacts to several of these interrupts. An interrupt source can
therefore request an interrupt while another interrupt routine is currently being executed.
➢ Every interrupt source therefore has a fixed priority assigned to it.
➢ The priority controller decides which interrupt is allowed to interrupt another interrupt.

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Tooth interrupt
➢ The crankshaft is equipped with a pulse wheel Fig 3.21. That has a certain number of
teeth on its circumference. The teeth are scanned by the speed sensor.
➢ This allows the crankshaft position to be recorded. The typical distance between a pair of
teeth on the crankshaft sensor wheel is 6°.
➢ In order to determine the crankshaft position, the control unit program must execute
certain routines as each tooth is detected. At 6,000 rpm the detection time between two
teeth is approximately 300 μs.
➢ Every command in these routines must be executed within this time. This requires a rapid
response to the speed sensor signal.
➢ For this purpose, the engine-speed signal is connected to a microcontroller interrupt
input. Every falling signal edge at this input interrupts the current calculations that are in
progress and forces a branch to the interrupt routine.
➢ After executing the commands in the interrupt routine, the program continues execution
at its point of origin.
➢ In order to perform certain operations the control unit program requires the time taken for
the crankshaft to travel between one tooth and the next.
➢ This calculation is performed by an internal timer. This is a freewheeling 16-bit counter
Fig 3.21. that increments at a certain rate, depending on the microcontroller oscillator
clock cycle.
➢ This time frame amounts to about 0.5 μs. When the falling tooth flank occurs, the current
counter status is recorded. The difference (and therefore the tooth interval) is calculated
using the stored counter from the previous tooth.

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Fig 3.21: Crankshaft sensor ring with speed sensor

Combustion-synchronous interrupt
➢ Some calculations have to be performed for every combustion cycle. For example, the
ignition angle and the injection have to be recalculated synchronously with combustion
for each cylinder. The program does this by branching to the “synchronization program”
after certain teeth (Fig. 3.22).
➢ This interrupt takes place after every 30 teeth (ignition interval) for a four cylinder
engine, and after every 20 teeth for a six-cylinder engine.
➢ The synchronization program is fixed to a certain tooth position and has to be executed
with high priority. For this reason it is activated via an interrupt (triggered by a command
in the tooth interrupt routine).

➢ Since the synchronization program runs over several teeth at fast engine speeds, it has to
be interrupted by the tooth interrupt. The tooth interrupt is given higher priority than the
synchronization program.

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Fig 3.22: Triggering the interrupt synchronously with combustion

Ignition interrupt
➢ The ignition output takes place within a certain crankshaft range, depending on the value
from the ignition map, the ignition output is controlled by an interrupt.
➢ Like the synchronization program, the ignition interrupt is also called up once per
combustion cycle.
➢ The control unit program is aware of the crankshaft position in the 6° framework.
➢ The framework is not accurate enough for ignition angle output.
➢ Accurate ignition output between two teeth must take place as well as this approximate
counting for the last 0 to6 crankshaft degrees. This is done using a timer Fig. 3.23.
➢ Ignition angle output that was purely timer-controller would lead to an ignition angle
output error at high engine speed dynamics. Firstly, the ignition coil must be enabled for
a defined
➢ In order to do this, the program calculates the switch-on time by calculating backwards
from the ignition angle at which the ignition coil has to be switched off.
➢ This makes it possible to calculate the tooth after which the ignition coil has to be
switched off .
➢ The remaining angle(detailed counting 0 to 6°) is converted into an output time using the
current engine speed. As soon as the specified tooth position has been reached using
approximate counting, a time is loaded with the output value from the detailed counting.
When this time period expires, the timer triggers an interrupt.
➢ The commands that switch on the ignition coil are programmed in this interrupt routine.

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➢ Then the timer is preset to the dwell period value, which causes an interrupt to be
triggered when the timer elapses, switching off the ignition coil and therefore initiating
ignition.

Fig 3.23: Dwell and ignition time output

Time frame
➢ Many control algorithms have to run within a certain time frame. Lambda control, for
example, has to be processed within a fixed time frame (e.g. 10 ms) so that the correcting
variables are calculated quickly enough.

Background program
➢ All other activities that do not run in an interrupt routine or a time frame are processed in
the background program.
➢ At fast engine speeds, the synchronization program and the tooth interrupt are called
frequently, leaving little CPU time for the background program.
➢ The time taken for a complete run-through of the background program therefore increases
rapidly with the increasing engine speed.
➢ The background program must therefore only contain low-priority functions.

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