Introduction of relativity

• Introduction
• What is Relativity?
• Relativity is a theorem formulated by Albert Einstein.
• It states that :
space and time are relative.
all motion must be relative to a frame of reference.
Frames of Reference
• The first step is to clarify what we mean by motion.
• When we say that something is moving, what we
mean is that its position relative to something else is
changing.
• A passenger moves relative to an airplane; the airplane
moves relative to the earth; the earth moves relative to
the sun.
• In each case a frame of reference is part of the
description of the motion.
• To say that something is moving always implies a
specific frame of reference.
 Frames of
Reference

Inertial Non-Inertial
Reference Reference
Frame Frame
• An inertial frame of reference is one in which
Newton‟s first law of motion holds.
• In such a frame, an object at rest remains at rest and an
object in motion continues to move at constant
velocity (constant speed and direction) if no force acts
on it.
• The frame is Non-accelerating
• Non-Inertial Reference Frame is one in which
Newton‟s first law of motion is not valid.
• The frame is accelerating
• Special relativity, which is what Einstein published in 1905,
treats problems that involve inertial frames of reference.
 Postulates of Special Relativity
• special relativity can be deduced from two fundamental postulates.
• (1) Principle of relativity (Galileo): which states that:
„„The laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference.‟‟
 This postulate follows from the absence of a universal frame of reference.
• If the laws of physics were different for different observers in relative motion, the
observers could find from these differences which of them were “stationary” in space
and which were “moving.”
• But such a distinction does not exist, and the principle of relativity expresses this
fact.

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• (2) Universality of the speed of light (Einstein):
• The second postulate is based on the results of many experiments:
it states that
„„The speed of light in free space has the same value in all inertial
frames of reference regardless of the motion of the light‟s source
relative to the observer.
• This speed is 2.998 x 108 m/s to four significant figures.‟‟
• Mostly we approximate the speed of light to 3 x 108 m/s.
• In microscopic world it is possible to find the particle whose speed is
speed are quite close to that of light.
• If the energy of 10Mev is increased by a factor of four (to 40Mev),
experiment shows that speed is not doubled to 1.9976c as we might
 Definition of an inertial observer in special relativity

• It is important to realize that an „observer‟ is in fact a huge information-

gathering system, not simply one man with binoculars.
• In fact, we shall remove the human element entirely from our definition,
and say that an inertial observer is simply a coordinate system for
spacetime, which makes an observation simply by recording the location
(x, y, z) and time (t) of any event.

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• This coordinate system must satisfy the following three
properties to be called inertial:
• (1) The distance between point 𝑃1 (coordinates 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and
point 𝑃2 (coordinates 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) is independent of time.
• (2) The clocks that sit at every point ticking off the time
coordinate t are synchronized and all run at the same rate.
• (3) The geometry of space at any constant time t is Euclidean.

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• It is a matter for experiment to decide whether such an observer can exist.
• it is not self-evident that any of these properties must be realizable, although we would
probably expect a „nice‟ universe to permit them!
• However, we will see later in the course that a gravitational field does generally make
it impossible to construct such a coordinate system.
• This is why General Relativity is required.
• General relativity, published by Einstein a decade later, describes the relationship
between gravity and the geometrical structure of space and time.
• General theory of relativity holds that what we perceive as the force of gravity arises
from the curvature of space and time.
• But let us not get ahead of the story.
• At the moment we are assuming that we can construct such a coordinate system (that, if
you like, the gravitational fields around us are so weak that they do not really matter).
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 Measuring Time and Space in the
Same Units
• Since the speed of light c is so fundamental, we shall from now on adopt a new system of
units for measurements in which c simply has the value 1!
• It is perfectly okay for slow moving creatures like engineers to be content with the SI units:
m, s, kg.
• But it seems silly in SR to use units in which the fundamental constant c has the ridiculous
value 3 × 108.
• What we shall now do is adopt a new unit for time, the meter or for distance in a unit of
time.
• One meter of time is the time it takes light to travel one meter. (You are probably more
familiar with an alternative approach: a year of distance – called a „light year‟ – is the
distance light travels in one year.)

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• The speed of light in these units is:
distance light travels in any given time interval
• 𝑐=
the given time interval
1𝑚 1𝑚
𝑐= = =1
the time it takes light to travel one meter 1m
• So if we consistently measure time in meters, then c is not merely 1, it is
also dimensionless!
• In converting from SI units to these ‘natural’ units, we can use any of the
following
relations:

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 Chapter one
1. Space and Time Before Einstein

• 1.1 Absolute space and time

• Isaac Newton founded classical mechanics on the view that
space is distinct from body and that time passes uniformly
without regard to whether anything happens in the world.
• For this reason he spoke of absolute space and absolute time, so
as to distinguish these entities from the various ways by which
we measure them (which he called relative spaces and relative
times).

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• According to Newton, absolute time exists independently of any perceiver
and progresses at a consistent pace throughout the universe.
• In Newton‟s Physics space and time are the seat of the physical phenomena;
and time but the phenomena produce no effects on them, as the space
always remains equal to itself and the time passes uniformly.

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 1.2. Geometric properties of the space
• Geometry is a branch of mathematics that studies the sizes,
shapes, positions, angles, and dimensions of things.
• The only space geometry known at the time of Newton was
Euclidean geometry.
• Euclidean geometry is the study of geometrical shapes (plane
and solid) and figures based on different axioms and theorems.
• It is basically introduced for flat surfaces or plane surfaces.

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• Accepting that the geometric properties of the space are those
of Euclidean geometry.
• we can use them to build Cartesian coordinate systems to
locate a point with respect to a reference body.
• We can represent the reference body by means of three
mutually orthogonal planes.

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• The Cartesian coordinates of a point P are obtained by measuring
the distances between P and each one of the planes.
• This procedure implies to draw by P the (sole) perpendicular line
to each plane (Figure ).
• The straight lines where the planes intersect are the
Cartesian axes.
• We can calibrate these axes to measure the Cartesian coordinates
directly on them.
• The coordinate origin being the point O where the axes intersect.

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• If the Cartesian coordinates of two points P and Q are known in a
given reference system, then the distance 𝑑𝑃𝑄 between both points
can be computed by means of Pythagoras theorem.
𝑑𝑃𝑄 2 = (𝑥𝑃 −𝑥𝑄 )2 + (𝑦𝑃 −𝑦𝑄 )2 + (𝑧𝑃 −𝑧𝑄 )2

• If the points P and Q move with respect to the reference body, then
their Cartesian coordinates change with time.
• In that case the calculation of the distance requires a simultaneous
determination of the coordinates of P and Q, and the result is a
function of time.

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 1.3. Galileo and the laws of motion

• During the centuries of Aristotelian the motion of a body was

associated with the action of a force on the body.
• In words of Aristotle the moving body stops when the pushing
force gives up acting.

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• Let us imagine a stone that drops from the top of the mast of a
sailing boat.
• According to the Aristotelian thinking, the stone will not fall at
the foot of the mast because, when it leaves the mast, the force
needed to conserve its state of motion (communicated by the
boat) will disappear.
• Therefore the stone will not follow the advance of the boat but
fall backwards of the mast.

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• Galileo defied the Aristotelian thinking by asserting that the
stone does conserve the state of motion it had before dropping,
so it will follow the boat and fall at the foot of the mast.
• In the thought experiment of the stone and the boat, Galileo
reveals that the persistence of the motion implies that the
experiment has the same result either the boat is moored or
sailing.
• In both cases the stone falls at the foot of the mast.

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• Galileo studied the persistence of the motion (inertia) by throwing
small balls on tables.
• Although the ball stops because of the friction with the table surface and
the air, Galileo noticed that if the conditions were ideal i.e., in the
absence of friction the ball would persist in its state of motion.
• Although the crude observation would indicate that the motion always
stops (by cause of frictions), Galileo realized that the essential thing is
the tendency of the motion to persist.

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1.4. Change of coordinates between frames
in relative motion (Galilean transformations)
• Consider an inertial fame S and an other inertial frame S‟ which moves
at constant velocity v with respect to S along x, x‟ common axis where
v<<c.
 Galilean Transformations
S’ frame moving with speed v along
positive x axis (v<<c.)
S frame fixed

S & S’ coincided at t=0. Sketch shown at time t later.

How do the position, velocity, acceleration, & time between the 2 frames compare?

 x  vx   ax   x'   v x'   a x' 

         '  ' 
 y  vy   ay   y'   vy   ay 
z v  a   z'   v'   a' 
   z  z    z z
t  t' 
   
 Galilean Transformations
S’ frame moving with speed v
along positive x axis.
S frame fixed

S & S’ coincided at t=0. Sketch shown at time t later.

How do the position, velocity, acceleration, & time between the 2 frames compare?

S  S’ S’  S

x = x’ + vt x = x’ - vt
 Inertial Frames S and S’

• S is at rest and S’ is moving with velocity

• Axes are parallel
• S and S’ are said to be inertial coordinate systems.
 The Galilean Transformation
For a point P
 In system S: P = (x, y, z, t)
 In system S’: P' = (x’, y’, z’, t’)

x P

S S’ x’-axis
x-axis
Conditions of the Galilean Transformation

• Parallel axes (for convenience)

• S’ has a constant relative velocity in the x-direction
with respect to S
x’ = x – v t
y’ = y
z’ = z speed of frame
NOT speed of object
t’ = t
Since Time (t) for all observers is a
Fundamental invariant,
i.e., the same for all inertial observers
General Galilean Transformations
x  x'vt
y  y' inertial reference frame

t  t'

t and t ' are the same

dx dx'
  v  u x  u x ' v
dt dt
dy dy '
  ty  t'y
dt dt
dt dt '
 11
dt dt
frame S frame S’
 
t and t ' are the same ma   F  ma'   F
dv x dv x '
  0  ax  ax '
dt dt
dv y dv y '
  a y  a' y
Newton’s Eqn of Motion the same at
dt dt face-value in both reference frames
 • let us consider two events on the same point
at different time.
• The time interval between two events are
𝑡𝑏 −𝑡𝑎 in S frame and
𝑡′𝑏 − 𝑡′𝑎 in S’ frame
As t = t’,
𝑡𝑎 − 𝑡𝑏 = 𝑡′𝑎 − 𝑡′𝑏

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• Now let us consider two different points at the same
time(two ends of a rod).
• The space interval between two point are
𝑥𝑏 −𝑥𝑎 in S frame and
𝑥 ′ 𝑏 − 𝑥′𝑎 in S’ frame
But 𝑥𝑎 = 𝑥′𝑎 − v𝑡𝑎 and 𝑥𝑏 = 𝑥′𝑏 − v𝑡𝑏
𝑥𝑏 − 𝑥𝑎 = 𝑥 ′ 𝑏 − v𝑡𝑏 − (𝑥′𝑎 − v𝑡𝑎 )
𝑥𝑏 − 𝑥𝑎 = 𝑥 ′ 𝑏 −𝑥′𝑎 − (v𝑡𝑏 − v𝑡𝑎 )
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• Since 𝑡𝑎 =𝑡𝑏 = 𝑡
• so 𝑥𝑏 − 𝑥𝑎 = 𝑥 ′ 𝑏 −𝑥′𝑎 − (vt− vt)
𝑥𝑏 − 𝑥𝑎 = 𝑥 ′ 𝑏 −𝑥′𝑎 length invariant

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 1.5. PRINCIPLE OF INERTIA

• Galileo considered that the essential feature of the movement

is the tendency to persist.
• This concept was raised by Newton to the rank of
First Law of Dynamics, also known as Principle of inertia.
• It states that Every body perseveres in its state of rest, or of
uniform motion in a right line, unless it is compelled to change
that state by forces impressed thereon.

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 1.6. principle of relativity
• The principle of relativity states that there is no physical way to
differentiate between a body moving at a constant speed and an immobile
body.
• It is of course possible to determine that one body is moving relative to the
other, but it is impossible to determine which of them is moving and which
is immobile.
• In other words a body cannot attain a state of absolute rest or absolute
motion.
• The principle of Galilean relativity states that inertial frames exist, and that
the same laws of physics apply in all inertial frames of reference, regardless
of one frame's straight-line, constant-speed motion relative to another.
• Another way of putting it is that all inertial frames are created equal.

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 Newtonian Principle of Relativity

• If Newton’s laws are valid in one reference

frame, then they are also valid in another
reference frame moving at a uniform
velocity relative to the first system.
• This is referred to as the Newtonian
principle of relativity or Galilean
invariance.
 1.7 Newtonian gravity
• Newton‟s universal law of gravitation states that
every particle in the universe attracts every other
particle with a force along a line joining the
centers of mass of these two particles.
• The force is directly proportional to the product of
their masses and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them.
• The gravitational force is always attractive.
• it depends only on the masses involved and the
distance between them.
• Gravitational attraction is along a line joining the
centers of mass of these two bodies.

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 • Let us consider two bodies ( body A with
mass M and body B mass m) and r is the
distance between the centers of mass of the
bodies

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 𝐺𝑚𝑀
• The force is given by 𝑭𝑔 = 2 ȓ
𝑟
where G is the gravitational constant, whose value found by experiment is
G= 6.674×10−11 N𝑚2 /𝑘𝑔2 in SI units and ȓ is unit vector.
• The force on body B due to body A is also given by
𝑭𝑔 = −𝑚𝛻𝛷(𝑥𝐵 )
where 𝑥𝐵 is position of body B and 𝛷(𝑥𝐵 ) gravitational potential produced
body A which is given by
−𝐺𝑀 −𝐺𝑀
𝛷 𝑥 = =
𝑥 𝑥−𝑥𝐴

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• If B is attracted by many bodies of 𝑀𝐴 (𝐴 = 1,2,3 … ) at various
position 𝑥𝐴 (𝐴 = 1,2,3 … ) the gravitational potential will be the
sum of potentials from each.
−𝐺𝑀𝐴
𝛷 𝑥 =
∣ 𝑥 − 𝑥𝐴 ∣
𝐴
• For continuous distribution of mass density 𝜇(𝑥) the sum becomes
an integral over 𝜇(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 3
𝐺𝑀𝐴
𝛷 𝑥 =− 𝜇(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 3
∣ 𝑥 − 𝑥′ ∣

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 2.8. Gravitational and inertial mass

• Inertial mass and gravitational mass of an object are identical

in value, but differ in how they are measured.
• Inertial mass is measured by measuring an object's resistance
to changes in velocity.
• Gravitational mass describes the force on an object in a
gravitational field.

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• Gravitational mass is measured by comparing the force of gravity
of an unknown mass to the force of gravity of a known mass.
• This is typically done with some sort of balance scale.
• The beauty of this method is that no matter where, or what planet,
you are, the masses will always balance out because the
gravitational acceleration on each object will be the same.
• This does break down near supermassive objects such as black
holes and neutron stars due to the high gradient of the gravitational
field around such objects.
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• Inertial mass is found by applying a known force to an
unknown mass, measuring the acceleration, and applying
Newton's Second Law, m = F/a.
• This gives as accurate a value for mass as the accuracy of your
measurements.
• When the astronauts need to be weighed in outer space, they
actually find their inertial mass in a special chair.

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 1.8. Maxwell's electromagnetism
1.8.1 Maxwell’s equations
• Maxwell‟s equations are first-order differential equations describing
the local behavior of the electric and magnetic fields E (r, t) and B
(r, t).
• The sources of the fields are the electric charge density ρ(r, t) and
the electric current density j (r, t).
• The values of the sources ρ and j, together with proper boundary
conditions for E and B, determine the configuration of the fields:

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• Vector Operators: Grad, Div and Curl
• Three field operators which reveal interesting collective field
properties, viz.
the gradient of a scalar field,
the divergence of a vector field,
the curl of a vector fie

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• " It is usual to define the vector operator

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• In this section we shall show that the use of Maxwell‟s laws in
different reference systems, joined to the invariance of
distances and times accepted in classical physics, lead to
unreasonable.

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• Let us consider two parallel infinite line charge distributions, as shown in
Figure bellow.

Figure: Magnetic force between electric currents of equal direction.

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• The upper line is electrically neutral because it contains both types
of charges in equal quantities.
• The lower line is charged.
• Besides, both lines carry electric currents with equal directions that
result from the motion of one type of charge.
• In this stationary charge configuration there is no electric
interaction between the lines, since the electric interaction requires
that both lines be charged.
• However, the lines do magnetically interact because electric
currents of equal direction magnetically attract each other.

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• This is what electrostatics and magnetostatics say (i.e., Maxwell‟s
theory restricted to the case where fields do not depend on time).
• Now we shall try a change of reference system, and we shall
pretend to apply Maxwell‟s laws also in the new frame.
• In changing frames we shall use the assumptions about the
invariance of distances and times which support Galileo
transformations.
• In particular, if distances are invariant then we can assure that the
upper line will be electrically neutral in any reference system.

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• In the frame that moves with the positive charges, we see the charge
configuration shown in below.

• Figure. There is neither electric interaction (one of the lines is neutral),

nor magnetic interaction (one of the lines does not carry electric current).

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• In this case, the same Maxwell‟s laws say that there is no interaction
at all.
• There is no electric interaction, since it would be necessary that
both lines had net electric charge.
• There is no magnetic interaction, since it would be required that
both lines carried electric current.
• The results obtained in each frame are incompatible, since the
existence or not of an interaction must be an absolute fact,
independent of the chosen reference system.

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• The absurdity is a consequence of the application of Maxwell‟s laws
in both frames, together with Galileo transformations.
• As long as the notions of space and time of classical physics remain
valid, the use of Maxwell‟s laws in different reference systems will
be unacceptable.
• In such a case, it is imperative to know which is the frame where
Maxwell‟s laws are applicable.
• The failure of this enterprise will lead to understand that the
classical notions of space and time will have to be modified.

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1.9 In search of Ether and the path towards Einstein Special Theory of
Relativity
What is ether?
• ether or aether, in physics and astronomy, a hypothetical medium for transmitting
light and heat (radiation), filling all unoccupied space; it is also called
luminiferous ether.
• In Newtonian physics all waves are propagated through a medium, e.g., water waves
through water, sound waves through air.
• In the 19th century it was known that transverse waves are not possible in a gas or a
liquid, but only in a solid; hence ether was thought to have solid-like properties.
• Since light behaves in closed rooms the same as in open fields, and many materials
are transparent to light, ether was assumed to fill up all of space and all of matter.
• Thus, at the end of the 19th century physicists had a picture of the ether as a quasi-
rigid solid (not completely rigid because it can vibrate), luminiferous (light carrying)
medium that is massless and transparent, at absolute rest, and present everywhere.
• Ether is both nothing and everything at the same time.
• It's stillness, yet it's the very thing that makes all movement and life possible.

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The Michelson-Morley Experiment
Cronholm144, [Link]

Michelson-Morley Expt
“the most famous failed experiment”
 Time t1 from A to C and back (For the forward light ray ):

2 2 2 2 1
t2   
c v
2 2 c 1 v 2

So that the difference in trip times is: c2

 
2  2 1 
t  t2  t1    
c  1 v2 1  v 2 
2

 c2 c 
Orientation 1
 
2  2 1 
torient 1  t2  t1    
c  1 v2 1 v 2

 c 2 
 c2

Orientation 2
 
2  2 1 
torient 2  t2  t1    
c  1 v2 2 1  v 2 
2

 c c 
Difference in Orientations

 
2  1   2 1   2  v2
torient 1  torient 2     
1
1   2  2
c  1 v2 2 1  v 2 
2 c c

 c c 
• To get such result we will use the following approximation
separately.