ADVANCED ELECTRICAL DRIVES

UNIT V

APPLICATIONS OF AC and DC DRIVES

Based on the nature of electric current, the electric drives are of

following two types −

• AC Drives (Alternating Current Drives)

• DC Drives (Direct Current Drives)

What is an AC Drive?

The type of electric drive which is used for controlling the speed of
AC motors (especially 3-phase induction motors) is known as AC
drive. The operation of an AC drive can be described in the
following steps −

What is an AC Drive?

The type of electric drive which is used for controlling the speed of
AC motors (especially 3-phase induction motors) is known as AC
drive. The operation of an AC drive can be described in the
following steps −

• Step 1 − AC drive converts input AC supply into DC

using rectifier circuit.
• Step 2 − Inverts the DC back to the AC using inverter
circuit to control the speed of the AC motor.
AC drive is also known as variable frequency drive (VFD) because
it changes the frequency of the AC supply to control the speed of
the AC motor.

What is a DC Drive?

A type of electric drive which is employed for controlling the speed

of a DC motor is known as DC drive. The DC drive converts the
input AC supply to the DC supply output using the rectifier circuit
to control the speed of the DC motors. The DC drives are of two
types viz.: analog DC drive and digital DC drive.

Differences between AC and DC Drives

The main differences between AC drives and DC drives are shown

in the following table.
Point of AC Drives DC Drives
Comparison

Definition The electric drive The electric drive which

which is used for is used for controlling
controlling the speed the speed of a DC motor
of an AC motor is is known as DC electric
known as AC electric drive.
drive.

Operation AC drive converts the DC drive uses mercury

AC supply into DC arc rectifier circuits to
using rectifier circuit, convert the input AC
then convert it back to into DC at different
AC (frequency is voltages to control the
changed) to control the speed of DC motors.
speed of the AC motor.

Converter AC drives have two DC drive involves only

circuit converter circuits viz. one converter circuit
rectifier for AC to DC that is rectifier for AC to
conversion and DC conversion.
inverter for DC to AC
conversion.

Controlling AC drive controls the DC drive controls the DC

quantity AC output from the AC output from the AC
input. input.

Self-starting AC drives are not self- DC drives are self-

starting. starting.
Point of AC Drives DC Drives
Comparison

Drive power AC drives are operated DC drives are operated

supply by AC power supply by DC power supply
either 1-phase or 3- such as batteries, etc.
phase.

Circuit AC drives involve The circuit of DC drive is

complexity complicated circuit relatively less complex
design due to presence due to the single power
of rectifier circuit and conversion, i.e. from AC
inverter circuit. to DC only.

Parameter of In AC drives, the speed In DC drives, speed

speed control control is performed by control is achieved by
changing the supply armature and field
frequency. control.

Limitation of In AC drives, In DC drives, speed is

speed maximum speed can limited due to
be obtained. commutator used in the
DC motors.

Speed of Using AC drives, motor With DC drives, motor

motor speed can be obtained speed can be obtained
up to 10,000 RPM. up to 2500 RPM.

Speed There is approximately The speed regulation of

Regulation 1% speed regulation is 1% cannot be achieved
achievable in the AC
Point of AC Drives DC Drives
Comparison

motors driven by AC in DC motors driven by

drives. DC drives.

Speed torque Using AC drives, the With DC drives, it is easy

curves adjustment of speed- to adjust the speed-
torque curves of motor torque curves of the
is complex. motor.

Control and The control and power The control and power
power circuits of an AC drive circuits of DC drives are
circuits are complex. simple.

Braking The braking The braking mechanism

mechanism of AC of DC drives is
drives are controlled controlled by applying
by changing the resistance at rotor side
supply frequency. of motor.

Power AC drive consumes DC drive consumes

consumption less power. comparatively more
power than AC drive.

Noise AC drives have noisy DC drives have less

operation. noisy operation.

Sparking The operation of AC In DC drives, the spark

drives is spark free, is produced the
therefore, can be used brushes, hence they
in wet areas.
Point of AC Drives DC Drives
Comparison

cannot be used in wet

areas.

Maintenance AC drives require less DC drives require

maintenance. frequent and more
maintenance.

Weight and The AC drives are The DC drives are light

Size heavy and larger in and smaller in size.
size.

Power rating AC drives have high The power rating of DC

power rating. drives is comparatively
smaller.

Cost AC drives are more DC drives are cheaper

expensive. than AC drives.

Presence of In AC drives, the In DC drives, only

Harmonics inverter circuit rectifier converter is
produces harmonics used which does not
on both supply and produce harmonics.
load sides.

Applications AC drives are used for DC drives are used for

speed control of AC speed control of DC
motors. motors.
DSP CONTROLLED MOTOR DRIVE

The basic diagram of speed control of BLDC motor drive consists

of three phase inverter, current

regulator, speed controller, Brushless Direct Current Motor

(BLDC), Hall sensors. The electrical unit

transfers the power from the supply to the BLDC Motor in which
the power gets converted from

electrical energy to mechanical energy.

The rotor position of the Brushless DC motor is sensed by the Hall

transducer. The Hall sensor has three sensors A, B and C which
are mounted at 120° phase intervals. The output of the hall
sensors contains necessary information about the present rotor
position of the BLDC. This information is fed to the commutation
logic circuit. This circuit generates the six step electronic
commutation signals which are fed as the input of the source
inverter. Based this input from commutation logic circuit the
source inverter generates the required control voltage for the BLDC
motor.

The Speed of the BLDC motor is measured using a Hall Sensor and
it is calculated from the output of the hall sensor which senses it
from the rotor position information of th ‘Generally the DC motor
has mechanical commutation which converts direct current into
alternating current’, whereas BLDC motors use the electronic
commutation. A BLDC motor is a Permanent magnet Synchronous
motor with permanent magnet act as the rotor of the machine.
Stator coils are energized by sequentially based on the signal
output from the three hall sensors located in the motor with the
purpose to develop a constant torque.

Six step current algorithms are used to develop the constant

torque. In each electrical cycle six discrete points of rotor position
can be detected by the hall sensors are mounted on the adjacent
of stator winding coils to determine the position of the rotor
information.
Pump Drives Information

Pump drives take power from an input rotational source and send
it to a hydraulic pump. Gears or other equipment generate the
power. Pumps are positioned on the drive housing.

A pump system's rotary power source is referred to as a drive. The

term drive signifies motor control units such as an inverter or
starter. It also refers to other segments of the power supply such
as a motor or gearbox. Gearboxes moderate motor speed. When
attached to a motor as a unit, they are considered gearmotors.

Types of Pump Drives

The following are the two predominant types of pumps:

• Centrifugal pumps operate at speeds above 1750 rpm.

They direct liquids toward their center, where centrifugal
force discharges the liquids. Fluids of low to medium
viscosity are appropriate for such devices as they generate
shearing that mixes the fluids. As a result, homogenous
mixtures work well with these instruments.
• Positive displacement (PD) pumps operate at a slower rate
than the centrifugal models. They rely on rotating sections
of space for moving the product. These devices induce
minimal shear and are suitable for non-homogenous
mixtures to retain product texture.
Inline helical geared motor drives featuring feet or flanges for
mounting serve as PD pump drives. Gear reducers are engaged to
ensure the speed is in a proper range. Select models feature input
flanges and hollow shafts conjoined with a flanged gearmotor.
Pumps with a solid input shaft employ the footed version.

Bolting a coupled C-face motor to a gearmotor drive is expensive.

However, it allows using any type of C-face unit in conformance
with NEMA dimensions. This permits access to a broad selection
of motors designed for particular applications.

Features

Pump drives support a myriad of features, including:

• Engine mount
• Independent mount
• Increasing ratio
• Decreasing ratio
• Field configurable pads
• Field configurable splines
• Thru shafts
• PTO shafts
• Individual pump disconnects
• Hot shift clutches
• Cast iron housings
• Ball bearings
• Heavy duty (non shimming) ball bearings
• Case hardened shafts
 • Identical gear ratios on outputs
• Output rotation direction opposite input rotation
• Multiple disc drive plates (for smoother operation)
• Non-bearing cup pump pads (for easy removal)
• Voltage spike protection
Applications

The drives serve a diverse spectrum of fields where pumps are

utilized, including:

• Oil and gas drilling

• Boilers
• Boreholes
• Chemicals
• Circulators
• Dewatering
• Firefighting
• Industrial
• Irrigation
• Marine
• Mixed flow
• Mud
• Paint
• Pneumatic
• Pond
• Pool
• Pressure
• Sewage
• Sludge
 • Slurry
• Sprinkler
• Utility
• Wastewater
• Water
• Well
Selection

When it comes to selecting these devices, the following factors

merit consideration:

• Pad number (determines how many pumps are mountable

to a drive)
• Sizing the drive
• Horsepower rating
• Maximum torque
• Gear ratio
• Speed
Pump manufacturers rely on computer-aided programs or graphs
displaying pump performance to determine horsepower, size, and
speed of a drive. If a device possesses a slower than needed rpm,
reduction in flow rate occurs. Devices with excessive rpm may
cause a disparity between the calculated horsepower and selected
horsepower, reducing operational efficiency as a result.

Once the instrument's horsepower and rpm have been identified,

the speed reducer service is selected. The speed reducer is required
to have a service factor equal to or greater than the level
recommended by the AGMA. Speed reducers with service factors
unsuited to specific tasks are subject to premature failure.

With improvements in technology, drives using variable frequency

inverters are gaining popularity. They replace belt cases and
traction drives in activities where multiple speed operation is
essential. They offer specific benefits such as programming and
reliability. Use of standardized speed reducers and motors makes
the devices more compact than belt cases or traction drives.

Torque analysis is helpful in minimizing the chances of over- or

undersizing a drive's horsepower. Functions engaging dissimilar
products with different rates of flow require variable torque. On the
other hand, activities involving the same pump necessitate
individually calculated torque. In these cases, the drive is sized to
accommodate the largest torque and the greatest speed.

To size two separate applications using the same pump, the

following steps are required:

• Calculate the pump's load torque at all possible speeds

• Determine the size of the drive motor using the highest
load torque at the maximum load speed
Solar Powered Pump Drives:

Solar Powered Pump Drives: Centrifugal and reciprocating. Their

speed-torque characteristics are shown in Fig. 9.3. Centrifugal
pump requires only a small torque to start whereas reciprocating
pump owing to stiction may require as much as three times the
rated torque. In centrifugal pump the output power is proportional
to the cube of speed, and therefore, drastically reduces as the
speed is reduced; for example, the output power reduces to half at
a speed of 80%. In reciprocating pump, since with a reduction in
speed the torque reduces only by a small amount, the percentage
reduction in output is slightly more than the percentage reduction
in speed.

A simple scheme of Solar Powered Pump Drives using a permanent

magnet dc motor is shown in Fig. 9.4. The solar panel directly feeds
the motor. One can connect the solar cells to form a low-voltage-
high-current or low-current-high-voltage unit. A low current-high-
voltage arrangement is preferred because of lower proportion of
losses in the motor and solar panel. However, a dc voltage more
than 80 volts may present a serious electrocution hazard and
should be avoided. Since the solar cells themselves regulate the
maximum output current no starter is required for the dc motor.
Noting that in a permanent magnet dc motor, the torque is
proportional to armature current and back emf proportional to
speed, the motor speed-torque characteristics for different
insulation levels can be obtained from Fig. 9.2. These are shown
in Fig. 9.5. For the optimum utilization of solar panel, the
operation should take place at the maximum power points. This is
not possible in the simple drive of Fig. 9.4. However, in case of
centrifugal pump, the parameters of motor and pump can be
matched so that the solar panel operates close to the maximum
power points as shown in Fig. 9.5. Points corresponding to
maximum power points of the solar panel are shown by ‘x’.

Better utilization of solar panel is obtained by reconnecting solar

cells, as explained with the help of Fig. 9.6. Characteristics 1 to 4
correspond to normal connection. The panel operates close to
maximum power points with insolation levels corresponding to
characteristics 1 and 2. By reconnecting the solar cells so that
there are more units in parallel and less in series, the
characteristics 3 and 4 can be modified to characteristics 3′ and
4′, which then provide operation closer to the maximum power
points compared to the simple scheme of Fig. 9.4.

For better matching a step-down chopper is inserted between the

solar panel and the motor. With the help of the maximum-power
point tracker, the duty ratio of the chopper is varied to obtain the
solar panel operation at the maximum power-points for all
insolation levels. The circuit for this is shown in Fig. 9.7. It should,
however, be noted that the addition of one more power stage (i.e.
chopper) increases the losses. Thus, although this scheme permits
the extraction of the maximum power from the solar panel,
because of the increase in losses, the power supplied to the pump
may not increase significantly. Therefore, for a given application,
calculation should be done for the losses and additional power
output, so as to decide whether the chopper and maximum power
point tracker should be employed or not. Use of the chopper and
maximum power-point tracker offers an additional advantage. It
ensures matching for all pump sites; although the pump
parameters change with the change of site.

If a reciprocating pump is used, then the pump characteristic

relative to the characteristic-I of the motor will be as shown in Fig.
9.8. The characteristics of motor and pump have been adjusted
such that at the rated conditions of the motor and pump,
maximum power is taken from the solar panel at normal insolation
level. Such a drive will fail to start. One solution to this problem is
to use two sets of solar panels, which are normally connected in
series. For starting they are connected in parallel. This changes
characteristic-1 to characteristic-1′ and the motor can now start
because its torque exceeds stiction. This arrangement, however,
does not allow operation near the maximum power points. Another
alternative is to use a step-down chopper, which will allow the
characteristic-1 to be modified to characteristic-1′ as shown in Fig.
9.8. Now the motor can start. The step-down chopper in
conjunction with the maximum- power-point-tracker will also
ensure that the maximum available power is extracted from the
solar panel. Starting in this manner will make it necessary to
operate the chopper at low duty ratio and high current. Thus, a
semiconductor switch with high rms current rating will be
required. This disadvantage can be eliminated by giving a push to
the pump with the help of a rope and pulley arrangement to
overcome stiction. The maximum power tracking control will
however be necessary to ensure that the pump is also able to run
at low insolation levels.

The main objection to the dc motor drive is the presence of brushes

which must be replaced after certain period, otherwise irreperable
damage may be done to the motor. In view of this there is a need
for improved brush material and construction such that the life of
the brush will be long and after it wears, the motor will stop by
itself.

For pump ratings of 1 kW and above, three phase induction motor

drive is employed. As shown in Fig. 9.9, a PWM voltage source
inverter with maximum-power-point-tracker is used for variable
frequency control of the squirrel-cage induction motor.

Solar Powered Pump Drives with an intermediate battery, as

shown in Fig. 9.10, can also be used. The drive is fed from the
battery charged by solar panel.

BATTERY POWERED VEHICLES

There are four types of electric vehicles available:

• Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV):Fully powered by electricity.

These are more efficient compared to hybrid and plug-in
hybrids.
• Hybrid Electric Vehicle:
o Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV): The vehicle uses both the
internal combustion (usually petrol) engine and the
battery-powered motor powertrain. The petrol engine is
used both to drive and charge when the battery is empty.
These vehicles are not as efficient as fully electric or plug-
in hybrid vehicles.
o Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV): Uses both an
internal combustion engine and a battery charged from
an external socket (they have a plug). This means the
vehicle’s battery can be charged with electricity rather
than the engine. PHEVs are more efficient than HEVs but
less efficient than BEVs.
 • Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV):Electric energy is produced
from chemical energy. For example, a hydrogen FCEV.

System Architecture of 4 types of electric cars is as follows:

Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs)
BEVs are also known as All-Electric Vehicles (AEV). Electric
Vehicles using BEV technology run entirely on a battery-powered
electric drivetrain. The electricity used to drive the vehicle is stored
in a large battery pack which can be charged by plugging into the
electricity grid. The charged battery pack then provides power to
one or more electric motors to run the electric car. To find out more
about BEVs, click below.

Battery electric vehicles

Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV):

HEVs are also known as series hybrid or parallel hybrid. HEVs
have both engine and electric motor. The engine gets energy from
fuel, and the motor gets electricity from batteries. The
transmission is rotated simultaneously by both engine and electric
motor. This then drives the wheels. To find out more about HEVs,
click below.

Hybrid electric vehicle

Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV):
The PHEVs are also known as series hybrids. They have both
engine and a motor. You can choose among the fuels, conventional
fuel (such as petrol) or alternative fuel (such as bio-diesel). It can
also be powered by a rechargeable battery pack. The battery can
be charged externally. To find out more about PHEVs, click below.

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle

Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle(FCEV):

FCEVs are also known as Zero-Emission Vehicles. They employ
‘fuel cell technology’ to generate the electricity required to run the
vehicle. The chemical energy of the fuel is converted directly into
electric energy. To find out more about FCEVs, click below.

Fuel cell electric vehicle

Such a drive will have three advantages:

• It can be run without battery when some sunlight is

available. With battery it can be run at a convenient
time.

• In agriculture applications, it will generally run only for

the part of a day, but the solar cells will be charging the
battery for the whole day. Therefore, the solar panel
rating can be substantially reduced, thus considerably
reducing the cost of the drive.

• Battery drive can provide large torque. It is therefore

suitable for reciprocating pumps necessary in some
applications where high pressure is required, e.g.
pumping water from deep wells etc.

Use of battery has two disadvantages:

• it requires frequent maintenance, which can be a

serious problem in remote places and

• a charge controller is required to protect it from

overcharge and excessive discharge.

SOLAR POWERED ELECTRIC VEHICLES

Solar energy is available free of cost in the most continental

areas of the world and can be converted into useful electrical
energy through Photovoltaic (PV) technology. Photovoltaic
technology is getting more attention towards the ‘Green’ and
‘Clean’ environment. Semi-conductor materials of PV cells
absorb photons of light and generate electric current to perform
the desired task.

PV technology with electrical and hybrid vehicles can be used

through two different modes. The first mode is the installation
of solar PV station to recharge electric and hybrid vehicles and
the second one is directly integrating PV panels with these
vehicles. Integration of solar PV technology and different solar
charging infrastructure schemes for electric and hybrid vehicles
are discussed below.

A hybrid electric vehicle that utilizes the human effort and solar
PV technology to drive the vehicle is designed [52]. The solar
powered electric vehicle is designed to overcome the future crisis
of non-renewable energy resources [53]. The feasibility of low
budget electric vehicle utilizing efficient PV array system is
proposed [54, 55]. A conversion scheme of the conventional
vehicle into the solar vehicle is proposed as shown in Fig. 3.
Further, the effect of this conversion scheme is analysed in
MATLAB simulation environment [56]. A prototype of the solar
hybrid vehicle is developed from the conventional car by
employing several electrical components such as in-wheel
motor, photovoltaic panels and Li-Ion batteries [57]. The Control
and Applications Research Centre (CARC), designed and
implemented a running vehicle model using the PV panel to
modernize the traditional tri-wheeler vehicles and efficient use
of renewable energy in Bangladesh. A solar charging station is
also proposed to make the system completely independent from
the national grid [58].
Fig. 3

The conversion scheme of the conventional car into the hybrid

solar vehicle, adopted and modified [56]

Full size image

Solar PV station based on inductive power transfer methodology

to recharge the electric vehicle is proposed [59]. Another, solar
PV station to recharge the electric tricycle vehicles is proposed
in Bangladesh [60]. A PV charging station having a capacity of
6.62 kW power is designed to recharge four electric vehicles
simultaneously in Ireland as shown in Fig. 4 [61]. The concept
of the solar power station to charge plug-in electric vehicles is
proposed in developing countries like India and further this
stored energy in batteries enhances backup power for home
loads [62]. A conversion scheme of ICE vehicles into EVs in
conjunction with home PV system to achieve the goal of
greenhouse gases reduction in the transportation sector is
proposed [63].

Fig. 4

PV-MPPT charging layouts system adopted and modified [61]

Full size image

The PV-grid charging infrastructure scheme to recharge electric

vehicles is presented [64]. Apart from this, several PV-grid
charging schemes are proposed in the literature for electric
vehicles [65,66,67,68,69,70,71,71]. Figure 5 shows the possible
arrangement of the integration of PV-grid with electric and
hybrid vehicles.

Fig. 5

Architecture scheme of PV-grid and EV charging [64]

Full size image

Several authors in the literature have proposed the concept of

PV parking lots to recharge electric vehicles during parking
hours [64, 72,73,74]. Additional advantages of PV parking lots
such as shading and simultaneously recharging of electric
vehicles are presented [74,75,76]. Design of optimized PV
parking model structures to charge the parking EVs is proposed
[75, 77].

A combined methodology consisting of solar and wind renewable

energy to charge the electric vehicles is proposed [78]. Possible
complementarities of renewable wind and solar energy to
recharge the EVs for Portugal 2050 project is discussed [79].
The integration impact of renewable energy resources based
charging infrastructure with plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) is
presented to meet the sustainable development goal in
California [80, 81]. A power station utilizing renewable solar PV
energy is developed to recharge electric taxis in Daejeon city
[82]. A premium and green method to recharge electric vehicles
from renewable energy resources is shown in Fig. 6 [83, 84].
Renewable solar and wind energy based recharging mechanism
for electric vehicles are proposed to reduce carbon emissions
[85].

Fig. 6
A concept of the renewable energy based charging system [84]

Full size image

An intelligent transportation system having a solar based ad-

hoc networking technique for sensing, harvesting, estimating
and communication characteristics is presented [86].
Renewable solar and battery bank based control strategy for a
light solar electric vehicle is proposed [87]. Adoption of PV
dispersion with electric vehicles on the basis of several
geographical, economic and political factors towards clean
energy in New York city is evaluated [88]. Mobile multi-
pyranometer array-based methodology to estimate the solar
 energy generation accurately from car roof PV system is
proposed [89].

Studies of solar powered assisted electrical and hybrid vehicles

Globally fossil fuel-based engine vehicles are the key mode of

transportation, causing unexpected outcomes such as climate
change, deficiency in natural visibility, air, land and water
pollution. These factors are responsible for different pollution
and global warming issues. Numerous works have been
published in the literature on electric vehicles using a renewable
resource such as solar energy. The review of three-wheeled and
four-wheeled solar electric vehicles utilizing renewable solar
energy is discussed in the following subsections.

Electric Traction Services:

Electric Traction Services can be broadly classified as:

• Electric Trains.

• Electric buses, trams (or tramways) and trolleys.

• Battery driven and solar powered vehicles.

Electric Trains:

Electric trains run on fixed rails. They are further classified

as Main Line Trains and Suburban Trains.
Main Line Trains:

Intercity passenger and goods trains which come under this

category have trailer coaches carrying men and material driven by
locomotives carrying driving motors. Since driving motors travel
with locomotive, power supply to the motors is arranged in two
ways: from overhead transmission line in electrical locomotive and
from diesel generator set mounted on the locomotive in a Diesel
Electric Locomotive.

In electric locomotive, driving motor and power modulators are

housed in the locomotive. An overhead transmission line is laid
along or above the track (or rails). A current collector mounted over
the locomotive has a conductor strip which slides against the
supply conductor and thus maintains continuous contact between
the supply and the locomotive. The supply conductor is commonly
known as contact wire. In order to ensure good contact between
the current collector and contact wire, the latter is maintained
horizontal by supporting it by “catanary cable” and “dropper”
wires, which in turn are supported at interval by appropriate
structures (Fig. 10.1). For high speed trains, contact wires are
rarely given a vertical inclination to the track greater than 1 in 300.
At the same time the lateral position of the wire above the rails is
staggered from side to side between supports to even the wear on
the collector, caused as it slides along the contact wire. The
commonly used collector has the shape of a pentagon, therefore, it
is called a Pantograph Collector (Fig. 10.2). It has a conducting
strip which is pressed against the contact wire by springs. The
collector strips are usually of steel with grease lubrication, or of
carbon, in which case no lubrication is needed. Function of the
pantograph is to maintain as constant a pressure as possible
between the collector strip and contact wire and to prevent any
vertical oscillation of the collector strip; as these will produce
arcing due to breaking of electric contact. When the pantograph is
not in use, it is maintained in lower position with the help of stiff
springs. When to be used, the collector strip is raised by
compressed air. For high speed trains, the design of collector is
critical.

As supply lines are to be laid all along the track, with adequate
spacing, the economy dictates use of minimum number of such
lines. Therefore, single, phase supply is used. The current enters
locomotive through the collector, flows through the primary of a
step down transformer and returns to supply earth through
locomotive wheels and one of the rails on which locomotive travels,
thus avoiding need for a second conductor. Main secondary
winding (or windings) of the transformer feeds the power
modulator, which in turn powers the driving motors. The auxiliary
secondary windings of the transformer feed power for other needs
of the train such as lighting, fans, air conditioning etc.
The locomotive power ratings can be as high as 6000 HP and more.
Powering such a large single phase load can lead to large
unbalance in the supply system which is always three phase. In
order to reduce unbalance, the track supply is divided into
sections which are electrically isolated from each other, and
substations supplying these sections are connected to different
phases of the three phase supply. Though the unbalance is
reduced, its magnitude still remains large. If the three phase
supply system capacity is much larger than the power drawn by
the locomotive, then this unbalance will not significantly affect the
three phase supply system. Therefore, it is essential that the main
source of traction supply should be sufficiently large.

When locomotive travels through different sections, the supply is

momentarily disconnected when it moves from one section to
another. The movement during the transition occurs because of
the inertia. Momentary disruption of power produces inductive
voltage spikes.

Electric Traction Services is classified as single phase ac and dc

depending on the supply. It has nothing to do with the motor type.
Based on the study done by French and German Railways in late
forties, 25 kV was considered suitable for ac traction. Indian
Railways have also adopted 25 kV, 50 Hz, single phase supply for
ac traction. 25 kV, 50 Hz ac supply is now being used for main line
traction throughout India, except Bombay-Igatpuri section where
1500 V dc traction is in use.

In Diesel Electric Locomotive, the electric power is generated

within the locomotive by a diesel engine driven electric generator.
Capital cost of Electric Traction employing electric locomotive is
very high because of the necessity of having expensive
transmission lines, although the total cost (capital plus running)
is lower compared to Diesel Electric Traction using diesel electric
locomotive.

Suburban Trains:

They are employed for transporting men within a city or between

cities located at small distances. The main difference being that
the distance between consecutive stops (or stations) is much
smaller for suburban trains than the main line. The suburban
trains are also known as local trains. Because of shortage of land
in cities, they are often run through underground tunnels and are
called subway trains, metros or simply underground trains.
Suburban trains are driven by motor (or motorized) coaches,
instead of locomotives. Each motor coach is equipped with an
electric drive with its controls in driver’s cabin and a pantograph
collector. Usual pattern is to use motor coaches and trailer coaches
in the ratio 1 : 2. In high speed trains the ratio may be increased
to 1 : 1. The trains employing motor coaches and trailer coaches
are also known as Electrical Multiple Unit (EMU) trains. Such an
arrangement provides the flexibility in train size. During light
traffic periods, one or two units, each consisting of one motor
coach and two trailer coaches form a train. During rush hours,
number of such units are coupled together. Each unit is provided
with local and remote control equipment, so that all the motor
coaches of a train can be controlled from the driver’s cabin of the
front motor coach. The electric supplies for suburban trains are
similar to those used in main line trains, except in case of
underground trains. The cost of making underground tunnels is
very large, therefore, their size is kept minimum possible. As
enough space is not available for a high voltage line, in
underground traction, the voltage chosen is usually small, 500 to
1000 V (in Calcutta metro it is 750 V dc) and usually it is dc
because first it needs lesser clearance from the supply conductor
to the train body and the ground and secondly the power
modulator becomes simpler and less expensive. The underground
trains generally do not use overhead transmission line. It is a
common practice to use a third rail for the supply. The rail may be
mounted between the running rails or on one side of the tunnel.
Brushes are mounted underneath or on the side of the motor
coaches, depending on the location of the supply rail, for current
collection. The rails are cheaper than overhead supply, so they are
preferred whenever the chance of pedestrains coming across them
is remote.

Electric Buses, Trams and Trolleys:

Because of lower running expenses and complete absence of

pollution, electric buses are preferred over diesel engine driven
buses for city services and are quite popular in Europe and
Canada. Their main disadvantage is the need for elaborate supply
network, which makes their capital cost very high (though total
expenses are lower) and makes them unsuitable for intercity
services. The electric buses, also known as electric cars, usually
consists of single motor driven coach. The supply is generally low
voltage dc overhead line running along the road. As the currents
are usually small, the collector consists of a rod carrying at its end
a grooved wheel or two rods bridged by a contact bow (Fig. 10.3).
Collector system is provided with enough flexibility for the bus to
manoeuvre sideways through traffic without adversely affecting
contact between the collector and supply conductor. Arrangement
has also to be provided for additional conductor for the return of
current.

The trams are electric buses (or cars) which run on rails and
consists of a single motor coach. In some cases one or two trailer
coaches are added. Current collection is similar to buses and its
return can be through one of the rails. As trams run on rails, their
path through roads is fixed. Unless roads are very wide, their
movements along with the rest of traffic slows down. Hence, they
are not employed any more.

Electric trolleys used for transporting material in mines and

factories mostly run on rails. They are similar to trams, only shape
is different.