ALGAE

INTRODUCTION TO ALGAE
First introduced by Linnaeus (1753) but properly named according to the microscopic
delimitation by A.L. De Jussieu (1789). Algae are chlorophyll bearing lower plants
which possess markedly different patterns of unicellular to multicellular organisation.
They are non-embryo producing embryo here is considered to be a multicellular young
plant produced from the zygote and developed within the female reproductive structure.

OCCURRENCE AND SIZE

They are widely distributed in freshwater, (ponds, ditches, rivers and lakes), seawater,
wet soil, rock and stone surfaces, attached to plants and animals and also occurring in
intercellular cavities of certain organisms
_e.g. Spirogyra
fresh water
Volvox
Ectocorpus, Laminaria – seawater
Nostoc – wet soil
Gloeocaapsa – rock
Stomata chroon – semi parasitic, penetrates the stomata of tropical plants.
Desmococcus – forms a coating on the bark of trees.
Anabaena azollae – endophyte in cavitiees of Azolla frond.

Those found in extreme environments are Chlamydomonas nulalis found in snow and ice
and produces a red coloration. Synechococcus elongates F. thermalis found in hot
springs of volcanic origin with high temperature and high concentration of salts (60 oC)
and above.
(a) Extensive algal mats in the intertidal zone on the coast of Maine. (b) Dictyota, a
brown alga. (c) Caulepa and (d) Pseudovalonia, two coenocytic green algae that grow in
warm waters near the tip of south India.
Size: The size of algae range from that of Cyanophyta which are up to 60-70U to massive
giant Kelps of Phaeophyta e.g. Luminaria 2-9 m, Nereocystis 45m, and Macrocystus up
to 90m. They possess non-vocuolate cytoplasm and lack mitochondria.

FORMS AND STRUCTURES

Classification of algae is complex owing to the great diversity of morphology,
pigmentation and reproductive processes but some of classification must be produced to
avoid the chaos encountered when the whole range is contemplated.

Cytonophyta (i) Unicellular types e.g. are Chroococcus found in sediments of bog
ponds. Mycrosystis (floating in small productive colonies) and Gloeocapsa.

Sheath
Vegetative

(ii) Colonial types - may be flat plates distributed throughout the matrix e.g.
Mensmopedia planar (type of colony) and Eucapsis cubondae colony.
Layer one cell thick

Sand grains, epizoic to animals e.g. hydra, copepots fish and even whales. Two types of
flagella are noticed tinsel which possesses lateral (filliform) appendages and whiplash
flagella which lack them. One organism could be having both types. Flagellate stages
are lacking in Cyanophyta but there are many motile forms which move by gliding within
 mucilage sheaths or by snail-like movement e.g. gliding e.g. Oscilltoria by attached
filaments. However the basic mechanism for movement is not understood.

Thallus Structures

Thallus structure in the blue-green algae (a) unicellular; Chroococcaceae,

Synechococcus (b) Fillamentous; Nostocaceae, Cylindrospermum (c) Filamentous;
Nostocaceae, Anabaena (d) Individual filament separated from a colony;

Rivulariaceae, Gloeotrichia (e) Colonial; Rivulariaceae, Gloeotrichia (f) Branched

filamentous; Stigonemaceae, Fischeriella
Chlorophyta has motile cells. Most members of chlorophyceae commonly possess 2 or
4 simple and equal flagella that are smooth and lacking lateral appendages (whiplash).
Chlamydomonas; an unicell has two flagella which are thrust so that the cells are
“swimming the breast stroke”. Volvox which is colonial is motile and rolling. Individual
cells are biflagellate members are non-motile zoospores.

Engelonoids are largely flagellate e.g. Englena which has two flagella arising from the
base of imagination at the cell apex. The shorter flagellum is devoid of hairs and never
protrudes beyond the mouth of the imagination. The other one is long and extends out to
the exterior as locomotory flagellum
Structure of Paramecium
Chrysophyta – The motile algae have unequal flagellation. Others are non-motile but
zoospores are motile. The golden algae are flagellate. Some are equally biflagellate e.g.
Symira uniflagellate e.g. chrysamoaba and others unequally biflagellate e.g.
Ochromonaas. Chrysamoaba also exists in an amoebic form with pseudopodial
extensions.

Pseudopodia
There are no flagella in diatoms. The vegetative cells of some diatoms are motile even
though they are non-flagellates. These forms have longitudinal striations called raphes
on both the upper and lower surface of the cell.

Rhaphe
Nucleus
Cell wall markings

The raphe is a fissure in the wall, and recent evidence indicates that diatom locomotion is
caused by secretion of material through the raphe. All motile perhaps because these
diatoms have lost the ability to secrete mucous through the raphe.

Exuviaella marina

Pyrrophyta – are motile unicells with one or two morphologically different flagella in
most forms. The two flagella emerge from an opening in the furrow. One undulates in
the furrow and the other posterior.

Phaeophyta – They are unusual in that there are no flagellate forms. They are sessile
and multicellular. Nevertheless some have laterally biflagellated zoospores.

Rhodophyta – There is total absence of motile flagellates or ciliate cells in red algae,
even zoospores are absent and gametes are never citiate.

Rigid sheaths and gelatinous sheaths have been described for many species. Although
cellulose pectic substances and other compounds have been reported the chemical
composition structure and biosynthesis of cell walls and sheaths of these algae are poorly
known.

Chlorophyta – Some genera of voluocales have naked protoplast wall. Great majority
cells present. The cell wall when present is composed mainly of cellulose except in
simphonales which contain cellulose. The walls may be impregnated with lime (CaO)
e.g. simphonales of tropical seas making them look greenish white.

Structure of spirogyra

Eugenophyta – Euglena lack cell wall but is surrounded by a pliable periplast or pellicle,
allowing it to assume different shapes. A few genera have protoplast surrounded by an
envelope (Lorica) which stands free from the protoplast.

Trachelomonas voluocina

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Chrysophyta : The chrysomonads e.g. Chrysomoeba have naked protoplast surrounded
by an open rigid sheath (lorica) separated from the protoplast by intervening space filled
with water.

Light micrographs of a collection of centric diatoms, illustrating radial symmetry, and

one pinnate diatom, illustrating bilateral symmetry. The two diatoms on the right side are
from fossil diatomataceous earth. X 185 (except upper left, which is X 90).
Some members have cell walls with two unequal overlapping halves in vegetative cells or
in spores. The wall is made of pectin impregnated with silica. E.g. diatoms in which the
wall is made of two halves or valves, older epitheca filling closely over the younger
hypotheca. These two are fitted like a pair of petri-dish. Of the two halves, the outer one
is the epitheca and the inner the hypotheca.

Pyrrophyta: There are some with or without cell walls. A few genera have naked
protoplasts but the great majority have cellulose walls that may be homogenous or may
consist of definite number of plates.

Phaeophyta – the cell walls contain not only cellulose but also specific polysaccharides
such as algimic acid and fucoichin (water soluble polysaccharide).

Rhodophyta: The cell wall contains cellulose and various pectic compounds. Some are
heavily encrusted on the outside with lime “coralline” algae. Others produce various
mucilages some of which are sulphated polysaccharides found only in this group.
Nuclear Membranes – The presence or absence of nucleus membranes can be used to
divide algae into aeukaryotic and prokaryotic algae.

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 Cyanophyta – a unique and primitive feature of this group is the lack of nuclear and
mitochondrial membranes hence no distinct nuclei and mitochondria though there is
nuclear material. Nucleoli are also lacking. Blue green algae are thus prokaryotic.

Chlorophyta – all green algae have a definitely organised nucleus with a distinct
bounding membrane (eukaryotes) one or more nucleoli and recognisable chromosomes.

Euglenophyta: Euglenoid cell has a prominent nucleus a definite nuclear membrane

shaped, chromatin granules, which are organised into a definite number of chromosomes
during division. Normally the nucleus is one but many if cytokinnesis, pyrophyta,
pheophyta and rhodophyta cells have distinct nuclear membranes (eukaryotes).
Conditions are favourable for growth and results in rapid expansion of a given
population. Sexual reproduction involves the union of two gametes thus doubling of
chromosome number and combination of chromosomes gives new individuals with
unique genotype. This type of reproduction is associated with conditions less favourable.

REPRODUCTION
A. Vegetative Reproduction
1. Cell division or binary fission.
Cell division is the regular method of reproduction in unicellular cyanophyta e.g.
Chroococcus. Ordinarily, two daughter cells remain united to each other within a
common gelatenous envelop and the continued repetition of cell division may result in
colony containing many cells. Colony reproduction is a matter of chance and depends on
accidental breaking of the colonial envelope. If the colony envelope is soft and tends to
dissolve as it Chroococcus,

Dividing Daughter Cells in Croococcus turgidus

Sheath
The colony never grows to a large size before it becomes separated, whereas in the
genera with a tough envelope as in Coelosphaerium, the colony usually becomes many-
celled before it breaks into smaller pieces.

In colonial genera of chlorophyta cell division increases the number of cells of a colony
but does not bring about a formation of new plants. Accidental breaking of a colony may
result from such external causes as animals feeding upon the alga or it may result from
the action of water currents.

Euglenophyta – e.g. Euglena multiplication is by cell division and it may take place
while cells are actively motile or after they have come to rest. Division in motile cells is
longitudinal and begins at the anterior end. In unflagellate forms, one half remains with
the old flagellum while the other half forms a new one. Biflagellate genera may have
both flagella going to one daughter cell and the other forming two new flagella or each
daughter cell may receive a single flagellum and form a second one. Cells dividing in an
immobile state may become surrounded by a gelatenous sheath. Sometimes the daughter
protoplasts may divide again within the sheath. (Palmelloid condition). Cells of this
group survive adverse condition by the formation of dormant cysts. The cells become
non-flagellate and secrete a thick mucilaginous coat during encystment. Each cyst
germinates into a single motile cell.

Pyrrophyta – Reproduction is largely by cell division. This may take place while the
cells actively motile or after they have come to rest. In some (dinoflagellates) each
daughter cell receives a predetermined portion of the parent cell wall. In most cases the
protoplast escapes from the parent-cell wall, divides and the daughter protoplasts form
entirely new walls. There are also others where the protoplast within the wall divides two
naked daughter protoplasts that do not form walls until after liberation from the parent
cell wall.

Chrysophyta – e.g. Diatoms. When diatom divides there is generally a formation of two
daughter cells of slightly different size. The first step is the expansion of the protoplast

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that causes a slight separation of overlapping epitheca and hypotheca. This is followed
by a (mitotic) division of the nucleus. Nuclear division is usually accompanied by
duplication of cell organs e.g. pyrenoids, followed by a longitudinal bipartation of
protoplast in a plan parallel to the values. One of the daughter protoplasts lies within the
epitheca of parent cell wall and the other within the hypotheca. Each daughter protoplast
soon secretes a new half wall on the free face. The newly formed half wall is always the
hypotheca, and the old half wall received from the parent cell, irrespective of whether it
was formally an epitheca or a hypotheca, is always the hypotheca. Thus, one daughter
cell will be the same size as the parent and the other will be lightly smaller. Restoration
of maximal cell size is accompanied by sexual reproduction. Diatom cells are diploid and
meiosis precedes sexual reproduction. The zygote called auxospore is formed by the
fusion of two haploid protoplasts. Formation of an auxospore involves liberation of a
protoplast from the enclosing wall, a considerable enlargement of the naked liberated
protoplast, and then a section of a two-parted silified wall around the protoplast. The
enlarged auxospore divides to form two vegetative cells whose size is near the maximum
for the species. Division of the auxospore is mitotic the first generation of vegetative
cells and all subsequent generations of 8 vegetative cells are diploid.

Rhodophyta - most of the plants are less than two feet in length but only a few are
microscopic. Porphyridium is unicellular and in these cell division is the sole method of
reproduction.

2. Formation of young thallus within the parent cell.

Chlorophyta: The above method of reproduction takes place in many members of
chlorophyta simultaneously in each of the four cells giving rise to four young colonies.
The daughter colonies may be released simultaneously from the parent cells.

3. Fragmentation – A portion or specialized portions of colonial or filamentous algae

separate from the parent plant. This could be natural or induced e.g. by animals feeding
on it, from death of certain ells in the row, or from a development of a weaker adhesion
between certain cells.
Cyanophyta – e.g. Oscillatoria and Lyngbya. The death of an occasional cell along the
filament in Oscillatoria causes the formation of separation discs. This aids in vegetative
reproduction by forming weak places along the filament. Many filamentous genera,
regularly delimit short sections of the filament and these short chains of cells called
Hormogonia. The hormogenes may be but two or three cells in length, or they may be
several cells along. Hormogenes have an even greater capacity for locomotion than do
vegetative filaments and sooner or later they move away from the filament in which they
were produced and grow into new filaments. Certain genera develop homogenes with
differently shaped cells and much thicker walls. Multicellular spore-like bodies are
hormospores of Westiella lanosa. These germinate directly into new filaments.

Oscilatoria

A. Filaments B. homogonia C. a portion of the filament magnified

(Adopted from Dutta, 1976)

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Heterocysts: These are enlarged living cells allocated with a filament e.g. Nostoc are
located within a filament. Nostoc is also associated with fragmentation of filaments.
They differ from vegetative cells and from spores both in structure of their walls and in
their transparent contents. They may develop anywhere along the filament, but some are
always terminal in position e.g. in Rivularia.

Chlorophyta
Some filamentous species, as those of Stichococcus and spirogyra, have a strong
tendency to separate into individual cells or short series of a few cells each. Such
filaments may then grow into long filaments.

Chrysophyta
Multiplication of filamentous and non-filamentous, colonies may be purely vegetative
and due to accidental breaking of the colony into two parts.

Phaeophyta
Several of the phaeophyta reproduce vegetatively by a fragmentation of the thallus. This
may take place at either the juvenile or the adult stage. The attached thallus may split
vertically into two or more portions which remain attached to the substratum. In such
cases a single individual may bee replaced by a cluster of individuals. Vegetative
multiplication may also be affected by detachment of fragments that float away and
develop into new plants. E.g. in Sargassa.

Rhodophyta
Red algae seldom reproduce vegetatively by a fragmentation of the thallus. All the
Rhodophyta form one or more kinds of non-flagellated spores.

4. Propagules – (special reproductive branches). Many of Sphacelaaria (Phaeophyta)

reproduce vegetatively by means of propagules and at certain seasons of the year they
may be the only means of multiplication.
Development of a propagulum begins in the same manner as that of a lateral branch, but,
after it has become a few cells long there is a vertical division of the apical cell into two
or three daughter cells. Each daughter cell is the initial of a branch. Eventually there is
an abscission of the propagulum at the point where it is attached to the thallus. It floats
away lodges upon a favourable substratum and there develops into a new thallus.

5. Formation of Mitospores (reproduce cell of a plant produced following mitosis).

A number of algae periodically produce special types of cells, asexual sports called
mitospores because they are preceded by mitosis. These are agents of replication of the
organism. The genotypes of all (asexual) spores arising from one and the same parent are
identical with each other and with the parent plant. These specialized spores are:

6. Zoospores:
Are flagellate motile cells. They are produced singly or in groups by the cells of non-
motile organs. They vary with respect to flagella number, common numbers being two, 4
or many. Zoospores are usually formed in vegetative cells morphologically similar to
other cells in the colony and a few cases formed in special cells called sporangia. The
protoplast of a cell about to produce zoospores contracts slightly and become filled with
reserve food material. If more than one zoospore is to be produced, the nucleus divides.
Simultaneous division may continue until there are 32 daughter cells. This in uninucleate
cell, zoospore is two or multiplies of two due to repeated division. In coenocytic cells
(multinucleate) cleavage gives uninucleate protoplasts that become zoospores. Zoospores
are liberated through a pore in the side of the parent-cell-wall, or when the wall breaks.
They move for different periods for the different species before retreating or losing the
flagella, secreting a wall and eventually becoming an aplanospore. These later germinate
to form (a trichome) or filament. E.g. Vaucheria (yellow-green) forms a multiflagella
zoospore with numerous paired flagella.

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Vaucheria

A. Vaucheria filament B. Formation of Zoosporangium C. Zoospore escaping

D. Free-swimming zoospore E. Zoospore germinating
(

Phyrrophyta – Phytodinads (section of Pyrrophyta) reproduce by means of zoospores.

Both the filamentous genera and certain of the coccoid genera have the protoplasm
dividing to form 2, 4, 8 naked zoospores that are liberated through a pore in the parent
cell wall.

Chrysophyta
Zoospores are formed by a majority of the genera and they may be in singles or a few
number within a cell. They are always biflagellate, with two flagella anterior in insertion
and markedly different length.
Phaeophyta
Most phaeophyta produce naked zoospores. They are biflagellate, with two flagella of
unequal length and laterally inserted, the longer flagellum projecting forward and the
shorter projecting backward. In Ectocarpus zoospores are produced in characteristic
Sporangia which are divided into many cells and each cell produce a single spore.

7. Aplanospores
Are non-motile, non-flagellated mitospores. They are usually spherical and are formed
slightly within a cell, but can be more than one. They are interpreted as abortive
zoospores in which motile phase has been omitted. Aplanospores are usually liberated
from the parent cell (either) before they germinate or a new filament develops before it is
liberated. Aplanospores with greatly thickened walls are usually called hypnospores.
This is observed in Chlorophyta e.g. Microspora.

Pyrrophyta
Most dinoflagellates have the entire protoplast rounding up to form a single aplanospore
but formations of two have been reported. Formation can take place within parent cells
wall or protoplast escapes before secreting a new thick wall.
Chrysophyta
The entire protoplast may produce a single aplanospore or divide into a number of parts
each of which becomes an aplanospore. The aplanospore liberated may grow directly
into a new plant or give rise to zoospores which in turn give rise to plants e.g.
Tribornema.

Phaeophyta
Some phaeophyta except fucales produce naked (aplanoplasts) aplanospores.

Rhodophyta
e.g. Polysiphonia produce nonmotile spores called carpospores. They are formed in
carposporangium within the cystocarp.

8. Autospores
They lack the potentiality for motility (they are non-motile miniatures of parent cells
which produce them). Thus autospores have the same distinctive shape as the parent cell.
These are the only known method of reproduction in certain families of chlorococcales.
Autospores may separate from one another after liberation or all autospores produced by
a cell they remain permanently united in an autocolony e.g. Scenedesmus.

9. Akinetes:
Arise by the thickening of the wall layers of ordinary vegetative cells themselves. They
have more abundant food reserves. These can always be distinguished from aplanospores
by the fact that the additional wall layers around the protoplasts are fused with the wall of
the parent cell. Formation of akinetes is of regular occurrence in certain genera,
including pithophora. An akinete is not a modified zoospore or a stage in their formation,
but instead, it is a direct modification of a vegetative cell and one resulting in a structure
better adapted to tide the alga over unfavourable conditions. Akinetes of certain genera
may develop directly into new plants or as is usually the case have the protoplast dividing
into a number of zoospores. (See page on Thalli: page 60)
Chrysophyta – Akinetes are most frequently encountered among filamentous genera of
Xanthophyceae. These are spore-like cells which are formed when vegetative cells
change directly into spore-like resting stages with much thicker walls and more abundant
food reserve.

Cyanophyta: e.g. Anabena. A cell of a trichome enlarges, accumulates food reserves

and at later stages of development the walls thicken appreciably. It develops at the end of
a trichome or in an intercalary position.

B. Sexual Reproduction
Involves the fusion of sex cells called gametes (male and female gametes). The resultant
cell is called zygote. The reproductive process in most algal groups.
(i) Union of cells (plasmogamy)
(ii) Union of two nuclei (karyogamy)
(iii) Mingling of chromosomes bearing certain combinations of genes (genomes).

These processes may be followed by meiosis. Meiosis is a type of nuclear division in

which the two sets of parental chromosomes with their genes are once again segregated in
a different pattern producing new combinations leading to variation. Individuals which
produce both male and female gametes is termed bisexual whereas a condition where
male and female gametes are produced from different individuals is known as unisexual.

Gametes have haploid or n number of chromosomes, while the zygote has 2n or diploid
number of chromosomes. Meiosis converts a diploid condition to a haploid one. The
cells resulting from meiosis with n number of chromosomes are called meiospores. The
cells which meiosis takes place are called meiocytes. Games are produced in cells called
gametangia and plants that produce gametes are known as gametophytes and those that
produce meiospores are called sporophyts. Gametophytic plants are haploid while
sporophytic plants are diploid. Fusions of games are called syngamy. Fusion involving
flagellated games (zoogametes) is called zoogamy whereas that involving amoeboid
gametes (aplanogametes) is called aplanogamy. Fusion based on differences and
similarity in sizes and structure can be distinguished in algae.

(a) Isogamy – fusion between identical gametes morphological distinctions between

male and female gametes are impossible.

(b) Anisogamy: One of the fusing pair is regularly larger than the other (hence
heterogametes). The differences may be relatively small or pronounced. The smaller
gamete is considered to be the male while the larger is female.

(c) Oogamy – union of a smaller flagellated male gametes (antherozoid) with a large
nonflagellate female gamete egg. The dimorphism is pronounced.

Three Types of Reproduction found in the algae

Hetorogamy: Fusion of two gametes which are flagellate or amoebid.

Gyanophyta: There is no sexual mode of reproduction in this group.

Chrorophyta: Sexual reproduction occurs under special conditions. It may be isogamous

heterogamous or oogenous. Examples are: isogamous --- Chlamydomonas.

Life Cycle of Chlamydomonas

(Adopted from Kaufman et al., 1989)

The mature gamete has angle chloroplast, an eye spot, contractile vacuoles and two
flagella. Fusion is isogamous after which a diploid zygote so formed swims about for a
short time and then settles down, secretes a thick carbohydrate wall, and undergoes a rest
period. Upon the advent of favourable conditions, meiosis occurs quadriflagellate

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meiospores emerge. Each meiospore then undergoes mitotic divisions to give rise to a
new vegetative [Link]. heterogamous --- Codium fragile (Anisogamous)

Oogamous – eg Oedogonium (See page 78)

Sexual reproduction (Oogamous) is of frequent occurrence when filaments are growing

in standing water but infrequent if they are in flowing water. They produce antherozoids.

Development of Antheridium and Oogonium in Vaucheria

(Adopted from Dutta, 1976)

A. Antheridium and three oogonium on a short lateral branch
B. the same borne directly by the filament
C. mature antheridium and cogonium; antherozoids discharged and ovum about to be
fertilized
D. Oospores
E. a new filament developed from the oospores
Aplanogamous – Aplanogamy = a union of amoeboid gametes (Aplanogametes) without
flagella e.g. Spirogyra – gametes are morphologically isogamous but not physiologically
isogamous because one aplanogamete is actively amoeboid and other passive. Union of
two aplanogametes is usually by establishment of a tubular connection (conjugation tube)
between two cells.

Pyrrophyta. Sexual reproduction is not prevalent. Cases of conjugation of amoeboid

games have been reported in Ceratium. Here two cells become opposed to each other
and establish a conjugation tube in which the two protoplasts unite to form a zygote. A
union of motile gametes has been described in Glenodiniuni.

Chrysophyta Sexual reproduction is usually isogamous and by a noun of flagellated or

nonflagellated gametes, but it may also be anisogamous or oogamous. E.g. in Tribonema
one gamete one gamete of a uniting pair is immobile and the other motile. In Botrydium
both of fusing pair are motile and gametic union may be isogamous or anisogamous.
Sexual reproduction in Vaucheria is however oogamous. They produce anthendia and
oogonia adjacent to one another, either on a common branch or adjoining branches.

Antherozoids enter an oogonium through an apical pore produced by gelatinization of the

oogonial wall. Several antherozoids may enter an oogonium but only one of them
penetrates the egg. The small male nucleus migrates to the egg nucleus which is
considerable larger, but does not immediately fuse with it. it increases in size until its
volume approximates that of the egg nucleus; the two then fuse. The zygote nucleus
formed by their fusion migrates to the centre of the zygote. They secrete a thick wall
with three to seven layers and enters a resting period before it germinates directly into a
new filament.
Life Cycle of Laminaria

Phaeophyta – Sexual reproduction may be isogamous, anisogamous or oogamous. It has

two vegetative forms of plant haploid and diploid plant but both are identical in
vegetative morphology. They are distinguished only by observation of the reproductive
structures and chromosome number. The haploid plant produces multicelular structures
called gametangia. The gametes are alike isogametes. Their fusion and zygote
germination results in a diplod (sporophytic) plant. The diploid plant produces
mitosporangia (these are multicelular structrues which produce biflagellate zoospores that
germinate and give rise to new diploid plants. It also produces meiosporangia –
unicelular structures in which meiosis occurs. Haploid biflagellated meiospores
(zoospores) develop within each meiosporangium. Upon germination each meiospore
gives rise to a new vegetatively haploid plant.

Anisogamous : few brown algae are anisogamous e.g. Cutleria. (See page 78)

Oogamous: found in Laminaria and Fucus. Two kinds of haploid plants mal and female.
During sexual reproduction, a cell of the O plant develops into an oogonium. When
mature the egg is extruded from the oogonium but remains attached to a pore through
which it passed. Sperm are produced in the anthendia on side branches of the male plant.
The biflagellate sperm swim to the nonmotile egg (by chemotactic attraction) and the
fusion of sperm with egg results in the formation of the zygote. The zygote immediately
germinates to give rise to a new diploid plant.

Rhodophyta – Sexual reproduction of red algae is unlike that of other algae. The male
sex organ is spermatangium (n) and it contains a single non-flagellated male gamete the
spermatum. The female sex organs, carpogonium is one celled and bears an outgrowth at
its distal end called trichogyne. Spermatia liberated may be carried passively or may
lodge against a trichogyne and a downward migration of the spermatial nucleus to the
female nucleus at the carpogonial base.

4.1.1 ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF ALGAE

1. FOOD – Many as reeds e.g. Chorella are used as human food since they are rich in
carbohydrates and vitamins. Food for fish and other aquatic animals e.g. blue whales
which feed on crustaceans which feed on algae. Cattle feed, fish feed and other
aquatic animals.
2. IODINE – source of these minerals e.g. the Bromine, large brown helps for iodine.
3. FERTILIZERS – Rich in potassium and other minerals.
4. AGAR-AGAR – some (Rhodophyta) red-algae are a source of agar-agar,
used and gelatinous material used as a culture medium for bacteria and
fungi. The agar-agar is used as a sizing (glaze the surface or stiffen
fabrics) materials in textile industry 9 Alginic acid.
- Solidifying material in preparation of jellies.
- Base for shoe polish shaving creams, cosmetics e.t.c.
- Dying and printing material for textile goods.
5. INDUSTRIAL USES
(a) Diatomaceous earth – used in as metal polish, tooth powered, heat
insulators in boilers and furnaces, filters in refining sugar.
(c) Water purification – used in open sewage ponds to destroy some
pathogenic micro-organisms.
6. FIX free nitrogen in soil: about 40 species in 14 genera of blue green
algae can fix atmospheric nitrogen. This increases soil fertility.
7. SOURCE of Vitamins A & D. Diatoms are rich in the above vitamins
and are passed to man through fish which in turn will have fed on the
diatoms.
8. INDICATORS of environmental pollution in streams and other water
bodies. The number of algae and the particular species present are
determined by the nature of the water i.e. temperature, oxygen content,
PH, dissolved organic and inorganic matter. Highly polluted water has
not algae but only anaerobic bacteria; further purification introduces
Euglena and some blue-green algae which grow together with sulphur
bacteria, then thick bloom and finally clears.