Chapter 1

Definition of Hydrology and the Hydrologic Cycle

Hydrology as a Science

UNESCO (1979) defines Hydrology as follows: “Hydrology is the physical science

which treats the water of the Earth, their occurrence, circulation and distribution, their
chemical and physical properties and their reaction with the environment, including their
relation to living things”.

The Hydrologic Cycle

The hydrologic cycle (Fig 1.1) is the central focus of hydrology. As the term connotes,
the cycle has neither beginning nor end. However, for its description we may begin from
the evaporation process, which is the conversion of water from liquid to vapor. This
conversion is fueled by the radiant energy of the sun. The water vapor from different
water bodies such as ocean, rivers, lakes, reservoirs, etc. is then lifted up and become
part of the atmospheric moisture. Plants also give off water to the atmosphere by
transpiration. Evaporation and transpiration are collectively called evapotranspiration.
The atmospheric moisture, when cooled to the temperature that corresponds to its
saturation vapor pressure and with the presence of condensation nuclei, condenses to
water droplets. Upon nucleation these droplets in the atmosphere grow bigger and bigger
until they are heavy enough to precipitate to the earth’s surface. The total amount of
precipitation could not reach the soil surface because some of it is intercepted by
vegetation (interception storage) which will eventually be evaporated back to the
atmosphere.

The precipitation that reaches the ground surface called the effective precipitation
(Gupta, 1989), will follow the following possible routes: Infiltrate into the soil surface
provided the infiltration capacity of the soil is equal to or greater than the rate of the
effective precipitation (Hortonian view) but if the soil cannot accommodate all the
effective precipitation, the excess water would first fill up surface puddles and other
forms of depression storage and after which overland flow starts.

The water that infiltrates into the soil will replenish the soil moisture deficit in the root
zone (soil water storage), and the excess water will continue to move laterally,
(subsurface flow) and vertically downward (percolation).

The subsurface flow may return to the surface (return flow) and joins the overland flow
while the percolated water will join the groundwater storage.

Part of the groundwater returns to the root zone by capillary rise in the case of shallow
groundwater table, another part discharges to the sea by groundwater flow or to the
rivers and lakes by seepage.

Page 1 of 45
Rivers and lakes then discharge their waters to the sea and then evaporation starts all
over again and the cycle continues.

Precipitation
Precipitation

transpiration
Interception

Detention
Infiltration storage Depression
storage Overland Evaporation
Percolation flow
Capillary rise

Groundwater Table Subsurface flow

Sea
Groundwater storage
Channel
storage
Fig 1.1 The Hydrologic Cycle

The Water Balance Concept

The amount of water in the different storages of the hydrologic cycle can be estimated by
applying a water balance equation, which is based on the principle of conservation of
mass. The equation is formulated with the aid of a control volume and follows the
general expression

S
I (t )  O(t )  1.1
t

S
where I is the inflow, O is the outflow, and is the change of storage in the control
t
S
volume during the period t . The term is positive if the storage increases and
t
S
negative if storage decreases. To avoid confusion on the sign of in carrying out
t
computations, the expression V f  Vi may be used and equation 1.1 may be written in the
form:

 I (t )  O(t ) t  V f  Vi 1.2

Where Vi and Vf are the initial and final volumes, respectively, between the chosen
period t .

Page 2 of 45
In applying the water balance equation, care must be taken in defining the boundary of
the so-called control volume. De Laat and Saveniÿe (1996) schematized the hydrologic
cycle in terms of storages and processes as presented in Figure 1.2. This schematization
can aid in defining the boundary of the control volume.

Figure 1.2 Schematization of Storage and Processes of the terrestrial part of the
Hydrologic Cycle

Air Moisture Above Land

Transpiration Precipitation Evaporation

Interception

Depression/Detention

Overland Flow
Infiltration

Subsurface Channel Storage

Moisture Storage flow

Capillary Rise Percolation Seepage

Influent (+), Surface
Effluent (-) Runoff

Groundwater Storage

Symbols

Storage Ocean Storage

Process

Water Balance of drainage basin

Page 3 of 45
A drainage basin is an area that contributes to the discharge at a particular cross-section
of a river called the outlet. Drainage basin is also called catchment area or watershed.
The delineation of the catchment area could be done with the aid of a contour map.
Starting from the designated outlet, the boundary of the catchment is traced by drawing a
line that cuts the contours at right angles. In the case of a closed contour, representing a
summit, the boundary is drawn to pass the center of the summit. Ridges of mountains or
N
P

M
O1

O2

Figure 1.3 The catchment area increases as the outlet is moved downstream. For outlet O1
the catchment boundary is O1MNPO1 and for outlet O2 the boundary is O2MNPO2.
hills also serve as boundaries. The basic ideas to remember in delineating the catchment
are as follows: (a) water cannot cross the catchment boundary and (b) the catchment
boundary should include all points that drain their water to the designated outlet.

Usually the topographic divide is taken as the boundary of the catchment (this is not
always the case) and the area A of the region bounded by this topographic divide is
considered as the size of the catchment. The size of the catchment depends on the
location of the outlet selected this is because the catchment area increases as the outlet
moves downstream of the river as shown in Figure 1.3.

Water balance for drainage basin

The usual objective of applying the water balance equation for large river basin is to
evaluate quantitatively the water resources potential of that basin and to substantiate
proposed projects for their intended use. In which case the time-period to be used is long
(say annual) so the positive and the negative variations of the storage tend to balance
thus making the change in storage S equal to zero. The input I is the amount of
precipitation P falling inside the catchment boundary while the output O comprises the
evapotranspiration E and the river discharge Q at the outlet. Ignoring the groundwater
exchange in large basins with neighboring basins and assuming that there is no surface
water moving across the catchment boundary, the water balance equation for large basins
would simplify to:

P–E–Q=0 (The units should be consistent!) 1.3

Page 4 of 45
Water Balance of Water Bodies

The water balance for water bodies such as lakes, reservoirs, and streams is intended to
predict the consequences of the prevailing hydrologic conditions on these bodies. The
information that can be derived from such water balance is important for the day-to-day
operation of these water bodies; therefore, a short time period is used. In this case the
change in storage cannot be neglected. The input I comprises of precipitation P, water
surface inflow Qi, and ground water inflow Gi. The output O includes evaporation E,
surface water outflow Qo, and groundwater outflow Go. Generally, for water bodies the
water balance equation can be expressed as:

(P + Qi + Gi) ) – (E+ Qo + Go ) = Vf - Vi 1.4

Water Balance for Direct runoff in a Basin during a storm

For determining the runoff from a storm, Gupta (1989) recommended the following
water balance equation over the ground surface considered.

P – Li – E – R – I – SD = 0 1.5

Where P = precipitation
Li = interception
E = evaporation
R = direct surface runoff
I = infiltration
SD = depression/detention storage

The amount of evaporation E during a short time period is small and can be neglected.
The amount of interception Li, depression/detention storage SD, and infiltration I, could
be lumped together as losses. With these assumptions, the direct runoff R can be
estimated by the expression

R = P – losses 1.6

Page 5 of 45
Illustrative problems

Hall (1996)
Clear Lake has a surface area of 708 000 m 2. For the month of March, this lake had an
inflow of 1.5 m3/sec and an outflow of 1.25 m3/sec. A storage change of +708 000 m3
was recorded. If the total depth of rainfall recorded at the local raingauge was 225 mm
for the month, estimate the combined evaporation and percolation losses from the lake.
State any assumptions that you make in your calculations.

P
Solution E
Qi

Qo

Gi
Perc Go
Assumption:
The groundwater inflow and outflow are the same, that is, Gi  Go  0 .

Equation 1.4 then simplifies to

P + Qi – (E+Perc) – Qo = V(f)- V(i)

And E can be solve by rearranging the terms into

(E+Perc) =P + Qi– Qo - [V(f)- V(i)]

m
P  225mm( )(708000m 2 )  159300m 3 / mos
1000mm
3
m s day
Qi  1.5 (86400 )(31 )  4017600m 3 / mos
s day mos
m3 s day
Qo  1.25 (86400 )(31 )  3348000m 3 / mos
s day mos
S
V ( f )  V (i )   708000m 3 / mos
t
Therefore : ( E  Perc )  159300  4017600  3348000  708000
m3
( E  Perc )  120900
mo
or (E+Perc)=171 mm over the lake.

2) A catchment area has a size of 77 km 2. During the water year 1997/98, it

received 1600 mm of precipitation. If the average discharge at the catchment
outlet was 2.0 m3/s, estimate the amount of water lost due to
evapotranspiration .

Page 6 of 45
 P
Solution ET

Assumption:

The change in storage for the entire water year is taken as zero.
I (t )  O (t )  0
P  Qo  ( ET )  0
( ET )  P  Q0

P  1600mm
m3 s days m2 mm
Qo  [2.0 (86400 )(365 ) / (77km 2 )(10002 2
)](1000 )  819mm
s day year km m

Therefore: ET = 1600-819 = 781mm

Problem 3
A catchment has a size of 80 (km)2. It receives an annual precipitation of
1600 mm. If the annual discharge at the outlet is 2 m3/sec, compute
a) the average annual evapotranspiration from the catchment in mm.
b) In the catchment area an irrigation project covering 10 (km)2 is
developed. After some years the average discharge at the outlet of the
catchment appears to be 1.85 m3/sec. Compute the evapotranspiration
from the irrigated area in mm/year, assuming no changes in the
evapotranspiration from the rest of the catchment.

Problem 4
The following data on precipitation P, evaporation E, and runoff Q for a
certain watershed 120 (km)2 in size are given in the table below.
a) At the end of which month is the amount of water stored in the basin
largest?
b) When is the smallest amount of water present in the catchment?

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
P (mm) 250 205 165 50 5 0 0 5 10 55 65 190
E (mm) 5 25 30 50 80 100 150 70 60 20 10 5
Q (mm) 150 110 80 5 0 0 0 0 0 10 15 120

Page 7 of 45
Problem 5
Below are information of a catchment for an average year.

Size A=110 Mm2

Average annual total river runoff Q=2.4 m3/sec
Average annual rainfall P=1400 mm/yr
50% of the rainfall infiltrates
15% of the rainfall reaches the groundwater
Average annual evapotranspiration from unsaturated zone (sum of transpiration and bare
soil evaporation)= 600 mm/year
Assume the net storage to be zero. No interflow.

Questions
1) How much water, in mm/year, reaches the root zone through capillary rise in the
average year?
2) How much water, in mm/year, seeps out from the groundwater to the surface water
in the average year?
3) How much water, in mm/year, evaporates directly from interception in the average
year?
4) How much is the total evapotranspiration in the catchment, in mm/year, in the
average year?
5) A well field is planned to withdraw 0.60 m3/sec from the catchment for drinking
water consumption elsewhere. As a result, the ground water level is expected to go
down and capillary rise into the root zone will no longer be possible. The percolation
is expected to be the same, what will be the effect of the withdrawal on the different
components of the hydrological cycle; the groundwater seepage, the total runoff, the
evapotranspiration from the unsaturated zone and the total evapotranspiration?
Please quantify in mm/year.

Page 8 of 45
 Chapter 2
Precipitation

Different Forms of Precipitation

Drizzle consists of tiny liquid water droplets, usually with diameters between 0.1 and 0.5
mm. They occasionally appear to float. Rarely exceeds 1 mm/hr.
Rain consists of liquid water drops mostly larger than 0.5 mm in diameter. Rainfall
usually refers to the amounts of liquid precipitation.
Snow is composed of ice crystals, chiefly in complex, branched hexagonal form, and
often agglomerated into snowflakes, which may reach 100mm in diameter. The density
of freshly fallen snow varies greatly; 125 to 500 mm of snow is generally required to
equal 25 mm of liquid water. The average density (specific gravity) is often assumed to
be 0.1.
Hail is precipitation in the form of balls of ice, produced in convective clouds, mostly
cumulonimbus. Hailstones may be spheroidal, conical, or irregular in shape, and range
from about 5 to over 125 mm in diameter. They are generally composed of alternating
layers of glaze and rime and their specific gravity is about 0.8.
Sleet consists of transparent, globular, solid grains of ice formed by the freezing of
raindrops or refreezing of largely melted ice crystals falling through a layer of
subfreezing air near the earth’s surface.

Formation of Precipitation
The conditions for precipitation to take place may be summarized stepwise as follows.
 Supply of moisture
 Cooling to below point of condensation
 Condensation
 Growth of particles

Moisture in the atmosphere is the source of precipitation, which is formed by a very

complex process. For precipitation to occur, air should be cooled to bring it to or near
saturation. At which state, with the presence of condensation or freezing nuclei, droplets
or ice crystals are formed. By coalescence process small droplets increase their size until
they are big enough to fall.

Precipitation Types
Precipitation can be classified according to the primary cause of condensation.

 Frontal Precipitation
Frontal precipitation occurs when two air masses of different temperatures meet. The
warm front happens when a warm air mass, moved by wind currents and atmospheric
pressure gradients, rises above a cooler air mass. The rising of the warm air to a higher
altitude causes it to cool then water vapor condenses resulting in precipitation. The
precipitation arising from this process often extends over large areas. The cold front
occurs when a cold air mass overtakes a warmer air mass displacing the latter upwards.
Again, the rising and cooling of warm air cause precipitation to happen. Unlike, warm
front the precipitation arising from a cold front is frequently spotty and covers relatively
smaller areas. Cold fronts move faster than warm fronts. This makes the lifting of warm
air faster thus causing a rainfall of shorter duration and higher intensity.

Page 10 of 45
  Convective Precipitation
Convective precipitation is caused by the rising of warmer, lighter air to the colder,
denser surroundings. The rise can be quite rapid and often results in thunderstorms. This
type of precipitation is typical of the tropics. Convective precipitation is local and its
intensity may range from light showers or storms of extremely high intensity. These
events are difficult to predict because they occur at short time frames.

 Orographic precipitation
Orographic precipitation results from mechanical lifting of moist horizontal air currents
over mountain barriers. Factors that are important to this type of precipitation are land
elevation, local slope, orientation of land slope, and distance from moisture source.

 Cyclonic precipitation
A cyclone is an area of low pressure. Air flows from surrounding areas of higher pressure to areas of lower
pressure. In the Northern hemisphere the air flow around the low pressure area in a counterclockwise
direction while in the southern hemisphere in a clockwise direction. As air masses converge on the low
pressure area, the incoming mass of air must be balanced by an out going one. Because incoming air
comes from all directions horizontally, the outgoing air has no choice but to move vertically upward. The
upward motion leads to cooling and condensation of water vapor that leads to precipitation.
Cyclonic precipitation may be classified as frontal or non-frontal.

 Monsoon Rains
Monsoons are weather patterns of a seasonal nature caused by widespread changes in
atmospheric pressure. A good example is the monsoon of southeast Asia where the dry
cold winter winds blowing outwards from Eurasian anticyclone are replaced in summer
by warm or hot winds carrying moist air from the surrounding oceans being drawn into a
low pressure area over northern India.

Measurements of Precipitation
Precipitation is usually measured as the depth of water that would accumulate on a flat
level surface if all the water remained where it had fallen. This is accomplished by using
rain gages, which are either manual or recording. The standard gage of the U.S. National
Weather Service has a collector 8 inches (20.3 cm) diameter.

Recording Gages
The three types of recording gages commonly used are 1) tipping bucket, 2) weighing
type and 3) float type.

The tipping-bucket gage works as follows. The amount of rain caught by the collector of
the gage is funneled into a two-compartment tipping bucket. When one compartment got
full the bucket tips over to empty this compartment and the other compartment gets its
turn to be filled up. During every tip of the bucket a signal is sent to a recording unit.

The weighing-type gage collects the amount of rain caught by the collector into a bucket
sitting on a scale that is calibrated to register an equivalent depth of rainfall.

A float-type gage consists of a float placed in the collector or in a special reservoir of

mercury or oil. As the depth of water in the collector increases the float rises and the
changes in depth is recorded with time.

Page 11 of 45
Parameters Defining Rainfall
1. Intensity or rate of precipitation: This is the depth of water per unit time (mm/s,
mm/min, mm/hr, mm/day, or mm/year)
2. Duration of precipitation. This is the period of time during which rain falls. This is
expressed in seconds, minutes, or hours.
3. Depth of precipitation. This refers to the depth of water that would accumulate on a
flat level surface if all the water remained where it had fallen. This is expressed in
mm, cm, or m.
4. Areal extent or geographic extent (km)2, Mm2. This has something to do with the
area over which a point rainfall can be considered uniform.
5. Frequency of occurrence. This refers to the expectation that a given depth of rainfall
will be experienced in a given time. Frequency is usually expressed in terms of
return period (e.g. once in five years).

The table below shows example parameters of rainfall caused by disastrous typhoons
that affected Cebu province, Philippines.

Name of Date Duration of 24-hr Total Rainfall

Typhoon rain (hours) Rainfall (mm) intensity
(mm/hr)
Ruping Nov. 14, 1990 21 276.1 18
Puring Dec 26, 1993 21 105.0 9
Bising April 4, 1994 16 174.0 20
Pepang Oct. 28, 1995 16 166.1 32
Source: Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services
Administration (PAGASA), Mactan International Airport, Lapulapu City,
Philippines. (Mario Alesna and Engr. Oscar Tabada)

The figure below shows the plot of intensity of rainfall versus time (this plot is called
hyetograph). The cumulative depth of rainfall is also presented. The event occurs on July
2, 2008.

July 2, 2008 Hyetograph

120
110
100
Intensity (mm/hr)

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
12:51:00

12:55:00

12:59:00

13:03:00

13:07:00

13:11:00

13:15:00

13:19:00

13:23:00

13:27:00

13:31:00

13:35:00

13:39:00

13:43:00

13:47:00

13:51:00

Time

Intensity Cumulative Depth (mm)

Page 12 of 45
Estimation of Missing Data of Point Precipitation

Precipitation events are recorded by gages at specific locations (point precipitation). It

can not be avoided for a gage site (station) to have missing data because of failure of
instrument or absence of observer. It is often necessary to estimate the missing data. The
normal-ratio method in estimating missing precipitation utilizes the concurrent
observations at three or more neighboring stations that are located as close to and evenly
spaced from the missing-data station as possible. The formula is as follows:

Px 1 P P P 
  1  2  3 2.1
N x 3  N1 N 2 N 3 

where Px = missing precipitation value for station X

P1,P2, P3 = precipitation values at the neighboring station for the
concurrent period
Nx = normal long term, usually annual, precipitation at X
N1, N2, N3 = normal long term precipitation for neighboring stations
Normal is used as it refers to the arithmetic average. N 1, N2,,N3 can also
be taken as the average of values for a particular month for all years on
record for index stations.

Linsley et al (1988) discussed another method, which is the U.S. National Weather
Service procedure. This method estimates precipitation at a point as the weighted
average of that at four stations, one in each of the quadrants delineated by horizontal and
vertical axes at the point of interest. Each station is the nearest in its quadrant to the point
for which precipitation is being estimated. The weight applicable to each station with
records is equal to the reciprocal of the square of the distance between the point and the
station. The estimated precipitation Px of the point is computed as the sum of the product
of the precipitation P times the weight w of the station divided by the sum of the
weights, that is,

 wi Pi
Px  2.2
 wi

If one or more quadrants contain no precipitation stations, as might be the case for a
point in the coastal area, then the estimation involves only the remaining quadrants. A
shortcoming of the method is that it can never yield a point estimate greater than the
largest observed value or less than the smallest observed value. Linsley et al (1988)
preferred the normal-ratio or multiple regression methods for mountainous regions.

Illustrative examples:

1) Precipitation station X was inoperative for part of the month during which a
storm occurred. The respective storm totals a three surrounding stations, A, B,
and C were 98, 80, and 110 mm. The normal annual precipitation amounts at
stations X, A, B, and C are respectively, 880, 1008, 842, and 1080 mm. Estimate
the storm precipitation for station

Page 13 of 45
Solution
Px  1  PA P P 
    B  C
N x  3  N A N B N C 
Px  1  98 80 110 
     
880  3  1008 842 1080 
PX  86.265mm

2) Estimate the precipitation at station A from the data at nearby stations indicated
in the table below.

Station Precipitation (mm) Distance from A in Location Quadrant with respect

km to the axes drawn at A
A ---
B 160 5 l
C 180 6 ll
D 150 4 lll
E 200 3 lV

The solution is presented in tabulated form.

Station Precipitation Distance from A Weight, w Pw

(mm) (km)
A ---
B 160 5 0.0400 6.400
C 180 6 0.0278 5.000
D 150 4 0.0625 9.375
E 200 3 0.1111 22.222
Total 0.2414 42.997

The precipitation at A is

 wi Pi 42.997
PA  
 wi 0.2414
PA  178115
. mm

Areal Precipitation

For most hydrologic studies, it is important to know the average depth of precipitation
over a specific area. The simplest approach of obtaining the average depth over an area
is to use the arithmetic average of point rainfall within the area of interest. This method
yields satisfactory estimates if gauges are uniformly distributed and the topography is
flat. Other commonly used methods are Thiessen method and isohyetal method.

Thiessen Method
The Thiessen method provides weighting factor for each gage. The stations within and
outside of the area under consideration are plotted on a map and connecting lines are
drawn. Perpendicular bisectors of these connecting lines are then drawn to form

Page 14 of 45
polygons around each gauge. The area Ai of these polygons serves as the weight for the
corresponding gauge. The areal rainfall is determined by the formula

APi 1
i i
P 2.3
A i 1
i

Isohyetal Method
Isohyetal method is considered as the most accurate method for determining average
precipitation over an area. However, this method requires a skilled analyst who has a
good knowledge of the rainfall characteristics of the region containing the catchment
area. This method involves plotting of the locations and depth of the rainfall of all usable
gauges on a map. This is followed by interpolating the rainfall depths and the drawing of
isohyets – lines of equal rainfall depth. Careful attention to the topography and other
factors affecting the variability of rainfall must be given in drawing these isohyets. Areas
between the isohyets and the watershed are measured using planimeter. The areal rainfall
is calculated from the sum of the products of the inter-isohyetal areas Ai and the
corresponding mean rainfall Pi between isohyets divided by the total area AT of the
catchment, that is,

 Ai Pi
P 2.4
AT

Problem 1:Given the drainage area of the figure below and the rainfall data as indicated
in Table 3.1, calculate the average rainfall over the area using a) arithmetic mean, and b)
the Thiessen polygon method.

Gauge Number Area of polygon (km)2 Precipitation (mm)

1 6.35 40
2 5.10 75
3 3.85 86
4 19.00 73
5 14.00 104
6 24.22 105
7 5.10 68
8 8.92 61
9 25.46 98
10 7.65 100
11 6.35 63
Table 3.1 Rainfall data for a catchment area

Page 15 of 45
Solution
a) By the Arithmetic Method
Gauges 1, 4, 5, 6, 8, and 9 are located within the catchment, therefore, these gauges are
to be used in the averaging.

40  73  104  105  61  98
Pareal   80167
. mm
6

b) By the Thiessen polygon Method

Gauge Number Area of polygon Precipitation PxA
(sq. km.) (mm)
1 6.35 40 254.00
2 5.10 75 382.50
3 3.85 86 331.10
4 19.00 73 1387.00
5 14.00 104 1456.00
6 24.22 105 2543.10
7 5.10 68 346.80
8 8.92 61 544.12
9 25.46 98 2495.08
10 7.65 100 765.00
11 6.35 63 400.05
Total 126.00 10904.75

10904.75
The areal rainfall is Pareal   86.5456mm
126

Page 16 of 45
Double-mass Analysis

Double-mass analysis tests the consistency of the record at a particular station. This is
accomplished by plotting the accumulated rainfall at a particular station to be tested
against the concurrent accumulated mean of a group of surrounding gages. The resulting
graph is called the double mass curve. The record at a particular station is considered
consistent if the double mass curve forms a straight line; otherwise the record is
inconsistent which means that there is a significant change in the magnitude of recorded
data. The time at which inconsistency has occurred would be indicated by a change in
slope in the double mass curve (refer to Figure 2.1).

Inconsistency of records may be attributed to the following causes:

 Tampering of the instrument
 Change in the recording conditions
 Change in observation practices
Accumulated rainfall at station X

break
m
1

Inconsistency has occurred at this point in time

k

Accumulated mean of group of gages

Adjustment of Records

In case of inconsistency of records, the following adjustments can be employed. To

make the record before the break comparable with that after the break, it should be
multiplied by a factor m/k. This process will adjust the slope of the line before the break
to conform to the slope of the line after the break. Likewise to make the record after the
break comparable with that after the break, it should be multiplied by the ratio k/m.

Example
The annual precipitation at station A and the average annual precipitation at 8
surrounding stations are presented in the table below. (a) Determine the consistency of
the record at station A. (b) In what year is a change in the regime indicated? (c) Compute
the mean annual precipitation for station A for the entire 30-year period without
adjustment. (d) Repeat part (c) for station A at its 1979 site with the data adjusted for the
change in regime.

Page 17 of 45
 Annual Precipitation (cm) Annual Precipitation (cm)
Year Station A 8-Station average Year Station A 8-Station average
1950 47 29 1965 36 34
1951 24 21 1966 35 28
1952 42 36 1967 28 23
1953 27 26 1968 29 33
1954 25 23 1969 32 33
1955 35 30 1970 39 35
1956 29 26 1971 25 26
1957 36 26 1972 30 29
1958 37 26 1973 23 28
1959 35 28 1974 37 34
1960 58 40 1975 34 33
1961 41 26 1976 30 35
1962 34 24 1977 28 26
1963 20 22 1978 27 25
1964 26 25 1979 34 35

Chapter 3
Evaporation

Evaporation is defined as the rate of water transformation to vapor from open water, bare
soil, or vegetation with soil beneath.
Transpiration is that portion of the total evaporation which enters the atmosphere from
the soil through the plants.

Standard Evaporation Rates

Potential evaporation Eo (in mm/day) is the quantity of water evaporated per unit area
per unit time from an idealized, extensive free water surface under existing atmospheric
condition.

Reference Crop Evaporation Erc (in mm/day) is defined as the rate of evaporation from
an idealized grass crop with a fixed crop height of 0.12 m, an albedo of 0.23 and a
surface resistance of 0.69 s/m. The reference crop is an extensive surface of short green
grass cover of uniform height, actively growing, completely shading the ground, and not
short of water.

Physics of Evaporation and Transpiration

Evaporation process is dependent on two important factors: the supply of energy and the
mechanism to transport the vapor away from the evaporative surface.

Latent Heat of Vaporization

The transformation of water from the liquid phase to vapor phase requires energy. This
energy is mainly supplied by the sun. The amount of energy needed to convert 1 kg of
water to vapor is known as the latent heat of vaporization of water. The latent heat of

Page 18 of 45