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Table of Content

Contents
Political Science Written MakeUp...........................................................................................................2
1. What are the scientific rules & methods?............................................................................................2
Level of analysis, independent and dependent variables......................................................................2
John Stuart Mill’s methods of difference and Agreement....................................................................2
Replicability and attributes of good theories........................................................................................3
2. What are the classical realist assumptions, theories, and concepts?.....................................................4
Power, anarchy, self-help, coercion, deterrence...................................................................................4
Rational choice/rational actor models and expected utility theory.......................................................5
Thucydides “Melian Dialogue”...........................................................................................................6
Steven Leblanc's "Prehistory of Warfare"............................................................................................7
3. What are the neorealism assumptions, theories, and concepts?...........................................................7
Kenneth Waltz’s The Theory of International Relations (1979)..........................................................7
Stephen Walt in “Alliance Formation and the Balance of World Power” (1985)................................8
Hegemonic stability theory..................................................................................................................9
Hegemonic war theory.........................................................................................................................9
4. What are liberalism's assumptions, theories, and concepts?..............................................................10
John Locke’s The Second Treatise of Government...........................................................................10
The consent of the governed; Social contract; Natural rights.............................................................11
Immanuel Kant’s “First” and “Second Definitive Articles for Perpetual Peace”...............................12
Work Cited........................................................................................................................................13
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Political Science Written MakeUp

1. What are the scientific rules & methods?

Level of analysis, independent and dependent variables

We can categorize levels of analysis into three major divisions; individual, domestic, and

systemic. The individual level examines the causes of phenomena in individual leaders or their

immediate decision-making circle in the country. For instance, World war can be argued to have

been caused by Kaiser Wilhelm. State/domestic levels imply examining an event's causes in the

characters of systems governing states and allowing them to act as independent entities with their

preferences. It also prompts us to explore different countries' relationships during a crisis. The

systemic level, on the other hand, deals with examining the outcomes of the phenomenon by

looking at wider-ranging dynamics caused by global systems, which then affect individuals and

states. Independent variables are variables that can be altered or controlled and often have a

direct impact on the dependent variables. In contrast, the dependent variable is the variable that

experiments focus on measuring or testing and is usually controlled by the independent variable.

For instance, if a scientist wants to examine the impact of the size of the police force on crime,

the size of the police force would be the independent variable since the scientist controls it, while

how crime alters to the size of the police force would be the dependent variable.

John Stuart Mill’s methods of difference and Agreement

Mills devised two methods, agreement, and difference, to help him determine causes and

effects. The method of difference implies that if two or more instances of a phenomenon are

compared to determine what they all lack in common, and all of them lack one thing in common,

then the lacking thing is the cause. For instance, take the case of two countries' political systems.
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If country Y has a unitary system and a Centre-right government and was formerly a colony, and

Country Z has a unitary system and a Centre-right government but was never a colony. The

difference between these two nations is country Y supports anti-colonial arguments. In contrast,

country Z does not, making the method of difference identify each country’s former status as the

independent variable. In contrast, the method of agreement implies that when two or more

examples of an event are compared to determine whether they have something in common, the

thing they have in common is perceived as the cause of the event. For instance, in the case of

Countries Y and Z, if both countries were former colonies in the past, we would identify the

shared state of colonialism as the independent variable.

Replicability and attributes of good theories

Theories refer to ideas that have been carefully examined and tested over an extended

duration, offer accurate explanations about situations, and deliver meaningful predictions for

certain phenomena. Theories generally accepted by the scientific community are characterized

by several attributes, as discussed below. Theories have to be testable. A theory is accepted if the

given theory can be proven using certain controlled experiments or by applying them in scientific

inquiries to obtain the same result. Theories must be replicable in that theories should be able to

be repeated by other individuals. Other individuals can only repeat theories if the given theories

contain enough data and information that warrant the same results when the theory is tested.

Another attribute of a good theory is parsimony. Parsimony implies the likelihood of explaining

a phenomenon using very few concepts. This means that the simplest theory is the best when

considering the explanations for certain hypotheses or observed evidence because it contains the

least number of variables and makes fewer assumptions. A good theory should also be precise
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and confident in that the accuracy achieved when using a certain theory should be high, helping

justify probabilities and estimates.

2. What are the classical realist assumptions, theories, and concepts?

Power, anarchy, self-help, coercion, deterrence

Power refers to the social output of actions that dictates individuals' actions, beliefs, and

capacities. There exist different types of power; hard power, coercion, deterrence, soft power,

and zero-sum terms. Hard power involves using payment and coercing people to get the desired

results, whereas soft power involves co-opting people to get the desired outcome. Coercion is a

form of power that involves making people do things they do not like or want to do for the

benefit of another individual. It is evident through the costs that a condition places on other

conditions and non-state actors to ensure that such individuals/systems/states are prevented from

engaging in particular actions or are forced/compelled to perform certain actions (Classic

Realism). It is often done through the use of military force or threats.

Deterrence is also a form of power that prevents others from undertaking certain actions

they desire or need to do. In a political arena, deterrence involves a particular nation-state's

restrictions on another country from engaging in undeniable actions. The most common form of

political deterrence is a restraint on nuclear or armed attacks. Anarchy implies a state where no

law enforcement unit or world government exists to maintain law and oversee governance duties

(Classic Realism). Anarchic states are often characterized by a lack of coercive power or

hierarchical authority that can solve conflict and enforce the law. Self-help implies doing things

on your own to gain the capability to defend yourself, your property, your territory, and your
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people. Investing money in the military helps guarantee self-help because the more you can do

things on your own, the better.

Rational choice/rational actor models and expected utility theory

The rational action model asserts that individuals often make rational decisions that

support their goals and interests. Rational individuals are thus those who display behaviors

aligned with the goals they hope to achieve. The rational choice theory is based on the actors in a

rational choice model. It assumes that individuals are more likely to make rational choices to

maximize their advantage in most situations while minimizing losses. Rational actors often

examine the costs and benefits associated with their choices before making a choice, after which

they choose the action that is likely to maximize benefits (Classic Realism). According to

realists, most individuals depict the behavior of CEOs in that they lack the knowledge relevant to

promote their company's interests, as evidenced by countries where leaders often make choices

that do not reflect the nation's interests.

The rational choice theory, therefore, asserts that individuals should not seek the best

choice if the likelihood of it happening is minimal. We derive the expected utility theory from

the rational actor model, which involves individuals making rational choices when unsure of

their action’s outcomes. The theory thus asserts that individuals should choose actions that are

likely associated with the highest expected utility. The theory argues that leaders should evaluate

policies by combining the estimated values of their probable results with the possibility that

different results may emerge from the given policy (Classic Realism). This implies the likelihood

of something happening, how practical it is, and the probability of different outcomes.
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Thucydides “Melian Dialogue”

Thucydides' "Melian Dialogue" elaborates on the conflict between Athens, a superior

colony, and Athens, a small colony that wanted to maintain its neutral ground during the

Peloponnesian War. Despite belonging to Sparta's colony islands, Melos often maintained

neutrality in the conflict between Athens and Sparta. Athens did not accept Melos' neutrality and

descended on it with increased military power asking them to surrender and submit to Athenian

rule. In a meeting between the Athenian envoys and Melos’ delegates, the Athenians gave Melos

an ultimatum (Classic Realism). They informed the delegates that if Melos agreed to submit and

be ruled by Athens, their people, properties, and the colony would remain unharmed. Melians

responded that they earned the right of neutrality as dictated by the law of nations, and no colony

had the mandate to undermine that right by causing war.

Melians were not ready to give up their freedom since it had been a free state for several

years. In response, the Athenians informed the Melians that they should not believe in honor

because the strong perform actions guaranteed by their power, leaving the weak to suffer the

consequences of their weakness (Classic Realism). Instead of submitting to Athenians, the

Melians appealed to morality and justice and argued that god was on their side. The Athenians

responded to these calls and arguments by asserting that justice issues are only relevant among

equal powers. Otherwise, humans are bound to their natural behavior of dominating and ruling

whenever possible. In the end, Athens invaded Melos, killed all the men, and enslaved the

children and women.

Steven Leblanc's "Prehistory of Warfare"

“In the prehistory of warfare," LeBlanc argues that we can comprehend warfare by

analyzing population growth, climate change, and its consequences. According to different cross-

sectional and longitudinal examinations, war has been prevalent throughout history. This is

evidenced by the tools used as weapons and the high walls built by different civilizations to act

as defense strategies (Leblanc, 3). For instance, there is evidence of bone armor and skeletal

blows to the skull among the Aborigines of the prehistoric period. Early farming villages in

Europe and the Middle East were also involved in warfare, as evidenced by skeletal remains

depicting violent deaths. Furthermore, the farmers who took over the world did so as warriors

because they grabbed land and spread out from the Middle East and later to Europe.

These war incidences were, however, attributed to population change. Due to population

growth, communities experienced notable changes that they may not have comprehended at the

time but would make sense now. Due to population increase, the scarce resources started being

limited as they could not support the entire population, leading to a crisis where people fought

over the existing resources (Leblanc, 5). Climate change also led to war in that shifts in climate

change led to conditions like drought, thereby making life unbearable. As a result, individuals

had to find or conquer new territories, which could only be done through war.

3. What are the neorealism assumptions, theories, and concepts?

Kenneth Waltz’s The Theory of International Relations (1979)

According to Waltz, the only way to understand international politics is by examining the

structure that characterizes international systems, evidenced by cooperative arrangements and

alliances between states. His theory is governed by a neorealist approach that perceives politics
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as a state of competition between self-interested actors. In his theory, he asserts that the

international system is anarchic because there does not exist a specific higher authority to

enforce laws that can preside over each state. As a result, states often act on self-help bias by

operating with the aim of survival, and this can be seen through their interaction with other

states. The above structure can only change if great power undertakes activities that trigger

change. Since most states lack such power, states often try to balance against one another to help

increase their survival chances (3 Neorealism [Link]). Balance can be achieved

internally by strengthening the military or externally by forming alliances with other states to

challenge hegemony.

Stephen Walt in “Alliance Formation and the Balance of World Power” (1985)

Balance threat theory

According to the balance threat theory, Waltz proposes that alliances between states if

often determined by the perception of threats from other countries. He asserts that states often try

to achieve a state of balance by forming alliances against a particular perceived threat. Wek

states, however, tend to side with emerging threats to help protect their national interests. For

instance, during First World War and World War 2, patterns of alliances among European states

were characterized by nations with slightly higher powers combining to form an allied power

against the perceived threat, Germany. States can use four criteria to examine the degree of threat

another nation presents; the geographical proximity of the states, its hostile/offensive intentions,

its attacking capabilities, and the collective power of the state (economic capabilities, population,

and latent power). The more other nations perceive an emerging power to possess the above

traits, the more they are likely to perceive it as a threat, creating alliances to balance against it.
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Hegemonic stability theory

William Wohlforth’s Unipolar Stability

According to the hegemonic stability theory, stability is often promoted by the existence

of one great power and not by balancing power through a state known as unipolarity, where one

state enforces laws that promote order within the entire system. Hegemony, according to William

Wohlforth, hegemony promotes peace since states are not usually irrational to tamper with the

hegemon, except when intervention is necessary. The superpower thus acts as a global cop,

helping minimize the likelihood of anarchy. The hegemonic stability theory asserts that war may

only occur if the rising-second state power tries to assert its dominancy over the hegemon or if

the hegemon attacks the rising state preemptively to neutralize the rising threat (Wohlforth, 44).

Wohlforth argues America is likely to become a unipolar power if it becomes better at acquiring

resources because this will grant it the capability to reinforce authority and control other states

without the need for aid.

Hegemonic war theory

George Modelski’s “The Long Cycle of Global Politics and the Nation-State”

The hegemonic war theory asserts that a superpower acting as a global cop is likely to get

stretched too thin, enforcing across different regions of the world and being bankrupt in the long

run. As a result, other rising powers may take this as an opportunity to challenge the hegemonic

state leading to war. The costs associated with being a hegemon are very high because as the

ambitions of the hegemon increase, so does the cost incurred while pursuing them. Throughout

history from the 1500s, hegemons often undergo power cycles caused by the urge to assert more

global order and weaknesses characterizing the international system. The dominant power is
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often faced with attempts to maintain global control, which are usually very expensive, and

rising rival power states (Viotti and Mark, 70). As a result, war emerges, leading to the rise of

another global power. And cycle carries on in that the new hegemon also faces the same

challenges owing to increased rivalry between major powers, thus undermining the hegemonic

power system.

4. What are liberalism's assumptions, theories, and concepts?

John Locke’s The Second Treatise of Government

In “The Second Treatise of Government," John Locke focused on defending the best form

of government, liberal principles, and the ideal state man should live in. According to him, these

ideas could be achieved through liberalism. In the First Treatise, he mainly argues against the

idea of absolute monarchy promoted by Robert Filmer. The latter argued that Kings needed to

rule the earth because they were Adam's rightful descendants, an idea Locke objected to

(Liberalism_ neoliberalism [Link]). In the Second Treatise, he elaborates on the potential

foundations of what should constitute a democratic state. He begins his argument by analyzing

the state of nature, where man is guided by natural freedom and reason. Locke argues that men

originate from a state of nature where every individual is equal to each other and have the

freedom to live their lives as they will and protect their property. The desire for life preservation

often guides their actions. If an individual uses force against others, thus preventing them from

protecting their property, society is justified in punishing such an individual to maintain order.

However, the use of force leads to a state of war, and therefore to ensure that people’s

property is protected, they often resolve to create a civil government to help maintain law and

order. Individuals often enter into a contract with the government in that they agree to submit to
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the government and confer the right to punish offenders in place of the government's protection

of our natural rights to property, life, and liberty. While Locke does not agree that democracy is

the best form of government, he also criticizes absolute monarchies because, according to him,

the monarch often lacks a limitation on their authority (Liberalism_ neoliberalism [Link]).

The civil government is formed based on trust between the government and the people, and a

slight breach of this trust may lead to the people dissolving the government, thus helping keep

the government in check.

The consent of the governed; Social contract; Natural rights

According to Locke, forming a government was not promoted by the need for a republic;

instead, it emerged from a contract between the people, monarchy, oligarchy, or democracy. This

mutual agreement refers to the consent of the [Link] a natural state, no one has the

authority to rule over the other or be ruled by another individual. Therefore, the only way that

individuals can get the right to govern others or rule on behalf of the rest is when the public

grants them their consent to be governed. Individuals have political obligations which are

governed freely by deliberate acts of consent. Social contact, according to Locke, implies that the

obligation individuals have to submit to the governing body was promoted by the need for these

individuals to give the government the right to punish offenders in exchange for the government

offering protection for their rights, properties, and liberties (Liberalism_ neoliberalism

[Link]).

If the above agreement is absent, individuals living in a state of nature will find no reason to

submit to the government or be ruled by others since they are not benefiting anything by being

ruled. According to Locke, natural rights imply fundamental human rights like liberty, property,
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and life. According to Locke, humans are governed by the need to preserve humanity and fulfill

this duty; they should ensure that they protect these rights at all costs. This informs the need for

individuals to enter into a contract with the government to ensure that their natural rights are

protected (Liberalism_ neoliberalism [Link]). If the government undermines these rights,

then individuals are permitted by law to start a revolution to overthrow the current government

and replace it with another that serves human interests.

Immanuel Kant’s “First” and “Second Definitive Articles for Perpetual Peace”

In the First Section, Kant argues that every state should promote the idea of a republic,

like the case of America, because peace only exists in such a state. In a republican state, a

government system that values people's rights, private property, and contracts with the governing

body exists. This government is usually divided into legislature, judiciary, and executive units to

help ensure a balance of power. Furthermore, within the republican state, democracy ensures that

leaders who put their authority and their office first at the expense of the public are often

prohibited. According to Kant, peace can only be achieved if all countries embrace a republican

state governed by individuals driven to maintain security and who obtain property based on

universal law. The first section prohibits a state from forcefully meddling in other countries

governments or constitutions. Nations involved in war should also ensure that they do not adopt

hostile strategies that may undermine the possibility of peace in the future (Liberalism_

neoliberalism [Link]).

The Second Section argues that every state should adopt a Republican civil Constitution

based on principles of liberty. Such a constitution is pure in its origin and ensures that the goal of

perpetual peace is attained because it is often written based on the consent of the citizens. The
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section also advocates for the rights of nations to be based on free state federations in that

individuals who have organized themselves into nation-states will be judged the same individuals

living in a state of nature are judged (Liberalism_ neoliberalism [Link]). Therefore,

individuals will promote the idea of federal states because, in a federal state, a relationship exists

between lawmakers and citizens, something that cannot be achieved in international states. This

also implies that states must surrender some of their freedoms and mandates to ensure they

establish international organizations that help maintain balance, guaranteeing peace.

Work Cited

Psci 260 notes .pdf

Classic Realism

LeBlanc, Steven A. "Prehistory of warfare." Archaeology 56.3 (2003): 18-25.

D'Anieri, Paul. International politics: Power and purpose in global affairs. Cengage Learning,

2020.

3 Neorealism [Link]

3a DAnieri Hegemonic Stability Theory [Link]

Viotti, Paul R., and Mark V. Kauppi. International Relations Theory. Vol. 5. Harlow: Pearson,

2014.

Wohlforth, William. "Unipolar stability." Harvard International Review 29.1 (2007): 44.

Liberalism_ neoliberalism [Link]