Module 2
Perception: Theories of Perception - Bottom-up theory of perception- Theory
of direct perception (Ecological view). Template theories, Prototype theories,
Featuretheories, Structural description theory, Top-Down theory of perception,
Constructive perception, Computational theory of perception, Spatiotemporal,
Boundary formation theory Perceptual styles - Field dependent Vs Field
independent, Repressors Vs Sensitizers, Levellers Vs Sharpeners. Perceptual
vigilance. Attention: Overt and covert attention; Selection models of attention
(Broadbent model, Triesman model), Capacity model (Kahneman’s model),
Multiple resource model (Wicken’s model) Problem Solving : Gestalt
Approach, Information-Processing Approach, Differences Between How
Experts and Novices Solve Problems, creative problem solving
Perception
It is the process of organizing, interpreting, and making sense of sensory
information from the environment.
Theories of Perception:
1. Bottom-Up Theory of Perception:
• This theory suggests that perception starts with sensory input, where
basic features are detected and processed to form a final perception. It’s a
data-driven approach where the brain builds perception from raw sensory
information
Bottom-up theories, such as template, prototype, and feature theories,
focus on sensory data and the processing of low-level features of stimuli.
1. Template Theories: These propose that the brain has stored templates
for patterns we might recognize, and perception works by matching stimuli
to these templates. While effective in some cases (e.g., barcode scanning),
this theory faces challenges, particularly with complex stimuli like faces,
where creating a template for every possible variation is impractical.
2. Prototype Theories: Instead of storing exact templates, prototype
theories suggest that we form an average representation (prototype) of a
category that is highly representative but not an exact match. Prototypes are
created by integrating common features from various instances. This
approach is more flexible than template theory and can explain how we
recognize objects even without having seen an exact match to the prototype.
3. Feature Theories: These theories argue that recognition happens by
matching specific features (like lines or shapes) of a pattern to features
stored in memory. The “pandemonium model” is an example, where
different levels of “demons” process features, and a decision demon selects
the most likely match. This approach also distinguishes between global
features (overall shape) and local features (detailed aspects), which can be
processed differently depending on the context (e.g., global precedence
effect).
4. Theory of Direct Perception (Ecological View):
• Proposed by James J. Gibson, this theory asserts that perception is a
direct process, and the environment provides all the necessary information
for perception without requiring cognitive processing. Perception is about
detecting affordances (opportunities for action) in the environment.
Top-Down Theory of Perception:
• Top-down perception involves using prior knowledge, expectations, and
context to interpret sensory information. This is a concept-driven process,
where our experiences and cognitive factors guide how we interpret raw
sensory data.
Constructive Perception:
• This theory argues that perception is an active process where the brain
constructs a mental model of the world based on sensory input and
previous knowledge. It combines bottom-up and top-down processes.
Computational Theory of Perception:
• This theory views perception as a computational process where the brain
performs complex calculations to interpret sensory input. It suggests that
the brain works like a computer, processing information and transforming
it into meaningful perception.
Spatiotemporal Theory:
• This theory focuses on the perception of objects in space and time,
explaining how we perceive movement and changes in the position of
objects over time.
Boundary Formation Theory:
• This theory emphasizes how boundaries or edges of objects are
perceived and formed by the brain based on sensory input. It explains how
we differentiate objects from their backgrounds.
Perceptual Styles:
1. Field Dependent vs. Field Independent:
• Field Dependent individuals are influenced by the surrounding context
when perceiving information and have difficulty distinguishing objects
from their background.
• Field Independent individuals can separate objects from their context
and focus on specific details.
2. Repressors vs. Sensitizers:
• Repressors tend to avoid thinking about stressful or negative stimuli and
repress emotional responses.
• Sensitizers are more alert and responsive to stress, tending to focus on
and analyze potential threats.
3. Levelers vs. Sharpeners:
• Levelers are more likely to perceive things in a generalized manner,
minimizing differences.
• Sharpeners tend to exaggerate differences, perceiving things as more
distinct.
4. Perceptual Vigilance:
• This refers to the tendency to focus on certain stimuli while ignoring
others, particularly stimuli that are personally relevant or interesting. It’s a
form of selective attention.
Attention is focused mental energy that allows us to concentrate on specific
information. It can be directed at external stimuli or internal thoughts. Key
characteristics of attention include:
1. Selective: Focus on one information source (e.g., instructor's voice) while
ignoring others (e.g., classmates' conversation).
2. Divisible: Split attention among multiple sources (e.g., listening to both
instructor and classmates), but with reduced processing ability and decreased
performance.
3. Shiftability: Ability to switch focus between different information sources
(e.g., A, B, C) voluntarily or involuntarily (e.g., distraction).
4. Sustainability: Maintaining focus exclusively on one source over time, also
known as extended focus or concentration.
Covert Attention:
Also known as "internal" or "hidden" attention
• Involves mentally focusing on a stimulus or task without moving the eyes or
body
• Can be directed to different locations or tasks without physical movement
• Examples:
- Mentally counting objects without looking at them
- Focusing on a memory or thought without external cues
Overt Attention:
• Also known as "external" or "overt" attention
• Involves physically orienting the eyes, head, or body towards a stimulus
• Typically accompanies conscious awareness of the stimulus
• Examples:
- Looking directly at an object or person
- Turning to face a speaker
Broadbent’s theory of attention
Donald Broadbent's 1958 theory revolutionisedcognitive psychology through
his dichotic listening task research. In this experiment, participants wore
headphones with different messages in each ear, focusing on one voice
(shadowing) while ignoring the other. Results showed participants accurately
recalled the shadowed ear's content but struggled with the unattended ear's.
Broadbent's Filter Model explains this: information enters Sensory Memory,
then a filter selects attended information, blocking unattended input. This
theory posits attention acts as a filter, allowing only relevant info to reach
consciousness, laying groundwork for cognitive psychology and highlighting
attention's crucial role in information processing.
Broadbent's 1958 model proposes an "early selection" process, where physical
characteristics such as location, pitch, and loudness determine what
information passes through a filter. This filter screens out irrelevant
information before it can be recognised, allowing only relevant data to undergo
pattern recognition. Once recognised, the information enters short-term
memory, where it is held for a longer period and made available for subsequent
processing and response. Notably, selection occurs entirely at the filter stage,
making Broadbent's model an influential example of an early selection theory
in cognitive psychology.
Tries-man’s model
Triesman’s Attenuation Model (1960, 1964) challenged Broadbent's filtering
theory. Treisman found that participants shadowing a message in one ear could
briefly pick up words from the ignored message if it suddenly switched ears or
was identical to the attended message, even if slightly out of sync. This showed
that some information from unattended signals is analysed. Treisman proposed
a new theory: instead of blocking irrelevant stimuli, attention merely weakens
(attenuates) them. Her model involves three stages:
1. Preattentive analysis of physical properties (loudness, pitch).
2. Pattern analysis (speech, music).
3. Focused attention, sequentially evaluating and assigning meaning to selected
stimuli.
Treisman's model suggests attention doesn't filter out information entirely but
rather reduces its strength, allowing potent stimuli to break through.
Kahnnemons capacity model of attention
Attention is like a limited energy resource that helps us focus on tasks. We only
have so much of it at any given time. Daniel Kahneman's 1973 book "Attention
and Effort" explains how attention works. He identified factors that affect how
much attention we have and how we use it. Capacity models show how
attention is divided among multiple tasks, rather than focusing on just one
thing.
Factors determine to attentional capacity
1. Arousal : A person's arousal level affects their attention capacity. Arousal
refers to how alert and energized you feel, shown by heart rate and
breathing. Moderate arousal levels work best. If you're too tired or too
anxious, performance suffers. This is known as the Yerkes-Dodson law.
Factors like sleep and food intake influence arousal. Lack of sleep or
hunger lowers arousal, reducing capacity. Excessive arousal can lead to
nervous habits like finger tapping.
2. Allocation policy : executive or decision- maker who determines how
much attention will be given to a variety of tasks.
• Enduring disposition - An enduring disposition is an automatic
influence on where attention gets directed. A new event or a sudden
movement are things that automatically draw attention.
• Momentary intention - momentary intention is a conscious decision to
pay attention to something. Momentary intentions reflect our specific
goals at a given moment in time.
Eg : A mother dri- ving a car might redirect her attention to children
fighting in the back seat, but she would quickly have to redirect her
attention back to her primary goal of driving.
3. Evaluation of demand : indicating that they too exert an influence. The
amount of available arousal and the urgency of a task both have an effect
on the amount of attention that will go to a particular task.
Multiple resource model
Wickens (2008) developed a multiple resources model to predict how much
interference two tasks will produce in a multitask situation. The model assumes
that the brain has separate attentional resources and that the cost of task
combination depends on the degree to which the tasks address the same
resources. Three distinctions are particularly relevant:
1. Stages of processing: Perceptual and cognitive tasks use different resources
from those underlying the selection and execution of action. So, it is less costly
to combine a perceptual with a response execution task than to com- bine two
perceptual tasks or two action tasks.
2. Codes of processing: Spatial activity uses different resources than does ver-
bal/linguistic activity (see also the working memory model in Chapter 4). So,
it is less costly to combine a spatial task with a linguistic task than to combine
two spatial or two linguistic tasks.
3. Modalities: Auditory perception uses different resources than does visual
perception. So, it is less costly to combine an auditory and a visual task than to
combine two tasks within each modality.
PROBLEM SOLVING
Gestalt approach
Wolfgang Köhler studied chimpanzees on an island during World War I. He
wanted to see how they solved problems. One chimp, Sultan, used a stick to
get bananas. When Sultan got two short sticks, he figured out how to put them
together to make a longer stick.
Köhler called this "insight." It means finding a solution by thinking creatively.
Other chimps did the same when they wanted bananas hanging from the
ceiling. They thought hard, then stacked boxes to reach them.
Psychologist Luchins discovered that people can get stuck in problem-solving
due to "mental set." This means using familiar methods without thinking.
Luchins gave participants three jugs to measure water. He trained them on
similar problems with complex solutions (set condition) or varied problems
with different solutions (control condition).
Later, he gave them new problems with simple or complex solutions. Those in
the control group chose the simple method. However, those in the set condition
used the complex method, even though it wasn't necessary.
Example:
Imagine you always take the stairs. One day, an elevator is installed. People
with a mental set will still take the stairs, even though the elevator is faster.
The Nine-Dot Problem is a famous puzzle where nine dots are arranged in a
3x3 square, and the task is to connect all dots using four straight lines without
lifting your pencil. However, most people struggle to solve it because they
think inside the square, demonstrating a limitation of reproductive thinking -
relying on past solutions. The actual solution requires drawing lines outside the
square, showcasing the need for creative, productive thinking. Research by
Scheerer (1963) and Weisberg and Alba (1981) revealed that even knowing
the solution doesn't guarantee success, highlighting how past experiences can
hinder problem-solving. This classic puzzle illustrates the importance of
thinking outside the box and embracing insight to overcome challenges.
Information processing approach
1. Representing the problem – a problem space is constructed which includes
both the initial state and the goal state, the instructions and the constraints on
the problem and all relevant information retrieved from long-term memory. To
assist such representation, symbols, lists, matrices, tree diagrams, graphs and
visual imagery can all be used. This first stage reflects the assumption that
problem- solving can be regarded as a form of search in a space consisting of
all possible states of the problem.
2. Selection of operators – operators are actions that will achieve a goal, and
are used for transforming the initial state.
3. Implementation of the selected operators – this results in a new current
state within the problem space.
4. Evaluation of the current state – if it corresponds to the goal, a solution is
reached
Creative problem solving
Creative Problem Solving (CPS) is a structured approach to finding solutions
by breaking down problems, generating ideas, and evaluating those ideas.
Developed by Alex Osborn and Sidney Parnes, CPS involves two types of
thinking: divergent thinking (generating many options) and convergent
thinking (evaluating options and making decisions). The process consists of
two phases.
Phase 1 involves clarify and understanding the problem by asking questions,
researching, formulating simple open-ended questions, and brainstorming
ideas without judgment. To solve a problem using Creative Problem Solving
(CPS), start by clarifying the issue through questioning. Ask multiple questions
from different angles, such as "Why is this a problem?", "What do I want to
achieve?", and "What's preventing me from solving this?" Research the
problem by gathering information, consulting experts, and seeking others'
perspectives. Next, formulate simple, open-ended questions to encourage idea
generation. Then, brainstorm ideas without judgment, aiming for quantity and
exploring unconventional solutions. Write down all ideas, combining and
improving them. Avoid judging ideas too quickly, and keep an open mind. By
following these steps, you'll gain a deeper understanding of the problem and
uncover innovative solutions.
Phase 2 requires evaluating and refining ideas, With your list of generated
ideas, switch to convergent thinking to deliberately select the best options.
Consider factors like budget and timing to evaluate and refine them. Go
through each idea, giving every option a fair chance, and combine related ones.
Refine and improve each idea, considering novel solutions and potential
adjustments. Then, choose the ideas that best fit your challenge and create an
action plan with manageable tasks. Take your time to make thoughtful
decisions, avoiding snap judgments. By doing so, you'll transform your ideas
into a practical plan to tackle your challenge, turning your creative solutions
into actionable steps.