Unit 2

Adversarial Search
Adversarial search is a search, where we examine the problem which arises when
we try to plan ahead of the world and other agents are planning against us.

o​ In previous topics, we have studied the search strategies which are only associated
with a single agent that aims to find the solution which often expressed in the form of
a sequence of actions.
o​ But, there might be some situations where more than one agent is searching for the
solution in the same search space, and this situation usually occurs in game playing.
o​ The environment with more than one agent is termed as multi-agent environment,
in which each agent is an opponent of other agent and playing against each other.
Each agent needs to consider the action of other agent and effect of that action on
their performance.
o​ So, Searches in which two or more players with conflicting goals are trying to
explore the same search space for the solution, are called adversarial
searches, often known as Games.
o​ Games are modeled as a Search problem and heuristic evaluation function, and these
are the two main factors which help to model and solve games in AI.

Types of Games in AI:

Deterministic Chance Moves

Perfect information Chess, Checkers, go, Othello Backgammon, monopoly

Imperfect information Battleships, blind, tic-tac-toe Bridge, poker, scrabble, nuclear war

o​ Perfect information: A game with the perfect information is that in which agents
can look into the complete board. Agents have all the information about the game,
and they can see each other moves also. Examples are Chess, Checkers, Go, etc.
o​ Imperfect information: If in a game agents do not have all information about the
game and not aware with what's going on, such type of games are called the game
with imperfect information, such as tic-tac-toe, Battleship, blind, Bridge, etc.
o​ Deterministic games: Deterministic games are those games which follow a strict
pattern and set of rules for the games, and there is no randomness associated with
them. Examples are chess, Checkers, Go, tic-tac-toe, etc.
o​ Non-deterministic games: Non-deterministic are those games which have various
unpredictable events and has a factor of chance or luck. This factor of chance or luck
is introduced by either dice or cards. These are random, and each action response is
not fixed. Such games are also called as stochastic games.​
Example: Backgammon, Monopoly, Poker, etc.
Zero-Sum Game
o​ Zero-sum games are adversarial search which involves pure competition.
o​ In Zero-sum game each agent's gain or loss of utility is exactly balanced by the losses
or gains of utility of another agent.
o​ One player of the game try to maximize one single value, while other player tries to
minimize it.
o​ Each move by one player in the game is called as ply.
o​ Chess and tic-tac-toe are examples of a Zero-sum game.

Zero-sum game: Embedded thinking

The Zero-sum game involved embedded thinking in which one agent or player is trying to
figure out:

o​ What to do.
o​ How to decide the move
o​ Needs to think about his opponent as well
o​ The opponent also thinks what to do

Each of the players is trying to find out the response of his opponent to their actions. This
requires embedded thinking or backward reasoning to solve the game problems in AI.

Formalization of the problem:

A game can be defined as a type of search in AI which can be formalized of the
following elements:

o​ Initial state: It specifies how the game is set up at the start.

o​ Player(s): It specifies which player has moved in the state space.
o​ Action(s): It returns the set of legal moves in state space.
o​ Result(s, a): It is the transition model, which specifies the result of moves in the
state space.
o​ Terminal-Test(s): Terminal test is true if the game is over, else it is false at any
case. The state where the game ends is called terminal states.
o​ Utility(s, p): A utility function gives the final numeric value for a game that ends in
terminal states s for player p. It is also called payoff function. For Chess, the
outcomes are a win, loss, or draw and its payoff values are +1, 0, ½. And for
tic-tac-toe, utility values are +1, -1, and 0.

Game tree:
A game tree is a tree where nodes of the tree are the game states and Edges of the tree are
the moves by players. Game tree involves initial state, actions function, and result Function.

Example: Tic-Tac-Toe game tree:

The following figure is showing part of the game-tree for tic-tac-toe game. Following are
some key points of the game:

o​ There are two players MAX and MIN.

o​ Players have an alternate turn and start with MAX.
 o​ MAX maximizes the result of the game tree
o​ MIN minimizes the result.

Example Explanation:

o​ From the initial state, MAX has 9 possible moves as he starts first. MAX place x and
MIN place o, and both player plays alternatively until we reach a leaf node where one
player has three in a row or all squares are filled.
o​ Both players will compute each node, minimax, the minimax value which is the best
achievable utility against an optimal adversary.
o​ Suppose both the players are well aware of the tic-tac-toe and playing the best play.
Each player is doing his best to prevent another one from winning. MIN is acting
against Max in the game.
o​ So in the game tree, we have a layer of Max, a layer of MIN, and each layer is called
as Ply. Max place x, then MIN puts o to prevent Max from winning, and this game
continues until the terminal node.
 o​ In this either MIN wins, MAX wins, or it's a draw. This game-tree is the whole search
space of possibilities that MIN and MAX are playing tic-tac-toe and taking turns
alternately.

Hence adversarial Search for the minimax procedure works as follows:

o​ It aims to find the optimal strategy for MAX to win the game.
o​ It follows the approach of Depth-first search.
o​ In the game tree, optimal leaf node could appear at any depth of the tree.
o​ Propagate the minimax values up to the tree until the terminal node discovered.

In a given game tree, the optimal strategy can be determined from the minimax value of
each node, which can be written as MINIMAX(n). MAX prefer to move to a state of maximum
value and MIN prefer to move to a state of minimum value then:

Understanding the Role of AI in

Gaming
Here are the 5 ways in which AI is revolutionizing the gaming industry:

Making Games Smarter Than Ever

AI-based Voice intelligence is now changing the way in which games
are played. These assistants bolster a wide scope of intelligent games
across genres. Apart from hosting their own games, recent
advancements show their entrance into console games too. The main
objective of game developers in the future will be to plan strong
frameworks inside games. This will require present-day AI techniques,
for example, design acknowledgment and reinforcement realizing,
where the characters inside the games will self-learn from their own
behavior and evolve accordingly. The gaming industry has recognized
this, and some have even started using these ideas.
Making Games More Real
There have been staggering progressions in 3D visualization
techniques, physics-based stimulations and more recently,
incorporation of Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality in games. These
technologies have enabled game developers to create intelligent,
visually appealing games which one would never envision 10 years
back.

Gamers don’t simply need great illustrations anymore; they need games to
take after the real world. This is a test for game developers, and AI is
assuming a tremendous job in addressing this need. Imagine a game that can
interpret and react to your in-game activities, foresee your next move and
act accordingly.

Enhancing the Overall Gaming Experience

Gamers nowadays give a great deal of consideration to detail – this not just
incorporates the visual appearance and the very good quality graphics, but
also, how vivid and interactive the game is, in every potential way. Through
constant customization of scenarios, AI has the capacity to play a vital job in
taking the gaming experience to the next level.

Transforming Skills of Developer

In addition to the skill of traditional game development and techniques, game
developers will currently need to likewise skill up on these AI techniques to
make smarter, realistic and increasingly intelligent games.

The game developers have consistently been pioneers in adopting

cutting-edge innovation to sharpen their technical skills and creativity.
Reinforcement Learning is a sub-set of Machine Learning, and the calculation
behind the famous AI PC program AlphaGo, which beat the world’s best
human Go player is a case in point. Even for the traditional game developers,
the rising utilization of AI in games will mean a change in the way in which
games are created.

Making Mobile Games Smarter with AI in Gaming

Mobile game developers are exploring different Machine Learning and AI
algorithms to give ‘smartness’ to mobile phone games, while still holding
handling power limits. Comparing the present mobile games with the ones 5
years back, and you’ll see a huge shift in terms of the visual appearance of
the games, and how intelligent they have become. However, it is noteworthy
that the processing power of the cell phone games is yet to catch up to their
 desktop counterparts, including the lack of a gaming console, which is
beyond comparison at this stage.

Whether it’s changing the manner in which we interact with games, the
content inside them, or the manner in which they are designed, it’s evident
that AI will keep on revolutionize the gaming business – perhaps at a faster
rate than it ever has previously.

Mini-Max Algorithm in Artificial Intelligence

o​ Mini-max algorithm is a recursive or backtracking algorithm which is used in
decision-making and game theory. It provides an optimal move for the player
assuming that opponent is also playing optimally.
o​ Mini-Max algorithm uses recursion to search through the game-tree.
o​ Min-Max algorithm is mostly used for game playing in AI. Such as Chess, Checkers,
tic-tac-toe, go, and various tow-players game. This Algorithm computes the minimax
decision for the current state.
o​ In this algorithm two players play the game, one is called MAX and other is called
MIN.
o​ Both the players fight it as the opponent player gets the minimum benefit while they
get the maximum benefit.
o​ Both Players of the game are opponent of each other, where MAX will select the
maximized value and MIN will select the minimized value.
o​ The minimax algorithm performs a depth-first search algorithm for the exploration of
the complete game tree.
o​ The minimax algorithm proceeds all the way down to the terminal node of the tree,
then backtrack the tree as the recursion.

Pseudo-code for MinMax Algorithm:

1.​ function minimax(node, depth, maximizingPlayer) is
2.​ if depth ==0 or node is a terminal node then
3.​ return static evaluation of node
4.​
5.​ if MaximizingPlayer then // for Maximizer Player
6.​ maxEva= -infinity
7.​ for each child of node do
8.​ eva= minimax(child, depth-1, false)
9.​ maxEva= max(maxEva,eva) //gives Maximum of the values
10.​return maxEva
11.​
12.​else // for Minimizer player
13.​ minEva= +infinity
14.​ for each child of node do
15.​ eva= minimax(child, depth-1, true)
16.​ minEva= min(minEva, eva) //gives minimum of the values
17.​ return minEva
Initial call:
Minimax(node, 3, true)

Working of Min-Max Algorithm:

o​ The working of the minimax algorithm can be easily described using an example.
Below we have taken an example of game-tree which is representing the two-player
game.
o​ In this example, there are two players one is called Maximizer and other is called
Minimizer.
o​ Maximizer will try to get the Maximum possible score, and Minimizer will try to get the
minimum possible score.
o​ This algorithm applies DFS, so in this game-tree, we have to go all the way through
the leaves to reach the terminal nodes.
o​ At the terminal node, the terminal values are given so we will compare those value
and backtrack the tree until the initial state occurs. Following are the main steps
involved in solving the two-player game tree:

Step-1: In the first step, the algorithm generates the entire game-tree and apply the utility
function to get the utility values for the terminal states. In the below tree diagram, let's take
A is the initial state of the tree. Suppose maximizer takes first turn which has worst-case
initial value =- infinity, and minimizer will take next turn which has worst-case initial value =
+infinity

Step 2: Now, first we find the utilities value for the Maximizer, its initial value is -∞, so we
will compare each value in terminal state with initial value of Maximizer and determines the
higher nodes values. It will find the maximum among the all.

o​ For node D max(-1,- -∞) => max(-1,4)= 4

o​ For Node E max(2, -∞) => max(2, 6)= 6
o​ For Node F max(-3, -∞) => max(-3,-5) = -3
o​ For node G max(0, -∞) = max(0, 7) = 7
 o​

Step 3: In the next step, it's a turn for minimizer, so it will compare all nodes value with +∞,
and will find the 3rd layer node values.

o​ For node B= min(4,6) = 4

o​ For node C= min (-3, 7) = -3

Step 4: Now it's a turn for Maximizer, and it will again choose the maximum of all nodes
value and find the maximum value for the root node. In this game tree, there are only 4
layers, hence we reach immediately to the root node, but in real games, there will be more
than 4 layers.

o​ For node A max(4, -3)= 4

hat was the complete workflow of the minimax two player game.

Properties of Mini-Max algorithm:

o​ Complete- Min-Max algorithm is Complete. It will definitely find a solution (if
exist), in the finite search tree.
o​ Optimal- Min-Max algorithm is optimal if both opponents are playing
optimally.
o​ Time complexity- As it performs DFS for the game-tree, so the time
complexity of Min-Max algorithm is O(bm), where b is branching factor of the
game-tree, and m is the maximum depth of the tree.
o​ Space Complexity- Space complexity of Mini-max algorithm is also similar
to DFS which is O(bm).

Limitation of the minimax Algorithm:

The main drawback of the minimax algorithm is that it gets really slow for complex
games such as Chess, go, etc. This type of games has a huge branching factor, and
the player has lots of choices to decide. This limitation of the minimax algorithm can
be improved from alpha-beta pruning which we have discussed in the next topic.

Next →← Prev

Alpha-Beta Pruning
o​ Alpha-beta pruning is a modified version of the minimax algorithm. It is an
optimization technique for the minimax algorithm.
o​ As we have seen in the minimax search algorithm that the number of game states
it has to examine are exponential in depth of the tree. Since we cannot eliminate
 the exponent, but we can cut it to half. Hence there is a technique by which
without checking each node of the game tree we can compute the correct minimax
decision, and this technique is called pruning. This involves two threshold
parameter Alpha and beta for future expansion, so it is called alpha-beta
pruning. It is also called as Alpha-Beta Algorithm.
o​ Alpha-beta pruning can be applied at any depth of a tree, and sometimes it not
only prune the tree leaves but also entire sub-tree.
o​ The two-parameter can be defined as:

a.​ Alpha: The best (highest-value) choice we have found so far at any point
along the path of Maximizer. The initial value of alpha is -∞.
a.​ Beta: The best (lowest-value) choice we have found so far at any point
along the path of Minimizer. The initial value of beta is +∞.
​ The Alpha-beta pruning to a standard minimax algorithm returns the same move
as the standard algorithm does, but it removes all the nodes which are not really
affecting the final decision but making algorithm slow. Hence by pruning these
nodes, it makes the algorithm fast.

Condition for Alpha-beta pruning:

The main condition which required for alpha-beta pruning is:

1.​ α>=β

Key points about alpha-beta pruning:

o​ The Max player will only update the value of alpha.
o​ The Min player will only update the value of beta.
o​ While backtracking the tree, the node values will be passed to upper nodes
instead of values of alpha and beta.
o​ We will only pass the alpha, beta values to the child nodes.

Pseudo-code for Alpha-beta Pruning:

1.​ function minimax(node, depth, alpha, beta, maximizingPlayer) is
2.​ if depth ==0 or node is a terminal node then
3.​ return static evaluation of node
4.​
5.​ if MaximizingPlayer then // for Maximizer Player
6.​ maxEva= -infinity
7.​ for each child of node do
8.​ eva= minimax(child, depth-1, alpha, beta, False)
9.​ maxEva= max(maxEva, eva)
10.​ alpha= max(alpha, maxEva)
11.​ if beta<=alpha
12.​ break
13.​ return maxEva
14.​
15.​else // for Minimizer player
16.​ minEva= +infinity
17.​ for each child of node do
18.​ eva= minimax(child, depth-1, alpha, beta, true)
19.​ minEva= min(minEva, eva)
20.​ beta= min(beta, eva)
21.​ if beta<=alpha
22.​ break
23.​ return minEva

Working of Alpha-Beta Pruning:

Let's take an example of two-player search tree to understand the working of
Alpha-beta pruning

Step 1: At the first step the, Max player will start first move from node A where α=
-∞ and β= +∞, these value of alpha and beta passed down to node B where again
α= -∞ and β= +∞, and Node B passes the same value to its child D.

Step 2: At Node D, the value of α will be calculated as its turn for Max. The value of α is
compared with firstly 2 and then 3, and the max (2, 3) = 3 will be the value of α at node D
and node value will also 3.

Step 3: Now algorithm backtrack to node B, where the value of β will change as this is a turn
of Min, Now β= +∞, will compare with the available subsequent nodes value, i.e. min (∞, 3)
= 3, hence at node B now α= -∞, and β= 3.
In the next step, algorithm traverse the next successor of Node B which is node E, and the
values of α= -∞, and β= 3 will also be passed.

Step 4: At node E, Max will take its turn, and the value of alpha will change. The current
value of alpha will be compared with 5, so max (-∞, 5) = 5, hence at node E α= 5 and β= 3,
where α>=β, so the right successor of E will be pruned, and algorithm will not traverse it,
and the value at node E will be 5.
Step 5: At next step, algorithm again backtrack the tree, from node B to node A. At node A,
the value of alpha will be changed the maximum available value is 3 as max (-∞, 3)= 3, and
β= +∞, these two values now passes to right successor of A which is Node C.

At node C, α=3 and β= +∞, and the same values will be passed on to node F.

Step 6: At node F, again the value of α will be compared with left child which is 0, and
max(3,0)= 3, and then compared with right child which is 1, and max(3,1)= 3 still α remains
3, but the node value of F will become 1.

Step 7: Node F returns the node value 1 to node C, at C α= 3 and β= +∞, here the value of
beta will be changed, it will compare with 1 so min (∞, 1) = 1. Now at C, α=3 and β= 1, and
again it satisfies the condition α>=β, so the next child of C which is G will be pruned, and the
algorithm will not compute the entire sub-tree G.
Step 8: C now returns the value of 1 to A here the best value for A is max (3, 1) = 3.
Following is the final game tree which is the showing the nodes which are computed and
nodes which has never computed. Hence the optimal value for the maximizer is 3 for this
example.
Move Ordering in Alpha-Beta pruning:
The effectiveness of alpha-beta pruning is highly dependent on the order in which
each node is examined. Move order is an important aspect of alpha-beta pruning.

It can be of two types:

o​ Worst ordering: In some cases, alpha-beta pruning algorithm does not

prune any of the leaves of the tree, and works exactly as minimax algorithm.
In this case, it also consumes more time because of alpha-beta factors, such
a move of pruning is called worst ordering. In this case, the best move occurs
on the right side of the tree. The time complexity for such an order is O(bm).
o​ Ideal ordering: The ideal ordering for alpha-beta pruning occurs when lots
of pruning happens in the tree, and best moves occur at the left side of the
tree. We apply DFS hence it first search left of the tree and go deep twice as
minimax algorithm in the same amount of time. Complexity in ideal ordering
is O(bm/2).

Rules to find good ordering:

Following are some rules to find good ordering in alpha-beta pruning:

o​ Occur the best move from the shallowest node.

o​ Order the nodes in the tree such that the best nodes are checked first.
o​ Use domain knowledge while finding the best move. Ex: for Chess, try order:
captures first, then threats, then forward moves, backward moves.
o​ We can bookkeep the states, as there is a possibility that states may repeat.

Water-Jug Problem
Water Jug Problem:

Problem: You are given two jugs, a 4-gallon one and a 3-gallon [Link] has any measuring
mark on [Link] is a pump that can be used to fill the jugs with [Link] can you get exactly 2
gallons of water into the 4-gallon jug.

Video link= [Link]

Solution:

The state space for this problem can be described as the set of ordered pairs of integers (x,y)

Where,

X represents the quantity of water in the 4-gallon jug X= 0,1,2,3,4

Y represents the quantity of water in 3-gallon jug Y=0,1,2,3

Start State: (0,0)

Goal State: (2,0)

Generate production rules for the water jug problem

Production Rules:

Rule State Process

1 (X,Y | X<4) (4,Y)

{Fill 4-gallon jug}

2 (X,Y |Y<3) (X,3)

{Fill 3-gallon jug}

3 (X,Y |X>0) (0,Y)

{Empty 4-gallon jug}

4 (X,Y | Y>0) (X,0)

{Empty 3-gallon jug}

5 (X,Y | X+Y>=4 ^ Y>0) (4,Y-(4-X))

{Pour water from 3-gallon jug into 4-gallon jug until

4-gallon jug is full}

6 (X,Y | X+Y>=3 ^X>0) (X-(3-Y),3)

{Pour water from 4-gallon jug into 3-gallon jug until

3-gallon jug is full}

7 (X,Y | X+Y<=4 ^Y>0) (X+Y,0)

{Pour all water from 3-gallon jug into 4-gallon jug}

8 (X,Y | X+Y <=3^ X>0) (0,X+Y)

{Pour all water from 4-gallon jug into 3-gallon jug}

9 (0,2) (2,0)

{Pour 2 gallon water from 3 gallon jug into 4 gallon jug}

Initialization:

Start State: (0,0)

Apply Rule 2:

(X,Y | Y<3) -> (X,3){Fill 3-gallon jug}

Now the state is (X,3)

Iteration 1:

Current State: (X,3)

Apply Rule 7:

(X,Y | X+Y<=4 ^Y>0) (X+Y,0){Pour all water from 3-gallon jug into 4-gallon jug}

Now the state is (3,0)

Iteration 2:

Current State : (3,0)

Apply Rule 2:

(X,Y | Y<3) -> (3,3){Fill 3-gallon jug}

Now the state is (3,3)

Iteration 3:

Current State:(3,3)

Apply Rule 5:

(X,Y | X+Y>=4 ^ Y>0) (4,Y-(4-X)){Pour water from 3-gallon jug into 4-gallon jug
until 4-gallon jug is full}

Now the state is (4,2)

Iteration 4:

Current State : (4,2)

Apply Rule 3:

(X,Y | X>0) (0,Y){Empty 4-gallon jug}

Now state is (0,2)

Iteration 5:

Current State : (0,2)

Apply Rule 9:

(0,2) (2,0){Pour 2 gallon water from 3 gallon jug into 4 gallon jug}

Now the state is (2,0)

Goal Achieved.
[Link]. 4 gallon jug contents 3 gallon jug contents Rule followed

1. 0 gallon 0 gallon Initial state

2. 0 gallon 3 gallons Rule no.2

3. 3 gallons 0 gallon Rule no. 9

4. 3 gallons 3 gallons Rule no. 2

5. 4 gallons 2 gallons Rule no. 7

6. 0 gallon 2 gallons Rule no. 5

7. 2 gallons 0 gallon Rule no. 9

State Space Tree:

N-Queens Problem
N - Queens problem is to place n - queens in such a manner on an n x n chessboard
that no queens attack each other by being in the same row, column or diagonal.
consider the 4 queens problem and then generate it to n - queens problem.
Given a 4 x 4 chessboard and number the rows and column of the chessboard 1
through 4.
Since, we have to place 4 queens such as q1 q2 q3 and q4 on the chessboard, such
that no two queens attack each other. In such a conditional each queen must be
placed on a different row, i.e., we put queen "i" on row "i."

Now, we place queen q1 in the very first acceptable position (1, 1). Next, we put
queen q2 so that both these queens do not attack each other. We find that if we
place q2 in column 1 and 2, then the dead end is encountered. Thus the first
acceptable position for q2 in column 3, i.e. (2, 3) but then no position is left for
placing queen 'q3' safely. So we backtrack one step and place the queen 'q2' in (2,
4), the next best possible solution. Then we obtain the position for placing 'q3' which
is (3, 2). But later this position also leads to a dead end, and no place is found
where 'q4' can be placed safely. Then we have to backtrack till 'q1' and place it to (1,
2) and then all other queens are placed safely by moving q2 to (2, 4), q3 to (3, 1)
and q4 to (4, 3). That is, we get the solution (2, 4, 1, 3). This is one possible
solution for the 4-queens problem. For another possible solution, the whole method
is repeated for all partial solutions. The other solutions for 4 - queens problems is
(3, 1, 4, 2) i.e.

The implicit tree for 4 - queen problem for a solution (2, 4, 1, 3) is as follows:
Video link = [Link]

8 Puzzle problem in AI (Artificial Intelligence).

 Problem:
We also know the eight puzzle problem by the name of N puzzle
problem or sliding puzzle problem.
N-puzzle that consists of N tiles (N+1 titles with an empty tile) where N can be 8,
15, 24 and so on.
In our example N = 8. (that is square root of (8+1) = 3 rows and 3 columns).
In the same way, if we have N = 15, 24 in this way, then they have Row and
columns as follow (square root of (N+1) rows and square root of (N+1)
columns).
That is if N=15 than number of rows and columns= 4, and if N= 24 number of rows
and columns= 5.
So, basically in these types of problems we have given a initial state or initial
configuration (Start state) and a Goal state or Goal Configuration.
Here We are solving a problem of 8 puzzle that is a 3x3 matrix.

Solution:
The puzzle can be solved by moving the tiles one by one in the single empty space and thus achieving the Goal state.
Rules of solving puzzle
Instead of moving the tiles in the empty space we can visualize moving the empty space in place of the tile.
The empty space can only move in four directions (Movement of empty space)
1.​ Up
2.​ Down
3.​ Right or
4.​ Left
The empty space cannot move diagonally and can take only one step at a time.
All possible move of a Empty tile

o- Position total possible moves are (2), x - position total possible moves are (3) and
#-position total possible moves are (4)
Let's solve the problem without Heuristic Search that is Uninformed Search or Blind Search ( Breadth First
Search and Depth First Search)
Breath First Search to solve Eight puzzle problem
Note: If we solve this problem with depth first search, then it will go to depth instead of exploring layer wise nodes.
Time complexity: In worst case time complexity in BFS is O(b^d) know as order of b raise to power d. In this particular
case it is (3^20).
b-branch factor
d-depth factor
Let's solve the problem with Heuristic Search that is Informed Search (A* , Best First Search (Greedy Search))
To solve the problem with Heuristic search or informed search we have to calculate Heuristic values of each node to
calculate cost function. (f=g+h)

Note: See the initial state and goal state carefully all values except (4,5 and 8) are at their respective places. so, the
heuristic value for first node is 3.(Three values are misplaced to reach the goal). And let's take actual cost (g)
according to depth.
​