Module 4

Basic concepts

Abnormal psychology deals with the study of unusual patterns of

behavior, emotions, thoughts, which may or not be understood as
precipitating a mental disorder. It aims to describe, explain, predict,
and change maladaptive behaviour of abnormal patterns of
functioning.

Key objectives of abnormal psychology:

1. Description: Identifying and defining abnormal behaviors.

2. Explanation: Understanding why these behaviors occur (etiology).
3. Prediction: Predicting the likelihood of occurrence, course, and
outcomes.
4. Control: Developing treatment and preventive strategies.

The Four D's of Abnormal Psychology

Deviance: Acting in a way that is very different from normal in society.

Distress: The person feels upset, anxious, or uncomfortable about
their thoughts or behaviour.
Dysfunction: The behaviour interferes with daily life like work, schools
or relationships.
Danger: The behaviour is harmful to the person or others.

Epidemiology is the study of the distribution, frequency, and

determinants of mental disorders in a specific [Link] helps
understand how common certain mental illnesses are, who is most
affected, and what risk factors contribute to their occurrence.

Prevalence refers to the total number of cases (old + new) of a

specific mental disorder in a given population during a particular time
period.

Types of Prevalence:

Point prevalence: Number of active cases at a specific point in

time.
Period prevalence: Cases existing during a specific period (e.g., one
year).
Lifetime prevalence: Proportion of people who have ever had the
disorder in their lifetime.

Example:
If 5 out of 100 people have depression at a given time, the point
prevalence is 5%.

Incidence refers to the number of new cases of a disorder that

develop in a population during a specific time frame.

It measures the risk of developing the disorder and helps identify

emerging trends or outbreaks of psychological issues.

Example:
If 20 new cases of schizophrenia occur in a population of 10,000 in
one year, the annual incidence is 0.2%.

Comorbidity is the co-occurrence of two or more disorders in the

same individual at the same time.

Examples:

Depression coexisting with anxiety disorder.

 Substance abuse with antisocial personality disorder.

Physical and physical

eg: Heart disease and kidney disease
Physical and mental
eg: Heart disease and Depression
Mental and mental
eg: Anxiety and depression.

Etiology refers to the study of the causes and origins of mental

disorders.

The causes of abnormal behavior are usually multifactorial, involving:

Biological causes (genetic, neurochemical, neuroanatomical)

Psychological causes (early childhood experiences, learning,
cognitive patterns)
Sociocultural causes (family, social, cultural influences)

Understanding etiology helps in developing appropriate prevention

and treatment strategies.

Prognosis is the predicted course and outcome of a disorder.

It may refer to chances of recovery, likelihood of relapse, or chronic
persistence.

Example: Early intervention in depression generally leads to a better

prognosis.

Classification Systems: ICD and DSM

1. International Classification of Diseases (ICD)

Published by the World Health Organization (WHO).
Global system for classifying all diseases, including mental disorders.
Current version: ICD-11 (2022).
 Mental and behavioral disorders are in Chapter 06.
Uses alphanumeric codes (e.g., 6A40 – Schizophrenia).
Focuses on global standardization, health statistics, and epidemiology.
Provides brief diagnostic descriptions rather than detailed criteria.

2. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)

Published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA).
Focuses only on mental disorders.
Current version: DSM-5-TR (2022).
Provides specific diagnostic criteria, symptom descriptions, and
duration requirements.
Primarily used in the United States for clinical diagnosis and research.
Uses ICD codes for consistency and insurance reporting.

Historical Views of Abnormal Behaviour (Detailed Summary

in Simple Form)

📜 1. Ancient Times – Supernatural Explanations

Abnormal behavior was seen as possession by evil spirits or
punishment from gods.
Common across Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, and other ancient
cultures.
Treatments: Prayers, exorcisms, rituals, and trephination (drilling
holes in the skull to release spirits).
Focus was spiritual, not medical.

🏛️ 2. Greek and Roman Era – Natural and Biological Views

Shift from superstition to natural explanations.

Key Figures:

Hippocrates (460–377 B.C.) – “Father of Modern Medicine.”

Mental illness caused by imbalance of four bodily humors:
blood, phlegm, yellow bile, black bile.
 Treatments: diet, rest, exercise, and lifestyle changes.
Plato (429–347 B.C.) – Believed mentally ill people weren’t
responsible for their actions and needed kind treatment.
Saw mental illness as a conflict between reason and emotion.
Aristotle (384–322 B.C.) – Supported humoral theory, emphasized
physical causes.
Galen (130–200 A.D.) – Expanded Hippocrates’ ideas, linking brain
injury, emotions, and stress to mental illness.

3. Middle Ages (5th–15th Century) – Return to Religion and

Superstition
After Rome fell, Europe returned to religious explanations.
Mental illness seen as demonic possession or sin.
Treatments: Exorcisms, torture, confinement, or execution.
Many “witches” were actually mentally ill individuals.
Key Figures:
Avicenna (980–1037) – Persian doctor who wrote The Canon of
Medicine; believed mental illness could be treated with
compassion.
Hildegard of Bingen (1098–1179) – Promoted natural healing and
mind–body–spirit connection.

🔬 4. Renaissance & Enlightenment (16th–18th Century) –

Scientific Progress
Rise of reason, observation, and medical science.
Witchcraft beliefs declined; focus returned to biological and
psychological causes.
Hospitals and asylums began to appear, though early ones were
often harsh.
Humanitarian reformers like Philippe Pinel in France promoted
moral treatment—kindness, structure, and care instead of
punishment.

5. 19th–20th Century – Growth of Modern Psychology

 Mental illness studied scientifically.
Psychology became a distinct field.
Major Movements:

Behaviorism (Pavlov, Watson, Skinner): Abnormal behavior is learned

through experience and can be unlearned.
Psychoanalysis (Freud): Abnormality comes from unconscious
conflicts and childhood experiences.
Cognitive Psychology: Focuses on faulty thoughts and beliefs that lead
to mental disorders.
Biological Psychiatry: Links mental disorders to brain chemistry and
genetics.

🧩 6. Modern Perspective – The Biopsychosocial Model

Today, abnormal behavior is understood through a combination of:
Biological factors: Brain structure, genetics, neurotransmitters.
Psychological factors: Emotions, learning, thoughts, personality.
Social factors: Family, culture, environment, stress.
Treatments: Medication, psychotherapy (like CBT), and lifestyle
interventions.

Causal Factors of Abnormal Behaviour

Abnormal behavior results from the interaction of biological,
psychological, and sociocultural influences.

A. Biological Causal Factors

1. Neurotransmitter and Hormonal Abnormalities:
Mental disorders are associated with imbalances in
neurotransmitters (chemical messengers in the brain).
Serotonin: Low levels linked to depression.
 Dopamine: Excess linked to schizophrenia; deficiency
linked to Parkinson’s disease.
Norepinephrine: Related to anxiety and mood regulation.
GABA: Low levels may contribute to anxiety.
Hormonal imbalances (e.g., cortisol, thyroid hormones)
affect mood and stress responses.
2. Genetic Vulnerabilities:
Genetic factors increase predisposition to mental disorders.
Twin and adoption studies show heritability for
schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and depression.
Genes interact with environmental factors (gene–
environment interaction).
3. Temperament:
Temperament is a person’s biologically based emotional
reactivity and self-regulation, evident early in life.
Types of temperament (e.g., easy, difficult, slow-to-warm-up)
can influence vulnerability to anxiety, mood, or personality
disorders.
4. Brain Dysfunction and Neural Plasticity:
Abnormalities in brain structures (amygdala, hippocampus,
prefrontal cortex) are linked with disorders.
Neural plasticity (the brain’s ability to adapt and reorganize)
can either aid recovery or, when maladaptive, reinforce
pathological patterns.
Early trauma, injury, or infection can affect neural
development.

B. Psychological Causal Factors

1. Psychodynamic Perspective:
Proposed by Sigmund Freud.
 Emphasizes unconscious motives, early childhood
experiences, and internal conflicts.
Structure of Personality:
Id – Instinctual drives operating on pleasure principle.
Ego – Reality-based mediator between id and superego.
Superego – Moral conscience.
Anxiety and Defense Mechanisms:
Ego uses defenses (repression, denial, projection,
rationalization) to manage anxiety.
Psychosexual Stages: Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, and
Genital. Fixations may result in maladaptive personality
traits.

[Link] Perspective:

Focuses on observable behaviors and how they are learned.

Abnormal behavior arises from faulty learning or
maladaptive conditioning.
Classical conditioning: Phobias can be learned through
association.
Operant conditioning: Maladaptive behaviors are
maintained by reinforcement.
Modeling (social learning): Individuals imitate behaviors
observed in others.

[Link]-Behavioral Perspective:

Focuses on how faulty or distorted thought patterns

(schemas) lead to maladaptive behavior.
Schemas: Deeply held beliefs that influence perception and
emotion.
Attribution Theory: People’s explanations for events (e.g.,
self-blame) can affect emotional outcomes.
Early Deprivation or Trauma: Neglect, abuse, or insecure
attachment can cause distorted self-schemas.
 Inadequate Parenting Styles: Overprotection, rejection, or
inconsistent discipline affect personality development and
emotional control.

C. Socio-Cultural Factors
1. Socioeconomic Status: Poverty, unemployment, and low
education increase stress and vulnerability to mental illness.
2. Cultural Norms: Cultural definitions of normality and
abnormality differ; culture-bound syndromes exist (e.g., Koro,
Ataque de nervios).
3. Social Change and Uncertainty: Rapid urbanization, migration,
or modernization can create identity confusion and stress.
4. Discrimination and Stigma: Prejudice and exclusion cause low
self-esteem, depression, and social isolation.
5. Family and Social Support: Strong social networks act as
protective factors against psychological distress.
6. Gender Roles: Gender-based expectations and inequalities can
affect mental health outcomes.