Chapter 12

Solar energy harvesting and its use in

agriculture
Oksana Sytar1,2, Radhika Jaithaliya3 and Ankita Sharma4
1
The Institute of Agronomic Sciences, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Slovak Republic, 2Department of Plant Biology, Educational and
Scientific Center “Institute of Biology and Medicine” of Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, Kyiv, Ukraine, 3Department of Bioscience
and Biotechnology, Banasthali Vidyapith, Rajasthan, India, 4Department of Chemistry, Banasthali Vidyapith, Rajasthan, India

Chapter Outline
Abbreviation 239 12.5.5 Solar-powered tractors, farm machineries, and
equipment 249
12.1 Introduction 240 12.5.6 Solar-based dairy and poultry farms 251
12.5.7 Solar-based refrigeration, cold storage,
12.2 Solar energy harvesting: cost-effective approaches 240 and processing units 253
12.5.8 Solar greenhouse heating 253
12.3 Sun harvesting: on-farm opportunities and
challenges for solar development 241 12.6 Economic feasibility of solar installation and
development at the farm level 255
12.4 Solar energy in agriculture: challenges,
opportunities and potential 243 12.7 Research and developmental need in usages
of solar energy in agriculture 257
12.5 Application of solar energy in agriculture 243
12.5.1 Solar sprayer and seed sowing machines 243 12.8 Future Perspectives 257
12.5.2 Solar-powered water pumping and irrigation 246
12.5.3 Solar fertilization 248 12.9 Conclusion and recommendations 257
12.5.4 Solar crop and grain drying 249 References 258

Abbreviation
BETs Battery electric tractors
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FCTs Fuel cell tractors
FOT Feed-in Tariff scheme
GHG Greenhouse gases
GPS Global positioning system
GPS Global positioning system
HETs Hybrid electric tractors
ICEs Internal combustion engines
IDCOL Infrastructure Development Company Limited
IR Infrared
IRENA International Renewable Energy Agency
KSSI Kenya smallholder solar irrigation
LCA life cycle assessment

Agriculture Toward Net Zero Emissions. DOI: [Link]

© 2025 Elsevier Inc. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies. 239
240 Agriculture Toward Net Zero Emissions

P3HT PCBM-poly (3-hexylthiophene)-phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester

PV Photovoltaic
SIPs Solar irrigation pumps
SPIS Solar-powered irrigation system
SPIS Solar-powered irrigation system
UV Ultraviolet
WEPCO Wongwang electric power company

12.1 Introduction
The rapid global population growth at an average rate of 2% per year raises concerns regarding food and energy demands.
A meta-analysis examining global food needs and the risk of hunger in human society suggests a projected 56% increase
in food demand worldwide by 2050 (Kumar et al., 2020). Simultaneously, the risk of hunger in human society is expected
to fluctuate from
91% to 18% by 2050. If global warming is considered a serious problem, the anticipated shift ranges
become less dramatic, with total food demand increasing from 130% to 162%, and the risk of hunger in human society
ranging from
91% to 130% (van Dijk et al., 2021). A critical concern for global food security is the impact of climate
change, potentially leading to a 30% decrease in agricultural production by 2050. Scientists acknowledge that global
warming has reduced the worldwide yield of rice crops by 0.3% and wheat by 0.9%, annually. Consequently, efforts were
made last year to advance sustainable agricultural methods to support traditional agriculture (Singh & Singh, 2017).
Traditional agriculture relies heavily on fertilizers, various techniques, and substantial heating to boost yields, result-
ing in high energy consumption and significant CO2 emissions (Kumar et al., 2022; Leharwan et al., 2023; Meena
et al., 2024; Meena et al., 2024a; Tellez-Rio et al., 2017). Attempts to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the
energy sector involve urgent needs for power production using fossil fuels, given the national importance of addressing
such emissions (Craggs & Gilbert, 2018). Several countries, including the US, Australia, and China, have begun empha-
sizing the use of renewable energy sources for various applications in agriculture. Due to strict policies, Germany stands
out in the European Union for the production and utilization of solar energy in plant cultivation and greenhouse heating
(Rahman et al., 2022). According to the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), hydro stations contribute
the most to renewable electricity (63%), followed by onshore wind (18.1%), and solar stations (8.3%) (IRENA, 2018).
The adoption of renewable energy in agriculture is making significant progress in developed countries while developing
countries face challenges such as economic and practical-technical complications (Rahman et al., 2022).
Solar power, an abundant renewable resource, is increasingly integrated into modern agricultural practices with
diverse applications. Recent advancements include solar energy-powered water pumps (Singh et al., 2023; Wagstaff,
2017), which offer sustainable irrigation solutions even in remote areas. Solar-powered heating systems for water and
space (Vadiee, 2022) contribute to energy-efficient operations on farms, reducing dependence on fossil fuels. Remote
electricity supply (Tariq et al., 2021) using solar technology ensures reliable power for agricultural operations in off-
grid locations, enhancing productivity and connectivity. Sunlight-based crop and grain drying (Udomku et al., 2020)
provide a cost-effective method to preserve harvests, especially in regions lacking traditional drying infrastructure.
A notable development is agrivoltaic farming, where crops are cultivated beneath solar panels. This approach not
only maximizes land use efficiency but also offers additional benefits. Agrivoltaic systems contribute to microclimatic
improvements, moderating temperature extremes and reducing water evaporation, which can enhance crop yields and
quality. The integration of agrivoltaics requires interdisciplinary research, combining agronomy, microclimatology, and
photovoltaic panel design (Trommsdorff et al., 2022). This approach underscores the potential of solar technology to
transform farming practices, promoting sustainability and resilience in agriculture.
Research articles linked to greenhouses with agrivoltaics and photovoltaic installation studies have proliferated since
2016, with agronomical research focusing on selected crop shading impacts not directly tied to agrivoltaic farming
(Weselek et al., 2019). The role of plant biodiversity in agrivoltaic investigations needs further discussion, as it influ-
ences studied plant crop parameters for agrivoltaic systems, ultimately improving quality parameters.

12.2 Solar energy harvesting: cost-effective approaches

Crystalline silicon has generally influenced the market for the production of photovoltaic panels. The solar panels with sili-
con may carry on or utilize some of the UV portions of sunlight on the far left. The quantity rises as it alters to visible light
and panels conduct to generate a maximum of their electricity from visible light. At the same time productively imitates UV
radiation, because of up to an interrupt wavelength, which relies upon the environmental circumstances with outcomes in a
 Solar energy harvesting and its use in agriculture Chapter | 12 241

decline of the general operating temperature and improvement of the photovoltaic panel’s capability. Additionally, blocking
the high-energy UV photons prolongs the lifetime of the photovoltaic panel and its performance in the long term (Perraki
et al., 2020) and is analyzed with further recommendations for agricultural and food-applied science.
However, it is important to do an analysis concerning the kind of solar panels used in agrivoltaic farming, and novel
methods of agrivoltaics. The more advanced are multi-junction solar cells. It primarily consists of multiple solar cells
integrated into a single unit, designed to capture specific portions of the sunlight energy spectrum. Multi-junction solar
cells facilitate the capable alteration of sunlight to energy beyond being limited by 33% similar to the commercialized
single-junction silicon solar cells (Baiju & Yarema, 2022). Multi-junction cells may have productivity higher than 35%
under normal sunshine conditions and above 46% in intense sunshine. Multiple p-n semiconductor junctions linked in
sequence to absorb various wavelength areas of the solar spectrum allow light conversion efficiencies which surpass the
theoretical S-Q limit and are used in ultra-junction solar cells (Nikoletatos & Halambalakis, 2018). Semiconductor
layers of the multi (3-J) solar cell are constructed between two contacts which use aluminum (Al) and silver (Ag). The
Al or Ag metal conducting plate on the upper of the solar module may cause a decrease in optical absorption and pro-
ductivity because of shading losses. Transparent conducting oxides have been tested as alternate electrodes in 3-J solar
cells due to improved achievement because of a transparent layer. In addition, it also patterns an ohmic contact with the
contact on the top layer of the cell boosting current collection efficiency (Kao et al., 2019). SiO2 and TiO2 anti-
reflective coating is conveyed on the front surface which with the assistance of the decline of reflective losses may
maximize absorption (Oh et al., 2020). The multi-junction cells are very expensive and normally not used in solar farms
or as panels for rooftops. They can be applied on satellites or space probes and in specified intense solar appliances.
Nowadays for the world panel production, 97% is in place for the production of silicon solar panels. The last 3 % of
world panel production is practically entirely cadmium telluride thin film panels (Vallat-Sauvain et al., 2006). Such
solar panels may use a little more infrared than silicon ones, but they must also use a little less UV light. The use of
end-of-life cadmium telluride thin-film photovoltaic panels with a screening-level risk assessment tool does not cause a
human health hazard at present production sizes (Cyrs et al., 2014; Kumar et al., 2023).
From a plant physiology point of view use of solar energy for increasing plant production and quality is understandable
due special role of ultraviolet light (Sytar et al., 2019). The quantity of UV radiation played a significant role in the gath-
ering of such secondary metabolites as flavonoids, anthocyanins, and methoxycinnamic acid (Sytar et al., 2018).
Nowadays ultraviolet panels don’t exist and still discuss the possible harmful effect of UV light from solar panels.

12.3 Sun harvesting: on-farm opportunities and challenges for solar development
(Goetzberger & Zastrow, 1982) advanced an agrovoltaic system for co-production in 1982, also recognized as an agro-
photovoltaic system (Jo et al., 2022). It is also another name for PV systems with plant production. Two kinds of agri-
voltaic systems based on their planning scheme can be marked. The first kind of system is in which plant crops are
cultivated on available land areas beneath the PV panels with no preplanned agricultural element during the construc-
tion and designing of the PV infrastructure. The second kind is a well-organized system that is designed with the pur-
pose of co-producing photovoltaic power and agricultural products. This allows the mutual benefit between agriculture
and photovoltaics to maximize land use efficiency (Toledo & Scognamiglio, 2021).
Nowadays are more developed new agrivoltaic schemes for optimizing land use that combine the cultivation of plant
crops and solar panels (Dupraz et al., 2011). The main aim of it is to develop the most excellent strategies to change
solar radiation into food and energy. (Dupraz et al., 2011) in the development of their agrovoltaic scheme have used
Land Equivalent Ratios to study two different agrivoltaic systems with various densities of photovoltaic panels which
may affect energy harvesting and separation of agriculture. The preliminary results have shown that agrivoltaic systems
were very coherent: greater productivity of land in the world (35%
73%) was projected for the two different densities
of photovoltaic panels (Dupraz et al., 2011).
Agrivoltaic systems help us to get sustainable food and renewable production of electricity with great efficiency of
land use. Agrivoltaics with supplementary shading regimen harvested greener broccoli with a higher level of preference
by consumers compared to the broccoli cultivated on the open field (Chae et al., 2022). It was shown that agrivoltaic
systems increase the profit of farmers by improving the visual quality of broccoli together with the production of elec-
tricity without tense yield changes, glucosinolates content changes, and antioxidant potential (Chae et al., 2022).
The influence of diverse agricultural practices, influenced by crop-specific traits, cultivation systems, and machinery
utilization, plays a crucial role in the design of agrivoltaic systems. Implementing an agrivoltaic system tailored to the
farmer’s requirements has long-term implications, impacting agricultural machinery usage and determining the range of
viable crops for cultivation over the system’s lifespan of 20 years or more.
242 Agriculture Toward Net Zero Emissions

One challenge in agrivoltaics is accurately assessing the optimal distribution of solar radiation for both crop production
and energy generation (Punia et al., 2020). Shading induced by photovoltaic panel modules stands out as a pivotal factor
influencing agricultural features, with corresponding changes in microclimates affecting crop growth and development
(Kumar et al., 2019; Marrou et al., 2013). The same land area can be efficiently utilized for both electricity generation
and food production (Marrou et al., 2013). An innovative solar panel allocation method for agrivoltaic systems was devel-
oped to evaluate life cycle CO2 emissions (Leon & Ishihara, 2018). Increased accumulation of total phenolics, phenolic
acids, anthocyanins, and flavonoids was observed under direct sunlight conditions compared to greenhouse conditions
with low UV radiation but elevated day/night temperatures (Sytar et al., 2018). Moreover, manipulating light conditions in
early growth stages stimulated long-term photoacclimation (Sytar et al., 2019). The influence of shading color pretreat-
ment significantly affected phenolic composition in chicory leaves during later growth stages (Sytar et al., 2019).
In agrivoltaic systems, the photovoltaic panel may decrease the day-night amplitude of crop temperature and decline
temperature of soil but not influence the growth rate at the juvenile phase of crops (Marrou et al., 2013). It was recom-
mended attention to agrivoltaic cropping systems be mainly concentrated on light reduction regulation and the choosing
of plants with maximal radiation use efficiency in fluctuating shade conditions (Marrou et al., 2013). In chlorophyll-
depleted wheat, mutants showed a significant correlation between biomass accumulations to a fluctuating light regime.
Unexpectedly long-term acclimation to fluctuations of light can be established (Ferroni et al., 2020).
Analysis of the accomplishing of agrivoltaic systems with the outcome of electricity and crop production via estab-
lishing stilt-mounted photovoltaic panels on farmland presents that stilt-mounted agrivoltaic systems able to regulate
the trade-off within a generation of clean energy and crop production when tested on corn, a typical shade-intolerant
crop (Sekiyama & Nagashima, 2019).
Crop yield is a significant assessment of the efficiency of agrivoltaic systems and can be persistent by a sequence of
management, crop genetic background, and environmental impacts. The evaluation of agronomic management and crop
yield production under open field conditions compared to those under an agrivoltaic system (Fig. 12.1). The plant crop
species growth in mono-cropping cultures, such as onion (Allium cepa), soybean (Glycine max), rice (Oryza sativa),
garlic (Allium sativum), rye (Secale cereale), adzuki bean (Vigna angularis), and corn (Zea mays), and parallel experi-
ment with mixed planting of corn with soybean in South Korea showed that there was statistically no negative impact
of the agrivoltaic system on the crop yield of studied plants. It was suggested that forage crops under the agrivoltaic
system were acceptable for producing forage yield. Research with an agrovoltaic system in Germany with a crop rota-
tion scheme along with clover grass, potato, celeriac, and winter wheat demonstrated that the agrivoltaic scheme can
enrich land productivity near 90% (Trommsdorff et al., 2021). Meantime, significant yield growth in the studied plants
was not observed (Jo et al., 2022). Homma et al. (2016) ensured that satisfactory light availability at the time of early
periods of growth is a crucial yield factor. At the same time, it was considered agrivoltaic farm organizations and how
particular spacing, density, and height may affect the shading under the panels (Reasoner & Ghosh, 2022).
However, the shading rate choice occurs earlier than the crop choice in many examples, because investors or farmers
into agrivoltaics look at the possibility of maximizing their profit from electricity sales under the FIT scheme, which is
higher compared to the possible profit from agricultural production. As a result, they select an acceptable crop for that
shading rate. For example, In Japan average shading rate in scope from 31.1% for rice to 100% for ginseng, bracken
fern, and mushroom (Tajima & Iida, 2021).
FIGURE 12.1 The agrovoltaics
scheme with use efficiency is stud-
ied nowadays.
 Solar energy harvesting and its use in agriculture Chapter | 12 243

12.4 Solar energy in agriculture: challenges, opportunities and potential

It is known that higher quantities of light usually relate to greater photosynthesis levels. On the other hand, the photo-
synthetic rate ultimately reaches a maximum point parallel with the increased intensity of light. This stage where the
intensity of light does not upturn the photosynthesis rate is appointed the light saturation point (Xin et al., 2019).
Different plant species or families exhibit varying light saturation points, highlighting that certain plants may demon-
strate higher shade tolerance when grown under solar panels. Plants such as eggplants, cucumbers, and tomatoes got
light saturation points in the range of 45
70 Klux, while crucifers such as cabbages, broccolis, and Kimchi cabbages
got 11 Klux (Tazawa, 1999).
Normally, solar panels in the agrivoltaic system are positioned 3
4 m above the ground to accommodate agricul-
tural machinery such as tractors (Chae et al., 2022). They are also angled at 30 to efficiently capture sunlight, facing
south. Some crops can directly receive sunlight because they occupy spaces between solar panels, while others may be
situated in the shaded areas beneath the solar panels. The shaded area changes as the sun moves throughout the day.
Due to the environment for cultivation under the agrivoltaic system, crops receive a lower amount of sunlight compared
to those grown without agrivoltaic systems. However, agrivoltaic systems can enhance water productivity, even for
crops typically considered shade-intolerant (AL-agele et al., 2021).
Some agrivoltaic installations have suggested that cultivating crops under solar panel modules can be particularly
advantageous in arid areas. Shading by photovoltaic panels may enhance microclimate conditions, including soil mois-
ture and temperature, thereby improving water use efficiency for irrigation (Barron-Gafford et al., 2019; Parkinson &
Hunt et al., 2020). While most agrivoltaic systems have focused on cultivating crops at relatively small solar sites
(,3 MW) using specific shade-tolerant crops that can thrive with manual support or limited equipment needs, ongoing
research is exploring the integration of agrivoltaic systems with more traditional shade-intolerant commercial crops like
soybeans, corn, and wheat (Jangir et al., 2024). For instance, a small-scale field experiment in Japan suggests that opti-
mal corn production may be achieved at solar PV facilities with increased numbers of PV panels (Sekiyama &
Nagashima, 2019). It is possible to generate renewable energy without significant negative effects on typical grape
farming using appropriately sized photovoltaic modules (Chadalavada et al., 2021). The selection of plant species for
agrivoltaics plays a crucial role, depending on the specific application area (Table 12.1).
Large-scale solar farms in Puchong, Selangor, Malaysia proposed the solution for the applied area of agrivoltaic
management of weed which can support a decline in daily DC generation and cause huge financial losses. Such scien-
tific work summarizes the kinds of weeds initiating problems of faulty cables, pest housing, pest disturbance, and devel-
oping health risks to solar farm workers via permanent shading with possible further structural destruction. The more
original conclusion of this work, the kinds of weeds may declare the perfect mode of direct control. A cleaner solar PV
production and an eco-friendly approach against climate change can be done with the support of the proposed agrivol-
taic approach to the management of weeds (Ya’acob et al., 2022).
The one of major statements is next - the decline in solar radiation is the special alternated factor below the canopy
of agrivoltaic systems where a decrease of more than 40% of the solar radiation is because of the PV panel’s presence.
Agrivoltaic systems (ground photovoltaic systems or photovoltaic greenhouses) with a cover percentage corresponding
to 25% or lower did not present a significant impact on plant quality and the cultivation process. Inhibitory impact on
the growth of plant crops was noticed with a coverage percentage of 50 to 100% excluding spinach and strawberry. It
was observed for the agrivoltaic system in dryland climates water use efficiency for several crop species was substan-
tial. The described results of agrivoltaic research appear encouraging enough to develop agrivoltaic practices that con-
trol photovoltaic panel shading to be lower than 25% to avert affecting crop growth, pretended to be the preference of
an agricultural operation.

12.5 Application of solar energy in agriculture

12.5.1 Solar sprayer and seed sowing machines
Spraying is vital for crop protection against pests, diseases, and insects. Sprayers are mechanical devices used to apply
herbicides, pesticides, and fungicides. Spraying efficiently applies small amounts of liquid in fine droplets to safeguard
crops (Basavaraj et al. (2023). There are many agricultural-based nations in the world, where farmers still face numer-
ous problems such as pests, lack of mechanization, short supply of electricity and existing methods (Issa et al., 2020).
Solar sprayers offer significant advantages as they are lightweight and easy to assemble and disassemble due to minimal
welded parts. This portability makes them convenient and user-friendly (El-Sayed et al., 2021).
244 Agriculture Toward Net Zero Emissions

TABLE 12.1 Plant parameters for agrivoltaic system use.

Light Plant crop/ Effect Country Kind of solar panel References

saturation species
point
11 Klux Basil Decrease in yield by 15% Melegano, Semitransparent solar Larsen et al.
(lower) but financial gain 12.5% Italy panels (2020); W. A.
Thompson et al.
(2020)
16 Klux Bok choy (Brassica Power output cultivating Chiang Mai Photovoltaic power plant Huang et al.
(lower) rapa subsp. crops with high yield and Rajabhat (2021);
chinensis L.) solar power University, Kumpanalaisatit
Thailand et al. (2022)
11 Klux Broccolis Enhanced growth and Naju, Photovoltaic panels Chae et al.
(lower) production Jeollanam (2022)
Province,
South Korea
.20 Klux Mushroom Highest mushroom Kunming, Mono photovoltaic cells El Kolaly et al.
(Pleurotusostreatus) productivity 1600 g, China (2020);
reduction solar radiation Sekiyama and
Nagashima
(2019)
20
30 Green paper Higher fruit production of Thermi, 22% of shade by Sekiyama and
Klux 22% Thessaloniki, semitransparent organic Nagashima
Greece photovoltaic panels (2019); Zisis
originated on photoactive et al. (2019)
layer poly (3-
hexylthiophene)-phenyl-
C61-butyric acid methyl
ester (P3HT:PCBM)
25 Klux Onion 6% decrease in crop yield Brenes, near Photovoltaic module Moreda et al.
Seville, Spain (1640 mm 3 992 mm) (2021);
The fixed-tilt angle is 27 Sekiyama and
(the local latitude minus Nagashima
10 ) (2019)
25 Klux Lettuce Normal growth and Montpellier, Photovoltaic panels Marrou et al.
production France (2013)
40
45 Rice Yield lower and plant Field of Photovoltaic panels Jo et al. (2022);
Klux heights of rice are higher Kyungpook Sekiyama and
compared to the rice National Nagashima
grown in open fields University, (2019)
without photovoltaic Daegu, South
panels Korea
45
70 Cucumbers Normal growth and Montpellier, Photovoltaic panels Marrou et al.
Klux production France (2013)
45
70 Tomatoes Enhanced production Oregon State Photovoltaic Panels AL-agele et al.
Klux when fully irrigated University (2021)
Corvallis, OR,
USA
40
56 Grape Slight slowing of grape Wongwang 1300 3 520 mm Alexandrov
Klux growth and grape sugar- electric power photovoltaic module et al. (2021)
content levels slightly company
increase (WEPCO) in
the city of
Naju, Republic
of Korea

(Continued )
 Solar energy harvesting and its use in agriculture Chapter | 12 245

TABLE 12.1 (Continued)

Light Plant crop/ Effect Country Kind of solar panel References

saturation species
point
40
56 Grape The economic value of São Paulo State Under Photovoltaic
Klux PVs-equipped vineyards is University, São Panels, Between
enhanced by a factor Paulo, State of Photovoltaic array
greater compared with São Paulo,
conventional grape Brazil
farming
45
70 Eggplants Proposed drip irrigation Baron Photovoltaic panels in Ahmad et al.
Klux for optimal cultivation Technopark, agrivoltaic system which (2022);
Yogyakarta, subsists in fishery and Sekiyama and
Indonesia agriculture practices Naga
shima (2019)
40
72 Durum wheat Increased land Montpellier, Photovoltaic panels Arenas-
Klux productivity France Corraliza et al.,
2019; Dupraz
et al., 2011)
45 Klux Cabbage The levels of Chonnam Photovoltaic Panels. The Moon and Ku
glucosinolates and their National angle of the panels was (2022);
hydrolysis products were University, 35 Sekiyama and
not significantly different. Naju, Nagashima
The weight and diameter Jeollanam (2019)
reduction rates of fresh Province,
cabbage were 9.7% and Korea
1.2%, respectively
40 Klux Carrot Decrease in yield on 10% Brenes, close Photovoltaic module Moreda et al.
to the city of (1640 mm 3 992 mm) (2021);
Seville, in The fixed-tilt angle is 27 Sekiyama and
southwestern (the local latitude minus Nagashima
Spain 10 ) (2019)
50 Klux Chiltepin Pepper Enhanced production at 3 Tucson, AZ, Photovoltaic panels at a Barron-Gafford
times, the same water USA latitude angle of 32 et al. (2019);
efficiency Huang et al.
(2021)
55
80 Java tea (Osiphon No yield change, clean University of Photovoltaic panels at Othman et al.
Klux stamineus) energy production Putra Malaysia, Hybrid Agrivoltaic (2020); Roslan
efficiency increase by Selangor, System Showcase et al. (2021)
14,27% Malaysia
30
35 Spinach Decrease in yield by 25% Melegnano, Semitransparent Solar Erwin and
Klux but financial gain 135% Italy Panels Gesick (2017);
Thompson et al.
(2020)
80
90 Corn Corn yields higher and Ichihara City, Photovoltaic panels Sekiyama and
Klux clean energy production Chiba Nagashima
as well Prefecture, (2019)
Japan
80 Klux Taro (Colocasia Crop conversion rate near Japan Photovoltaic panels at n Sekiyama and
sp.) 35% agrivoltaic farm Nagashima
(2019); Tajima
and Iida (2021)
80 Klux Watermelon Decrease in yield on 17% Brenes, near Photovoltaic module Moreda et al.
Seville, Spain (1640 mm 3 992 mm) (2021);
The fixed-tilt angle is 27 Sekiyama and
(the local latitude minus Nagashima
10 ) (2019)
246 Agriculture Toward Net Zero Emissions

According to Mittal et al. (1996), power spraying (47%) was found to be the most detrimental farm operation due to
vibrations transmitted to the human body. This leads to early fatigue and decreased work output in workers. (Bawa,
1974) discovered that vibrations transmitted to specific body parts of operators not only caused discomfort but also
posed potential long-term health hazards.(Ghugare et al., 1991) identified the left clavicle region, lower back, neck, left
thigh, and right clavicle as the body parts most affected by vibrations from lever-operated knapsack sprayers.
(Tamilselvi & Krishnan, 2016) studied the heart rate and energy requirement of ergonomically refined knapsack and
rocker arm sprayers as compared to conventional sprayers.
A basic solar-operated sprayer has a solar panel (approximately 20 W), a battery (approximately 12 V), a motor
(approximately 12 V), and a tank with 10
20 L capacity (as in Fig. 12.2). Some of the advanced solar sprayers have a
bulb and mobile charging socket. A solar sprayer has a running time of around 4
8 hours (Gokulavasan Alseena
Kiruthika Lakshmi & Pavithra, 2016; Issa et al., 2020).
Ongoing technological advancements may improve their efficiency and cost, making them a viable option in the
future (Table 12.2). The choice of sprayer in modern agriculture depends on factors like crop type, treatment area size,
and chemical type (Jalu et al., 2023; Yadav et al., 2023). Also, to spray fertilizer and pesticide the farmer has to use dif-
ferent sprayers. Thus, to solve this issue, (Harale et al., 2019) produced a solar sprayer which can spray both fertilizer
and pesticide.
The process of seed sowing is one of the most laborious parts of agriculture. In low-income nations, the farmers
sow the seeds manually which is time-consuming and laborious. In some countries, poor farmers operate ox for seed
sowing. The high-income nations or the rich farmers in countries like India use tractors which are costly and cause air
and noise pollution. Mechanical seed-sowing machines are also available in the market but they are equally laborious.
The Solar seed sowing machines are time-saving, sustainable and do not cause any kind of pollution (Fig. 12.3)
(Kolgiri, 2016).
A standard solar seed sower comprises components such as a solar panel, seed holder, battery, motor, soil cutter (for
soil excavation), soil leveling plate (to even the soil post-seeding), water storage (for irrigation), and an infrared (IR)
sensor (to halt its operation near obstacles) (Prakash et al., 2021). Consequently, a solar seed sower performs the inte-
grated functions of soil excavation, seed sowing, and water spraying. It represents an advanced machine capable of reg-
ulating sowing rate, and seed spacing, and accommodating various seed types (Fig. 12.4). This technology proves to be
cost-effective, environmentally sustainable, and demands minimal manual labor. In developed nations, it is managed
using the Global Positioning System (GPS) and remote control. Ongoing advancements in this field include the incorpo-
ration of seed spacing sensors for enhanced precision (Singhal et al., 2018).

12.5.2 Solar-powered water pumping and irrigation

A characteristic model of Solar operated Irrigation pump system has a solar panel, a converter, a transformer, a pump, a battery,
and a sprinkler. The sprinkler is connected to a pump and used to irrigate the field. The pump increases water pressure for max-
imum sprinkler speed and wide coverage. It also stores water in a tank and operates with solar power. A converter connects the
solar panel and pump, while a battery provides energy for night-time spraying (Kumar et al., 2020). The solar-powered

FIGURE 12.2 Typical model of a solar sprayer.

 Solar energy harvesting and its use in agriculture Chapter | 12 247

TABLE 12.2 Advantages and disadvantages of solar-powered sprayers (Jalu et al., 2023).

Advantages Disadvantages
Greater flexibility and mobility, not relying on a tractor or vehicle for power The initial cost may be higher than conventional
Are beneficial in remote areas and regions with limited electricity access May not be convenient in areas with limited sunlight
Reducing noise pollution
Minimizing disturbance to wildlife and communities
Environmentally friendly
Sustainable
Energy efficient
Low-cost operation, that is, No fuel and electricity required

FIGURE 12.3 Different types of

seed-sowing practices.

FIGURE 12.4 Schematic of solar seed sower.

Irrigation System (SPIS) have many advantages like sustainability, promoting gender equality, etc. Besides these high initial
investment is one of the major disadvantages of SPIS (Table 12.3).
In recent years, many agri-based countries like Kenya, Nepal, etc. have promoted SPIS in their regulations, policies,
and strategies. This is done to achieve a green economy, finance and business model, social justice, and groundwater
governance. For example, the Kenya Smallholder Solar Irrigation (KSSI) project facilitated many people’s transition
from a diesel pump to a solar water pump. This increased irrigated area, made the economy rise in gross profit by
350% after paying off the loan (FAO, 2018).
SPIS projects in Nepal offered a 10% extra discount to women farmers if they transferred the SPIS-installed land to
female beneficiaries. The experiment resulted in 77% of the demand from women farmers, with land being transferred
to them in all cases (Mukherji et al., 2017).
The Government of Bangladesh is investing in solar irrigation pumps (SIPs) to replace diesel pumps, aiming to
achieve energy security and reduce GHG emissions. Results from a survey of farmers using SIPs installed by
Infrastructure Development Company Limited (IDCOL) indicate benefits beyond diesel reduction. SIPs lower irrigation
costs by 20%
30%, provide time-saving services, and offer supplementary irrigation during delayed monsoons.
A detailed description of the advantages and disadvantages of SIPs is given below in Table 12.4 (Mitra et al., 2022).
248 Agriculture Toward Net Zero Emissions

TABLE 12.3 Advantages and disadvantages of solar-powered water pumping system (FAO, 2018).

Advantages Disadvantages
Economically viable High initial investment
Volatile fuel prices Not affordable for all
Encourages green economy Not covered by insurance
Easy to access in remote areas Lack of groundwater management
Beneficial in humanitarian crisis areas Lack of codes and standards
Potential job creation absence of systematic training
Food security can be solved production of PV panels causes
Reduction of burden on women and children to bring water from a distance. Thus, environmental issues like water toxicity
leading to women’s empowerment and a reduction in child malnutrition risk of groundwater over-abstraction
Rural development

TABLE 12.4 Advantages and disadvantages of solar irrigation pumps (FAO, 2018).

Advantages Disadvantages
Economically viable High initial investment
Volatile fuel prices Not affordable for all
Encourages green economy Not covered by insurance
Easy to access in remote areas Lack of groundwater management
Beneficial in humanitarian crisis areas Lack of codes and standards
Potential job creation absence of systematic training
Food security can be solved production of PV panels causes
Reduction of burden on women and children to bring water from a distance. Thus, environmental issues like water toxicity
leading to women’s empowerment and a reduction in child malnutrition Risk of groundwater over-abstraction
Rural development

12.5.3 Solar fertilization

Global fertilizer applications are expected to decrease in 2022
23 due to higher prices and lower affordability.
Reductions in nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium fertilizer usage are anticipated. Farmers in poorer countries like
Africa may face greater declines. Factors like supply and demand dynamics influence the overall pricing of fertilizers
in the market (Table 12.5) (FAO, 2022).
Nitrogenous fertilizers are the most common and widely used fertilizers which require urea or NH3 for their synthe-
sis. The Haber-Bosch process widely used method for ammonia production, but emits over 2.16 kg CO221/kg NH3 and
requires over 30 GJ ton21 NH3 due to strict high temperature (400 C
500 C) and high-pressure conditions varying
from 150 bar to 300 bar (Ghavam et al., 2021).
There are three ways of solar-fertilizers production based on the utilization of solar energy and converting it into
chemical energy, that is, indirect, direct, and hybrid methods (Comer et al., 2019)
1. Indirect: Absorption of solar energy via photocatalysis.
2. Direct: Absorption of solar energy in PV-electrolysis (photovoltaic and electrochemical). More affordable installa-
tion and maintenance. It is installed in areas with high solar flux like Sub-Saharan area, India, etc.
3. Hybrid: Photo-electrochemistry in which electrical bias is required.
The NH3 can be synthesized by using solar energy with different procedures. The synthesis of NH3 from N2, and H2
in the presence of sunlight with Haber-Bosch and redox processes. Its synthesis from N2 and H2O with electrochemical
and photocatalytic processes. NH3 can be synthesized through a redox process using N2, H2O, and methane (Fig. 12.5).
A study by Du et al. (2015) examined that the energy consumption for generating nitrogen and providing fertilizer
for a unit corn field was calculated. Simulation results indicate that less than 1% of the cornfield would be needed to
accommodate a photovoltaic system for nitrogen-fertilizer energy production.
 Solar energy harvesting and its use in agriculture Chapter | 12 249

TABLE 12.5 Factors affecting fertilizers (FAO, 2022).

Supply-side factors Demand-side factors

High and volatile energy prices Subsidies
Trade disruptions High crop prices
high transportation costs Less affordable
Export Restrictions

FIGURE 12.5 Production of NH3 via solar energy (FAO,

2022).

12.5.4 Solar crop and grain drying

Traditional open sun drying of agricultural products has drawbacks, such as extended drying time, product wastage, and
quality deterioration. Rural areas face challenges in terms of non-renewable energy availability and grid-connected elec-
tricity. The implementation of fossil fuel-powered dryers in rural locations is hindered by high investment and running
costs (Ekechukwu & Norton, 1999). Thus, to solve these problems solar-based dryers were developed. Nowadays, a
wide range of solar dryers are available (Fig. 12.6). They can be classified based on the mode of heat transfer
(Table 12.6) and mode of operation (Table 12.7).
In a study, Udomk et al. (2020) observed that the solar dryer has several economic, environmental, and social bene-
fits drop in post-harvest loss, energy efficiency, enhancement of quality of food, generation of additional income, incre-
ment in employment rate and improvement of public health.

12.5.5 Solar-powered tractors, farm machineries, and equipment

Tractors are extensively used in agriculture for various tasks, including plowing, planting, and harvesting. However, tra-
ditional tractors with Internal Combustion Engines (ICEs) consume fossil fuels, emit pollutants, and have lower conver-
sion efficiencies. To address these drawbacks, electric tractors powered by renewable energy sources have gained
attention. Electric tractors offer higher conversion efficiencies, flexible torque-speed control, reduced emissions, work
in remote areas without access to the electrical grid, and compatibility with mechanized farming activities. Studies have
shown that reduced tillage and no-tillage systems can significantly decrease energy input and GHG emissions compared
to conventional tillage (Gorjian, Calise, et al., 2021). For example, a life cycle assessment of optimized tillage scenarios
revealed that reduced tillage decreased total energy input by 26% and GHGs emissions to 817 g CO2-eq kg21 of prod-
uct, while no-tillage achieved even greater reductions (Mantoam et al. 2020).
Electric tractors provide a non-polluting alternative to ICE-based tractors. In addition to purely electric tractors, there
is ongoing development of hybrid electric tractors (HETs) that utilize both fossil fuels and electricity to power various
farming operations. These HETs incorporate rechargeable batteries to store electrical energy. Depending on the hybridiza-
tion ratio, different types of HETs exist, such as micro-, mild-, full-, or plug-in HETs (Malik and Kohl et al., 2020).
 FIGURE 12.6 Different types of solar dryers.

TABLE 12.6 Types of solar drying based on the mode of heat transfer.

Mode of Basic principle Advantages

heat
transfer
Direct Solar radiation directly falls on the product through a Removal of moisture in a short period
transparent cover
Indirect Solar radiation is used to heat the air in a solar air collector. Better control prevents over-drying temperature,
The hot air produced is then fed into the drying chamber improved quality, and the absence of direct exposure
where the products are located to solar radiation helps to maintain product quality
Hybrid Integrate multiple technologies, such as solar photovoltaic Provide the required energy for operating the dryer
panels, blowers, and thermal energy storage units even during off-sunshine hours, ensures continuous
drying, maintains a constant drying rate, prevents
microbial growth at night when the drying process is
stopped and helps achieve uninterrupted drying by
utilizing stored energy and supplementary power
Mixed Combines both direct and indirect drying modes, solar Flexible, wide application according to specific
radiation is directed to the product for direct drying, and product requirements
convective drying is also employed by passing hot air
generated from solar air heaters or collectors

Source: Modified from Srinivasan, G., Rabha, D.K., & Muthukumar, P. (2021). A review on solar dryers integrated with thermal energy storage units for
drying agricultural and food products. Solar Energy, 229, 22-38. [Link]

TABLE 12.7 Types of solar drying based on the mode of operation.

Particular Passive Active

Mechanism Food is directly exposed to the sun’s rays Incorporates external means like fans or pumps
The drying chamber is a shallow, insulated box with Solar energy in the form of heated air is moved from the
air holes collector area to the drying beds
A transparent cover allows solar radiation to enter Collectors are positioned at an optimal angle for solar-energy
Solar radiation is converted to low-grade heat when collection
it strikes an opaque wall Tilting collectors allow warmer air to rise naturally into the
Low-grade heat is trapped inside the box through the drying chamber
greenhouse effect Solar-heated air contacts as much surface area of the food as
Air flows through perforated trays, allowing airflow possible
around the food Thinly sliced food is placed on drying racks or trays with
airflow on all sides
Snug-fitting trays ensure proper airflow through the food
Moisture-laden air is vented out, and fresh air replaces it
Suitable for Fruits and vegetables Higher moisture content foodstuffs
 Solar energy harvesting and its use in agriculture Chapter | 12 251

FIGURE 12.7 Distinct configurations of electric power trains in HETs, (A) Conventional tractor,(B) parallel hybrid tractor, (C) plug-in hybrid trac-
tor, (D) serial-hybrid tractor, (E) battery electric tractor, and (F) fuel cell tractor.

HETs can be categorized into different configurations based on their power trains (Fig. 12.7): serial, parallel, and
power-split hybrid types. Some designs exclusively use electric power and do not incorporate ICEs, known as battery
electric tractors (BETs), or utilize fuel cells as their main energy source, known as fuel cell tractors (FCTs). FCTs rely
on hydrogen as their fuel source, with a fuel cell converting the stored hydrogen into electricity to power the electric
motor (Sutar and Butal et al., 2020).
Selecting the most suitable propulsion system depends on the specific requirements of the intended application. To
facilitate the widespread adoption of electric tractors, two critical elements are necessary: A reliable electricity source
and efficient battery storage units. Solar-generated electricity from photovoltaic panels can play a crucial role in provid-
ing a secure and stable power supply for electric tractors, mitigating potential discontinuities and instabilities associated
with conventional power grids (Gorjian et al., 2020). They are being developed with advancements in electric power
trains and can be easily integrated into mechanized farm operations. By utilizing renewable energy sources such as
solar, wind, and hydro, electric tractors offer a more sustainable and efficient solution for agricultural activities (Tariq
et al., 2021).

12.5.6 Solar-based dairy and poultry farms

Solar poultry farming is an innovative and sustainable approach that integrates renewable energy sources into poultry
production. By harnessing the power of the sun, solar poultry farms offer a compelling alternative to traditional energy
sources and promote environmental stewardship (Cui et al., 2020).
One critical factor in poultry farming is maintaining an appropriate indoor temperature within the poultry houses.
During the heating season, when ambient temperatures are low, it is essential to provide heating to the chicken houses
to maintain desired temperatures ranging between 21 C and 32 C. Extreme temperatures, whether hot or cold, can lead
to stress conditions for the birds (Rowland et al., 2023). Heat stress occurs when there is an imbalance between heat
loss and heat generation, affecting poultry sheds of various sizes and types. This stress negatively affects bird growth,
resulting in reduced weight gain, decreased egg production, and overall lower productivity. Chickens are homeothermic
organisms, meaning they maintain a constant internal body temperature regardless of external climate. However, exces-
sive energy expenditure on heat production can hinder their growth potential. Therefore, proper temperature manage-
ment is crucial to mitigate these effects and optimize broiler growth and productivity (Table 12.8).
By implementing modern poultry production techniques, such as solar-powered systems, proper temperature control,
and other environmental management strategies, farmers can create a sustainable and economically viable farming oper-
ation (Table 12.9). These practices help reduce the farm’s environmental impact, lower operating costs through renew-
able energy generation, and ensure high standards of animal welfare are maintained (Izam et al., 2022).
Similarly, a solar dairy farm is an innovative agricultural operation that combines dairy farming with solar energy
generation, utilizing various functional units to optimize efficiency and sustainability.
Furthermore, generating electricity on-site helps to reduce operating costs and provides energy independence, mak-
ing the farm more resilient to power outages and price fluctuations. In some cases, surplus electricity generated by the
solar panels can be fed back into the grid, enabling the dairy farmer to generate additional revenue through net metering
or other incentive programs (Bey et al., 2016).
252 Agriculture Toward Net Zero Emissions

TABLE 12.8 Functions of different units in a solar poultry farm to optimize the production and well-being of the
chickens.

Units Function
Solar Panels Unit Solar panels are strategically placed on the farm, either on the roofs of poultry houses or in open areas with
ample sunlight exposure. These panels capture sunlight and convert it into electricity.
Energy Generation Unit The solar panels generate electricity, which is utilized to power different aspects of the poultry farm. This
includes lighting, heating, ventilation systems, water pumps, and other electrical equipment necessary for
poultry production.
Poultry Housing Unit The poultry houses are designed to provide a comfortable and controlled environment for the chickens.
They are equipped with features such as insulation, proper ventilation, temperature control systems, and
appropriate lighting to optimize the health and productivity of the birds
Feeding and Watering Solar-powered systems are implemented to automate and regulate the feeding and watering of the poultry.
Systems This involves solar-powered feeders and waterers that distribute food and water to the birds at regular
intervals.
Environmental Solar-powered sensors and monitoring systems are utilized to track and control environmental parameters
Monitoring Unit within the poultry houses. These parameters include temperature, humidity, air quality, and lighting
conditions. By maintaining optimal conditions, farmers can ensure the health and welfare of the birds.

Source: Modified from Zeyad M. Ahmed, S.M.M., Hossain, E., Tasrif Anubhove, M.S., Hasan, S., Mahmud, D.M., & Islam, S. (2021). 2021 International
Conference on Computational Performance Evaluation, ComPE 2021 [Link] 9781665436564 73 78 Institute
of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc. United Kingdom Optimization of a Solar PV Power Plant with Poultry Demand Side Management (PoDSM) for
Poultry Farm [Link] 5 9751776.

TABLE 12.9 Functions of different units in a solar dairy farm to optimize production (W. A. et al., 2020).

Units Functions
Solar panel unit Solar panels are installed on the farm, typically on rooftops of barns, sheds, or open areas with sufficient
installation unit sunlight exposure. The number of panels and their capacity depends on the farm’s energy requirements and
available space.
Energy generation The solar panels capture sunlight and convert it into electricity through photovoltaic cells. This electricity
can be used to power different components of the dairy farm, such as milk cooling equipment, lighting,
water pumps, ventilation systems, and machinery.
Milk cooling and Solar energy can be used to power milk cooling equipment, ensuring that milk is rapidly cooled and stored
processing at appropriate temperatures to maintain its quality. Additionally, solar power can support processing and
packaging operations in the dairy farm, reducing reliance on traditional electricity sources
Water pumping Solar-powered water pumps can be used to provide water for the dairy farm, including drinking water for
the cattle, cleaning purposes, and irrigation if applicable. This reduces the reliance on grid electricity or
diesel-powered pumps, resulting in cost savings and a more sustainable water supply.
Lighting and ventilation Solar energy can be utilized for lighting inside the barns and sheds, as well as powering ventilation systems.
This helps maintain comfortable and healthy conditions for the dairy cattle, supporting their well-being and
milk production.
Farm infrastructure Solar energy can also be used to power other farm infrastructure, such as electric fences, gate openers, and
security systems. This enhances the overall efficiency and security of the dairy farm. Solar energy also
powers lighting systems within barns and sheds, creating a well-lit environment for dairy cattle

Source: Modified from Breen, M., Upton, J., & Murphy, M.D. (2020). Photovoltaic systems on dairy farms: Financial and renewable multi-objective
optimization (FARMOO) analysis. Applied Energy, 278, 115534. [Link] Dhonde, M., Sahu, K., & Murty, V.V.S.
(2022). The application of solar-driven technologies for the sustainable development of agriculture farming: A comprehensive review. Reviews in
Environmental Science and Bio/Technology, 21(1), 139
167. [Link]
 Solar energy harvesting and its use in agriculture Chapter | 12 253

TABLE 12.10 Components of cold storage and their function (Alghool et al., 2020; Ikram et al., 2021).

Components Functions
Solar panels Solar panels capture sunlight and convert it into electricity through photovoltaic cells. They provide the power
needed to run the refrigeration, cold storage, and processing units, reducing reliance on conventional energy
sources.
Compressor The compressor compresses the refrigerant gas, increasing its pressure and temperature. This process facilitates the
transfer of heat and enables the cooling cycle.
Condenser The condenser is a heat exchanger that facilitates the release of heat from the refrigerant gas, causing it to
condense into a high-pressure liquid. This step is essential for removing heat from the stored items or processing
equipment.
Evaporator The evaporator absorbs heat from the refrigerated space or processing equipment, causing the low-pressure liquid
refrigerant to evaporate and turn into a gas. This process cools the environment or equipment
Fans or Fans or air blowers facilitate the circulation of air across the evaporator and condenser coils. They enhance heat
airblowers transfer, ensuring efficient cooling and maintaining optimal temperature conditions. Insulation plays a crucial role
in minimizing heat transfer between the refrigerated space and the external environment. It helps maintain the
desired temperature and improves energy efficiency by preventing cold air loss.
Insulation Insulation plays a crucial role in minimizing heat transfer between the refrigerated space and the external
environment. It helps maintain the desired temperature and improves energy efficiency by preventing cold air loss.
Cold storage Cold storage units provide a controlled environment with lower temperatures to preserve perishable goods, such
as food and pharmaceuticals. They maintain a constant temperature to extend shelf life and ensure product
quality.
Processing Solar-powered processing equipment, such as cutting machines, blenders, or packaging machines, can operate
equipment using electricity generated from solar panels. This enables the processing and packaging of goods in a sustainable
and energy-efficient manner.

Modified from Alghool, D.M., Elmekkawy, T.Y., Haouari, M., & Elomri, A. (2020). Optimization of design and operation of solar assisted district cooling
systems. Energy Conversion and Management: X, 6, 100028. [Link]
Ikram, H., Javed, A., Mehmood, M., Shah, M., Ali, M., & Waqas, A. (2021). Techno-economic evaluation of a solar PV integrated refrigeration system for a
cold storage facility. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments, 44, 101063. [Link]

12.5.7 Solar-based refrigeration, cold storage, and processing units

These components (Table 12.10) work together in a refrigeration unit to facilitate the transfer of heat and create a con-
trolled, cold environment for preserving perishable goods. By carefully managing the refrigerant and controlling the
flow of heat, the unit can effectively cool and maintain the desired temperature for storage or processing purposes
(Amjad et al., 2021).
These components work together (Fig. 12.8) to create a solar-based refrigeration system that harnesses renewable
energy to power the cooling process, reducing reliance on traditional electricity sources. The integration of solar energy in
refrigeration systems contributes to energy efficiency, cost savings, and environmental sustainability (Du et al., 2021).

12.5.8 Solar greenhouse heating

Solar greenhouse heating refers to the use of solar energy to provide heat for maintaining optimal temperatures inside a
greenhouse. Greenhouses are used for cultivating plants, and maintaining a suitable temperature is crucial for plant
growth, especially in colder climates or during the winter months. Solar heating systems can help reduce energy costs
and make greenhouse operations more sustainable (Gorjian, Ebadi, et al., 2021). The common methods for solar green-
house heating:
Passive solar heating (Table 12.11) relies on the design, orientation, and natural elements of a building or space to
collect, store, and distribute solar energy for heating without the use of mechanical or electrical devices. It takes advan-
tage of the building’s structure and materials to passively capture and retain solar heat. The greenhouse is built with
materials that have high thermal mass, such as concrete or water barrels, which absorb and store heat during the day
and release it at night. South-facing glazing maximizes solar exposure, while insulation helps retain heat. Ventilation
systems may also be incorporated to regulate temperature (Xu et al., 2022).
254 Agriculture Toward Net Zero Emissions

FIGURE 12.8 Schematic diagram of photovoltaic cold storage system.

TABLE 12.11 Difference between active solar heating and passive solar heating.

Parameters Active solar heating Passive solar heating

Energy collection Relies on mechanical or electrical devices Relies on building design and natural elements
Mechanisms Solar collectors, pumps, fans, controls Solar collectors, pumps, fans, controls
Heat transfer Heat transfer fluids (water, air) Natural conduction, convection, radiation
Heat distribution Forced air or liquid circulation systems Natural heat distribution mechanisms
Complexity More complex installation and maintenance Simple and low-maintenance approach
Control and flexibility Precise control over solar energy utilization Limited control, relies on natural processes
Cost Higher upfront costs and maintenance Lower upfront costs and minimal maintenance
Adaptability Can be integrated with other heating sources Relies solely on solar energy for heating

Active solar heating (Table 12.11) involves the use of mechanical or electrical devices, such as solar collectors,
pumps, fans, and controls, to actively collect, transfer, and distribute solar energy for heating. It relies on technology to
capture and utilize solar energy efficiently. Example of such system—Solar Water Heating: This method uses solar col-
lectors to heat water, which is then circulated through pipes or tubing inside the greenhouse. The heated water releases
warmth into the greenhouse air through radiant heat transfer (Srinivasan & Muthukumar, 2021). Solar water heating
systems can be integrated with thermal storage tanks to provide heat during periods of low solar radiation. Solar Air
Heating (Fig. 12.9): Solar air heating systems collect and warm outside air using solar collectors. The heated air is then
circulated into the greenhouse using fans or natural convection. These systems can include thermal storage components
to store excess heat for later use. Solar air heaters are typically placed on the southern or eastern side of the greenhouse
for maximum solar exposure. Solar Thermal Systems: Solar thermal systems use solar energy to generate steam or hot
air, which can be used for space heating in the greenhouse. Concentrated solar power systems, parabolic troughs, or
solar dish collectors can be employed to capture and concentrate sunlight. The generated heat can then be used directly
or stored for later use. Solar photovoltaic systems with electric examples of active solar heaters.
It’s important to note that the choice of solar heating method depends on factors such as the greenhouse size, cli-
mate conditions, available solar resources, and budget. Designing an effective solar heating system may require the
expertize of a professional to ensure optimal performance and integration with the greenhouse structure
(Balakrishnan. et al., 2020).
 Solar energy harvesting and its use in agriculture Chapter | 12 255

FIGURE 12.9 Schematic (A) shows passive solar heating and (B) active solar air heating.

12.6 Economic feasibility of solar installation and development at the farm level
The population in developing countries growing faster as develops and the tendency will increase significantly till 2050
(GRID-Arendal, 2005). Together with the rising quantity of population appears the issue of higher life expectancy. The
world population already uses the most fertile soils for agriculture. In the world are nearly 4810 Mha of soil below agri-
cultural use for plant growth. The largest arable lands got such countries as the US (158 Mha), India (156 Mha), Russia
(122 Mha), China (119 Mha), Brazil (56 Mha), Canada (46 Mha), Nigeria (34 Mha), and Ukraine (32 Mha) (Arable
land (hectares), 2022). Simultaneously, due to environmental degradation our planet every year mislay from 5 to 10
Mha of land areas for agricultural use. Plus another 19.5 Mha yearly disappeared because of the fast industrial develop-
ment and the market of real estate (Kanianska, 2016; Risks of the global food crisis and challenges for Ukraine, 2011).
Another disadvantage tendency to raise the number of crops for biofuel production (Pradhan et al., 2023). For exam-
ple, the development of biofuel production is promoted by the US state which supports great subsidies to the agricul-
tural sector and farm companies to accomplish such interests. Following Directive 2003/30/EC European Union
contributes to the distribution of agricultural territories from 4% to 13% for the raw materials for biofuel production,
which underlines the need to change 5.75% of gasoline and diesel with biofuels (Risks of the global food crisis and
challenges for Ukraine, 2011). Therefore, a search for new ways to get renewable energy is very popular nowadays.
Such states as the USA, China, India, Russia, and Japan jointly make a hazardous emission issue of more than half
of the world’s emissions (Belyakov, 2019; de la Rue du Can et al., 2019). Thus, in addition, states that have restricted
land reserves and a deficit of their energy capability must pay appropriate care to develop agrovoltaics technology due
to their function in a significant contribution to decreasing GHG emissions (NASA et al., 2020).
India is an especially encouraging region for the development of agrovoltaics, as it has an economy with a main tar-
get on agriculture (de la Rue du Can et al., 2019). India is very quickly advancing energy services, as still a not small
percentage of India’s society does not get a connection to any electricity mode (Thomas et al., 2020). Furthermore, the
furnishing of agrovoltaic systems, and the solar steam generator panels establishment—convenient devices that clean
and desalinate water in the evaporation procedure. Such portal machines, corresponding to researchers, can have a con-
crete effect on the epidemiological and sanitary activity in zones with a drinking water deficit, and devaluation of dis-
eases induced by the absence of clean drinking water (Information and analytical system “Agrarian Together”, 2020).
China is already developing agrovoltaic technology on a great scope (Zheng et al., 2021). The Chinese government
deals with it with the assistance of an important strategy for “Targeted Poverty Alleviation” (Zheng et al., 2021).
Progressive consideration is paying attention to advancing domestic needs to address the overcapacity of China’s photo-
voltaic systems. The association of photovoltaic energy and agricultural actions is a natural feedback to clean electricity
production for the needs agriculture sector. Different crops, especially such as rice and forage grasses can be used for
agrovoltaics (Ahmed et al., 2022). In the last few years, photovoltaic agriculture fastly increased in China due to serious
state policy of support, the development of regulated organic agriculture with a target on agrarian electrification policy,
etc. (Jangir et al., 2019; Xue, 2017).
256 Agriculture Toward Net Zero Emissions

So, agrovoltaic modules as approximately modern automation are rising attractive all over the world, and it got a
practical use in the major developed countries. Nowadays financing of the green energy sector makes agribusiness less
dependent on additional foreign suppliers and monopolies, which there is a high number in the energy sector. Together
with the described factor, there is a need to interest solar energy in the agricultural sector in terms of cost resemblance,
especially in developing countries. Due to the building of a solar power plant, the business gets a completely expected
price of one kilowatt-hour of electricity. The price will not change for the finer compared to the tariffs of suppliers. The
large agricultural holdings and small farms are appropriate innovation drivers for producing solar energy and starting to
be independent energy entities (Pascaris et al., 2021).
The geographical position of Ukraine and its climate as well can be a case of a favorable developing country for the
agrivoltaic systems use. In many cases, the potential of solar energy can be fixed mainly in the southern regions of the
country compared to the northern regions. Solar generating features during the year can be regulated easily. At the
same time, the most effective can be from April to October in the southern regions. In the northern regions can be effec-
tively used from May to September.
The Agriculture of Ukraine is leading in the export of plant crops and livestock products to markets of the world.
Wheat, barley, and maize are the major crops of price shocks during the conflict (Just & Echaust, 2022). As in further,
such agricultural export is the major force for the advancement of the economy of Ukraine which supports the well-being
of the society. The land capacity of Ukraine is nearly 43 million hectares, among which arable land has 32 million hec-
tares. Such arable area is comparable to the third part of the arable land in the European Union (OECD Project Report,
2015). Therefore, the evolution of renewable energy is one of the crucial topics for reforming Ukraine’s energy sector.
The main objectives and rules for the progress of renewable energy are stated in the Energy Strategy of Ukraine for
the term up to 2035. It arranges a growth in the percentage of green energy in the final energy consumption of the coun-
try from 12% to 25% during the period from 2025 to 2035 (Ministry of Energy of Ukraine, 2019). To achieve the
described aims, the government has appointed economic tools to strengthen electricity production from renewable
energy sources, which include also solar energy. Such tools contain (a) feed-in tariff and (b) tax and customs benefits.
The state until December 29, 2030 promises at the feed-in tariff the asset of all amounts of electricity produced by solar
power plants. In the period of development in the legislation guiding the procedure for encouraging electricity produc-
tion from solar radiation, businesses can select a novel protocol for stimulation.
The Tax and Customs Codes of Ukraine (Customs Code of, 2012; Tax Code Of Ukraine, 2011) issue exceptions
from value-added tax and customs duties for the buying of equipment, materials, and components for solar installation.
It is important to admit that the proposed tax benefits may be used in the case of identical goods with similar qualitative
parameters that are not manufactured in Ukraine. This legislation aims to encourage the modern improvement or mod-
ernization of domestic components and equipment for the sector of solar energy, which may support to decrease in
imports of such components and raise its exports in the future.
Supportive climatic conditions and completed governmental mechanisms of support affect the fast progress in solar
energy features in the private household sector and industrial sector. As a result, in Ukraine in the area of industry were
820 solar energy facilities at the end of 2019. The quantity of electricity produced by solar power plants in the industrial
sector in 2019 equal to 2932 million kWh, which is 6 times higher compared to the 2015 (Report on the results of the
National Commission for State Regulation of Energy and Utilities in, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019). The significant
indicators of solar energy improvement in the private household sector are shown via an increase of modules of solar
energy 10 times compared to 2015—from 224 numbers to 21,968 in 2019.
Although existing benefits of agrovoltaic systems for the development of agriculture and solar energy production,
nowadays in Ukraine no real agrovoltaic system is established. The major difficulties to the agricultural land use for
energy and food agriculture production in Ukraine are features of the legislation administrating renewable energy pro-
duction. In agreement with Article 14 of the Law of Ukraine “On Energy Lands and the Legal Regime of Special
Zones of Energy Facilities” solar power modules may be situated only on land unacceptable for agricultural use (Law
of Ukraine “On Energy Lands and the Legal Regime of Special Zones of Energy Facilities”, 2011) with a high-level of
waterlogging or problematic relief, etc. Such a legal norm in Ukraine is a significant obstruction to the development of
agrovoltaics. It should be recognized that in Ukraine, it is put into use only in the electricity sector. This is the major
sense why this machinery has not advanced in other sectors: heat, transport, and agrovoltaics.
The project of the agrovoltaic system has been experimentally studied and subject to suitable modifications to the
present legislation of Ukraine. The financial calculations found that the dividends from the agricultural products sale,
regulated by agrovoltaic systems, are reduced due to the decrease in crop yields because of the shading of solar panels
and the smaller area implicated in their cultivation. The experimental plant crop objects were corn and spring wheat
(Agrovoltaics as a promising direction of land use for ensuring global energy and food security, 2021). By the way, the
 Solar energy harvesting and its use in agriculture Chapter | 12 257

significant recognition of agrovoltaic systems is the high efficiency of binary use of land for energy production and
plant food purposes, which allows the farm to receive income from two possible sources: agricultural products sailing
and electricity. Meantime, the loss in revenue from agricultural products sailing is negated by supplementary economic
benefits from the sale of electricity produced at the feed-in tariff by the agrovoltaic system.

12.7 Research and developmental need in usages of solar energy in agriculture

As solar energy continues to play an increasingly vital role in agriculture, addressing key research and development
areas is crucial for its effective utilization (Ayua et al., 2023). Firstly, there is a priority to advance solar panel technolo-
gies, with a specific emphasis on cost-effectiveness and environmental impact in different regions (Ayua et al., 2023;
Samatar et al., 2023). Research endeavors should concentrate on enhancing the efficiency of solar panels, exploring
new materials, and refining manufacturing processes. Additionally, a particular focus should be placed on selecting pro-
ductive plant objects for agrivoltaic systems (Campana et al., 2021; Widmer et al., 2024; Zainol Abidin et al., 2021).
Secondly, understanding the agronomic implications of solar installations is crucial. There is a need for research to
assess how shading from solar panels influences crop growth, microclimates, and overall agricultural productivity, con-
sidering different crops and their specific requirements (Touil et al., 2021). This includes investigating optimal designs
for agrivoltaic systems, taking into account factors such as panel height, spacing, and light distribution.
Furthermore, research should delve into the socio-economic aspects of solar energy adoption in agriculture. This
involves studying the economic feasibility, policy frameworks, and incentives that encourage farmers to integrate solar
technologies, emphasizing the selection of crops that align with both energy production and local agricultural needs
(Pascaris et al., 2021). Assessing the impact on local communities and developing models for inclusive and sustainable
solar adoption are also imperative. Lastly, ongoing research should address the environmental footprint of solar installa-
tions in agriculture, exploring technologies with minimal environmental impact (Hamidinasab et al., 2023). In conclu-
sion, a comprehensive research agenda is essential to unlock the full potential of solar energy in transforming and
sustaining agriculture, with a focus on selecting productive plant objects for optimal outcomes. Additionally, solar
energy has diverse applications in agriculture, including solar spraying and seed sowing machines, solar-powered water
pumping and irrigation, solar fertilization, crop and grain drying, solar-powered tractors, farm machinery, and equip-
ment, solar-based dairy and poultry farms, solar-based refrigeration, cold storage, and processing units, and solar green-
house heating (Majeed et al., 2023).

12.8 Future perspectives

The future of solar energy in agrivoltaic farming holds significant promise, driven by ongoing innovations in solar panel
technology such as multijunction cells and thin film panels. These advancements are geared towards boosting efficiency
and addressing environmental concerns. Moving forward, emphasis will be placed on practical applications that opti-
mize system efficiency, refine radiation distribution strategies, and assess global adoption and policies, thereby shaping
the landscape of agrivoltaics. Achieving a balance between clean energy generation and sustainable crop production
will be crucial, taking into account factors such as machinery use, crop selection, and agronomic practices. Since 2016,
there have been notable developments in agrivoltaic farming, with varying applications across countries due to technical
and economic challenges. The integration of solar energy in agriculture is supported by various types of solar panels
and considerations of plant parameters like the light saturation point. Technical optimization parameters include panel
height, spacing, and density, impacting shading effects and plant growth under panels. While some plant species show
enhanced yield or productivity with agrivoltaics, overall, these systems contribute significantly to clean energy produc-
tion with minimal impact on crop yield. Solar-powered systems enhance efficiency and sustainability across agricultural
practices such as spraying, irrigation, drying, machinery operation, and greenhouse heating, leading to reduced energy
costs and environmental benefits. Analyzing qualitative parameters will further optimize the cost-effectiveness and effi-
cacy of agrivoltaic systems in agriculture.

12.9 Conclusion and recommendations

In conclusion, the analysis of agrivoltaic efficiency for various plant species, including Bok choy, broccoli, mushroom,
green pepper, tomatoes, chiltepin pepper, and corn, reveals increased yield or higher productivity alongside clean
energy production. Conversely, basil, carrot, onion, spinach, and watermelon exhibited decreased yields. Java tea,
grape, and cucumber demonstrated no yield change but an improvement in clean energy production efficiency.
258 Agriculture Toward Net Zero Emissions

Factors influencing agrivoltaic outcomes include plant species, irrigation, and the percentage of shade from photovoltaic
panels. The development of agrivoltaics should prioritize supporting plant productivity and yield, necessitating regula-
tion by governments worldwide. Using Ukraine as an example, it is evident that governmental incentive policies play a
pivotal role in advancing solar energy, underscoring the need for similar support in the global development of agrovol-
taic farms. Additionally, the exploration of solar applications in agriculture, encompassing solar-powered water pump-
ing, fertilization, crop and grain drying, solar-powered machinery, dairy and poultry farms, refrigeration, and
greenhouse heating, is crucial for enhancing sustainability and environmental stewardship in agrivoltaic farming. This
study underscores the importance of concentrated research and development efforts and encourages global collaboration
to unlock the full potential of solar energy in agriculture.

References
Agrovoltaics as a promising direction of land use for ensuring global energy and food security. (2021).
Ahmad, K., Wijayanti, Y., Subandriya, A., Setyorini, T., Mukhid, S., & Budi Prasetyo, R. (2022). 2022 5th Asia Conference on Energy and Electrical
Engineering, ACEEE 2022. Available from [Link] 9781665499330 147 151 Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers Inc. Indonesia The Agrivoltaic System Development in Baron Technopark, Yogyakarta, Indonesia [Link]
[Link]/xpl/[Link]?punumber 5 9851836.
Ahmed, S., Khan, M. R., Haque, M., Anisul, M. H., & Khan, R. M. (2022). Agrivoltaics analysis in a techno-economic framework: Understanding
why agrivoltaics on rice will always be profitable. Applied Energy, 323. Available from [Link] Elsevier.
AL-agele, H. A., Proctor, K., Murthy, G., & Higgins, C. (2021). A Case Study of Tomato (Solanum lycopersicon var. Legend) Production and Water
Productivity in Agrivoltaic Systems. Sustainability, 13(5), 2850. Available from [Link]
Alexandrov, E., Şişcanu, G. H., & Scurtu, G. H. (2021). Performance - light saturation curve for grapevine photosynthesis. Scientific apers:
Management, Economic Engineering in Agriculture & Rural Development, 21(2), 39
45.
Alghool, D. M., Elmekkawy, T. Y., Haouari, M., & Elomri, A. (2020). Optimization of design and operation of solar assisted district cooling systems.
Energy Conversion and Management: X, 6, 100028. Available from [Link]
Amjad, W., Akram, F., Rehman, S., Munir, A., & Manzoor, O. (2021). Thermal analysis of a solar assisted cold storage unit for the storage of agricul-
tural perishables produce †. Engineering Proceedings, 12(1). Available from [Link] [Link]/journal/
engproc.
Arable land (hectares) (2022). Food and Agriculture Organization, electronic files and website. License: CC BY-4.0.
Arenas-Corraliza, M. G., Rolo, V., López-Dı́az, M. L., & Moreno, G. (2019). Wheat and barley can increase grain yield in shade through acclimation
of physiological and morphological traits in Mediterranean conditions. Scientific Reports, 9(1). Available from [Link]
019-46027-9, [Link]/srep/[Link].
Ayua, T. J., Uto, O. T., & Fatty, L. K. M. (2023). An investigation of solar energy potential towards improving agriculture using angstrom and newly
developed analytical models: In case of The Gambia. Scientific African, 21, e01886. Available from [Link]
Baiju, A., & Yarema, M. (2022). Status and challenges of multi-junction solar cell technology. Frontiers in Energy Research, 10. Available from
[Link]
Balakrishnan, P., Shabbir, M. S. F., Siddiqi, A., & Wang, X. (2020). Current status and future prospects of renewable energy: A case study. Energy Sources,
Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects, 42(21), 2698
2703. Available from [Link]
Barron-Gafford, G. A., Pavao-Zuckerman, M. A., Minor, R. L., Sutter, L. F., Barnett-Moreno, I., Blackett, D. T., Thompson, M., Dimond, K., Gerlak,
A. K., Nabhan, G. P., & Macknick, J. E. (2019). Agrivoltaics provide mutual benefits across the food
energy
water nexus in drylands. Nature
Sustainability, 2(9), 848
855. Available from [Link] [Link]/natsustain/.
Basavaraj, P. R., Ajaykumar, K., & Swathi, M. (2023). Development and evaluation of solar operated sprayer. Available from [Link]
[Link]/profile/Basavaraj-Patil-5/publication/343384473_Development_and_Evaluation_of_Solar_Operated_Sprayer/links/5f26c4ae299bf134049b
b461/[Link]. (last accessed on 14 June 2023).
Bawa, H. S. (1974). Some studies on vibration of a Knapsack power sprayer effecting operator comfort. Journal of Agricultural Engineering, 11(1).
Belyakov, N. (2019). Solar energy (pp. 417
438). Elsevier BV. Available from [Link]
Bey, M., Hamidat, A., Benyoucef, B., & Nacer, T. (2016). Viability study of the use of grid connected photovoltaic system in agriculture: Case of
Algerian dairy farms. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 63, 333
345. Available from [Link]
Breen, M., Upton, J., & Murphy, M. D. (2020). Photovoltaic systems on dairy farms: Financial and renewable multi-objective optimization
(FARMOO) analysis. Applied Energy, 278, 115534, [Link] A. et al., 2020).115534.
Campana, P. E., Stridh, B., Amaducci, S., & Colauzzi, M. (2021). Optimisation of vertically mounted agrivoltaic systems. Journal of Cleaner
Production, 325, 129091. Available from [Link]
Chadalavada, H. (2021). Solar powered semi-automated mutlipurpose agriculture machine. Materials Today: Proceedings, 46, 3469
3473, [Link]
org/10.1016/[Link](W. A. et al., 2020).11.864.
Chae, S. H., Kim, H. J., Moon, H. W., Kim, Y. H., & Ku, K. M. (2022). Agrivoltaic Systems enhance farmers’ profits through broccoli visual quality
and electricity production without dramatic changes in yield, antioxidant capacity, and glucosinolates. Agronomy, 12(6). Available from https://
[Link]/10.3390/agronomy12061415, [Link] 5 1655039679.
 Solar energy harvesting and its use in agriculture Chapter | 12 259

Comer, B. M., Fuentes, P., Dimkpa, C. O., Liu, Y. H., Fernandez, C. A., Arora, P., Realff, M., Singh, U., Hatzell, M. C., & Medford, A. J. (2019).
Prospects and Challenges for Solar Fertilizers. Joule, 3(7), 1578
1605. Available from [Link] [Link]
[Link]/joule.
Craggs, L., & Gilbert, P. (2018). Sustainable greenhouse gas reductions from bioenergy systems-climate change: A bioenergy driver and constraint
greenhouse gas. Balances of Bioenergy Systems (pp. 1
10). United Kingdom: Elsevier Inc.. Available from [Link]
ence/book/9780081010365, 10.1016/B978-0-08-101036-5.00001-X.
Cui, Y., Theo, E., Gurler, T., Su, Y., & Saffa, R. (2020). A comprehensive review on renewable and sustainable heating systems for poultry farming.
International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies, 15(1), 121
142. Available from [Link]
Customs Code of. (2012).
Cyrs, W. D., Avens, H. J., Capshaw, Z. A., Kingsbury, R. A., Sahmel, J., & Tvermoes, B. E. (2014). Landfill waste and recycling: Use of a screening-
level risk assessment tool for end-of-life cadmium telluride (CdTe) thin-film photovoltaic (PV) panels. Energy Policy, 68, 524
533. Available
from [Link] [Link]
Dhonde, M., Sahu, K., & Murty, V. V. S. (2022). The application of solar-driven technologies for the sustainable development of agriculture farming:
A comprehensive review. Reviews in Environmental Science and Bio/Technology, 21(1), 139
167. Available from [Link]
s11157-022-09611-6.
van Dijk, M., Morley, T., Rau, M. L., & Saghai, Y. (2021). A meta-analysis of projected global food demand and population at risk of hunger for the
period 2010
2050. Nature Food, 2(7), 494
501. Available from [Link] [Link]
Du, W., Li, M., Wang, Y., Ma, X., Hu, C., Zhang, Y., & Zhang, Z. (2021). Dynamic energy efficiency characteristics analysis of a distributed solar pho-
tovoltaic direct-drive solar cold storage. Building and Environment, 206, 108324. Available from [Link]
Du, Z., Denkenberger, D., & Pearce, J. M. (2015). Solar photovoltaic powered on-site ammonia production for nitrogen fertilization. Solar Energy,
122, 562
568. Available from [Link]
Dupraz, C., Marrou, H., Talbot, G., Dufour, L., Nogier, A., & Ferard, Y. (2011). Combining solar photovoltaic panels and food crops for optimising
land use: Towards new agrivoltaic schemes. Renewable Energy, 36(10), 2725
2732. Available from [Link]
Ekechukwu, O. V., & Norton, B. (1999). 99/02111 Review of solar-energy drying systems II: An overview of solar drying technology. Fuel and
Energy Abstracts, 40(3), 216. Available from [Link]
El Kolaly, W., Ma, W., Li, M., & Darwesh, M. (2020). The investigation of energy production and mushroom yield in greenhouse production based
on mono photovoltaic cells effect. Renewable Energy, 159, 506
518. Available from [Link]
El-Sayed, A., Kabany, A. F., & Elhelew, W. (2021). A study on pesticide sprayer powered by solar energy appropriate for small farms. Arab
Universities Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 29(2), 505
517.
Erwin, J., & Gesick, E. (2017). Photosynthetic responses of Swiss chard, kale, and spinach cultivars to irradiance and carbon dioxide concentration.
HortScience, 52(5), 706
712.
FAO. (2018). The state of agricultural commodity markets 2018: Agricultural trade, climate change and food security. Rome: FAO.
FAO. (2022). The use of solar energy in irrigated agriculture: A sourcebook for irrigation water management with alternative energy solutions. FAO.
Ferroni, L., Živčak, M., Sytar, O., Kovár, M., Watanabe, N., Pancaldi, S., Baldisserotto, C., & Brestič, M. (2020). Chlorophyll-depleted wheat mutants
are disturbed in photosynthetic electron flow regulation but can retain an acclimation ability to a fluctuating light regime. Environmental and
Experimental Botany, 178, 104156. Available from [Link]
Ghavam, S., Vahdati, M., Wilson, I. A. G., & Styring, P. (2021). Sustainable ammonia production processes. Frontiers in Energy Research, 9.
Available from [Link]
Ghugare, B. D., Adhaoo, S. H., Gite, L. P., Pandya, A. C., & Patel, S. L. (1991). Ergonomics evaluation of a lever-operated knapsack sprayer. Applied
Ergonomics, 22(4), 241
250. Available from [Link]
Goetzberger, A., & Zastrow, A. (1982). On the coexistence of solar-energy conversion and plant cultivation. International Journal of Solar Energy, 1
(1), 55
69. Available from [Link]
Gokulavasan Alseena Kiruthika Lakshmi S.M. Pavithra (2016). Design and development of solar based pesticide sprayer. In 2016 Proceedings of the
International Conference on Systems, Science, Control, Communication, Engineering and Technology (pp. 18
19).
Gorjian, S., Calise, F., Kant, K., Ahamed, M. S., Copertaro, B., Najafi, G., Zhang, X., Aghaei, M., & Shamshiri, R. R. (2021). A review on opportu-
nities for implementation of solar energy technologies in agricultural greenhouses. Journal of Cleaner Production, 285. Available from https://
[Link]/10.1016/[Link].2020.124807, [Link]
Gorjian, S., Ebadi, H., Trommsdorff, M., Sharon, H., Demant, M., & Schindele, S. (2021). The advent of modern solar-powered electric agricultural
machinery: A solution for sustainable farm operations. J Clean Prod, 292, 126030. Available from [Link]
Gorjian, S., Minaei, S., MalehMirchegini, L., Trommsdorff, M., & Shamshiri, R. R. (2020). Applications of solar PV systems in agricultural automation
and robotics. Photovoltaic solar energy conversion: Technologies, applications and environmental impacts (pp. 191
235). Iran: Elsevier. Available
from [Link] 10.1016/B978-0-12-819610-6.00007-7.
GRID-Arendal (2005).World population development.
Hamidinasab, B., Javadikia, H., Hosseini-Fashami, F., Kouchaki-Penchah, H., & Nabavi-Pelesaraei, A. (2023). Illuminating sustainability: A compre-
hensive review of the environmental life cycle and exergetic impacts of solar systems on the agri-food sector. Solar Energy, 262, 111830.
Available from [Link]
Harale, G. K., Matte, S. P., Gabhale, A. K., & Dhavane, S. P. (2019). Dual Sprayer for pesticides and fertilizers. International Journal of Current
Engineering and Technology, 9(03). Available from [Link]
260 Agriculture Toward Net Zero Emissions

Homma, M., Doi, T., & Yoshida, Y. (2016). A field experiment and the simulation on agrivoltaic-systems regarding to rice in a paddy field. Journal
of Japanese Society of Energy Resources, 37, 23
31. Available from [Link]
Huang, J. J., D’Souza, C., & Zhou, W. (2021). Light-time-biomass response model for predicting the growth of choy sum (Brassica rapa var. parachi-
nensis) in soil-based LED-constructed indoor plant factory for efficient seedling production. Frontiers in Plant Science, 12, 623682. Available
from [Link]
Huang, Y., Wang, X., Miao, W., Suo, H., Fu, C., Chen, M., Zhao, X., & Ou, L. (2021). The photosynthetic characteristics of different purple peppers.
Horticulturae, 7(9), 304. Available from [Link]
Ikram, H., Javed, A., Mehmood, M., Shah, M., Ali, M., & Waqas, A. (2021). Techno-economic evaluation of a solar PV integrated refrigeration system
for a cold storage facility. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments, 44, 101063. Available from [Link]
Information and analytical system “Agrarian Together”. (2020). Agrovoltaika: Double benefit for the economy. ,[Link]
IRENA (2018). Renewable Energy Technologies, International Renewable Energy Agency, New York, USA.
Issa, W. A., Abdulmumuni, B., Azeez, R. O., Okpara, I. N., Fanifosi, J. O., & Ologunye, O. B. (2020). Design, fabrication, and testing of a movable
solar operated sprayer for farming operation. International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology (IJMET), 11(3). Available from
10.34218/ijmet.11.3.2020.002.
Izam, N. S. M. N., Itam, Z., Sing, W. L., & Syamsir, A. (2022). Sustainable development perspectives of solar energy technologies with focus on solar
photovoltaic—A review. Energies, 15(8). Available from [Link] [Link]
Jalu, M. V., Yadav, R., & Ambaliya, P. S. (2023). A comprehensive review of various types of sprayers used in modern agriculture.
Jangir, C. K., Kumar, S., & Meena, R. S. (2019). Significance of soil organic matter to soil quality and evaluation of sustainability. Sustainable agri-
culture (pp. 357
381). Jodhpur: Scientific Publisher.
Jangir, C. K., Sangwan, P. S., Panghaal, D., Kumar, S., Meena, R. S., Bharti., Jat, R. D., & Singh, N. (2024). Spatial variability and statistical analysis
of soil properties in the rice wheat-based systems of North-West India. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 55(8), 1205
1223.
Jo, H., Asekova, S., Bayat, M. A., Ali, L., Song, J. T., Ha, Y.-S., Hong, D.-H., & Lee, J.-D. (2022). Comparison of yield and yield components of sev-
eral crops grown under agro-photovoltaic system in Korea. Agriculture, 12(5), 619. Available from [Link]
Just, M., & Echaust, K. (2022). Dynamic spillover transmission in agricultural commodity markets: What has changed after the COVID-19 threat?
Economics Letters, 217, 110671. Available from [Link]
Kanianska, R. (2016). Agriculture and its impact on land-use, environment, and ecosystem services. InTech. Available from 10.5772/63719.
Kao, Y. C., Chou, H. M., Hsu, S. C., Lin, A., Lin, C. C., Shih, Z. H., Chang, C. L., Hong, H. F., & Horng, R. H. (2019). Performance comparison of
III
V//Si and III
V//InGaAs multi-junction solar cells fabricated by the combination of mechanical stacking and wire bonding. Scientific
Reports, 9(1). Available from [Link] [Link]/srep/[Link].
Kolgiri, S. (2016). Solar seed sowing machine.
Kumar, R., Punia, H., & Kumar, S. (2020). Nanomaterials for agriculture input use efficiency. In S. Kumar, R. S. Meena, & M. K. Jhariya (Eds.), Resources
Use Efficiency in Agriculture. Singapore: Springer. Available from [Link] Resources Use Efficiency in Agriculture.
Kumar, S., Gopinath, K. A., Sheoran, S., Meena, R. S., Srinivasarao, C., Bedwal, S., Jangir, C. K., Mrunalini, K., Jat, R., & Praharaj, C. S. (2023).
Pulse-based cropping systems for soil health restoration, resources conservation, and nutritional and environmental security in rainfed agroecosys-
tems. Frontiers in Microbiology, 13, 1041124.
Kumar, S., Meena., Jakhar, S. R., Jangir, C. K., Gupta, A., & Meena, B. L. (2019). Adaptation strategies for enhancing agricultural and environmen-
tal sustainability under current climate. Sustainable agriculture (pp. 226
274). Scientific Publisher.
Kumar, S., Sharma, S. K., Thakral, S. K., Bhardwaj, K. K., Jhariya, M. K., Meena, R. S., Jangir, C. K., Bedwal, S., Jat, R. D., Gaber, A., Atta, A. A., &
Hossain, A. (2022). Integrated nutrient management improves the productivity and nutrient use efficiency of Lens culinaris Medik. Sustainability
(Switzerland), 14(3). Available from [Link] [Link]
Kumar, S. S., Bibin, C., Akash, K., Aravindan, K., Kishore, M., & Magesh, G. (2020). Solar powered water pumping systems for irrigation: A com-
prehensive review on developments and prospects towards a green energy approach. Materials Today: Proceedings, 33, 303
307. Available from
[Link] (W. A. et al., 2020).04.092.
Kumpanalaisatit, M., Setthapun, W., Sintuya, H., & Jansri, S. N. (2022). Efficiency improvement of ground-mounted solar power generation in agrivoltaic
system by cultivation of bok choy (Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis l.) under the panels. International Journal of Renewable Energy Development, 11(1),
103
110. Available from [Link] [Link]
Larsen, D. H., Woltering, E. J., Nicole, C. C. S., & Marcelis, L. F. M. (2020). Response of basil growth and morphology to light intensity and spec-
trum in a vertical farm. Frontiers in Plant Science, 11, 597906. Available from [Link]
Law of Ukraine (2011). “On Energy Lands and the Legal Regime of Special Zones of Energy Facilities” № 1. ,[Link]
2480-17#Text..
Leharwan, M., Kumar, Y., Kumar, R., Kumar Saraswat, P., Kumar, R., Kumar Thaliyil Veetil, A., Bhattacharjee, S., Kumar, A., & Kumar, S. (2023).
Assessing the effects of conservation tillage and in-situ crop residue management on crop yield and soil properties in rice
Wheat cropping sys-
tem. Sustainability, 15(17), 12736. Available from [Link]
Leon, A., & Ishihara, K. N. (2018). Influence of allocation methods on the LC-CO2 emission of an agrivoltaic system. Resources, Conservation and
Recycling, 138, 110
117. Available from [Link] [Link]/locate/resconrec.
Majeed, Y., Khan, M. U., Waseem, M., Zahid, U., Mahmood, F., Majeed, F., Sultan, M., & Raza, A. (2023). Renewable energy as an alternative
source for energy management in agriculture. Energy Reports, 10, 344
359. Available from [Link] http://
[Link]/energy-reports/.
 Solar energy harvesting and its use in agriculture Chapter | 12 261

Malik, A., & Kohli, S. (2020). Electric tractors: Survey of challenges and opportunities in India. Materials Today: Proceedings, 28, 2318
2324.
Available from [Link] (W. A. et al., 2020).04.585.
Mantoam, E. J., Angnes, G., Mekonnen, M. M., & Romanelli, T. L. (2020). Energy, carbon and water footprints on agricultural machinery.
Biosystems Engineering, 198, 304
322. Available from [Link] (W. A. et al., 2020).08.019.
Marrou, H., Guilioni, L., Dufour, L., Dupraz, C., & Wery, J. (2013). Microclimate under agrivoltaic systems: Is crop growth rate affected in the partial
shade of solar panels? Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 177, 117
132. Available from [Link]
Meena, R. S., Lal, R., Kumar, S., Pradhan, G., Srinivasarao, C., Singh, A. K., Pathak, H., Abhilash, P. C., Kumar, A., Sharma, S. K., & Jat, M. L.
(2024). Potential of Indian agriculture for capturing atmospheric CO2 and monetizing carbon credits to the farmers: An overview and policy
framework. Advances in Agronomy, 188. Available from [Link]
Meena, R. S., Pradhan, G., Nalani., Kumar, S., Singh, A. K., Verma, S. K., Mina, K. K., Kumar, S., & Chaturvedi, R. K. (2024). Diversified cropping
modules designed for soil restoration, CO2 sequestration, and generating carbon credits. Land Degradation & Development. Available from
[Link]
Ministry of Energy of Ukraine. (2019). Energy strategy of Ukraine for the period up to 2035, [Electronic resource]. ,[Link]
control/uk/doccatalog/list?currDir 5 50358..
Meena, R. S., Pradhan, G., Singh, K., Kumar, S., Singh, A. K., Shashidhar, K. S., Mina, K. K., & Rao, C. S. (2024a). Agriculture models for restoring
degraded land to enhance CO2 biosequestration and carbon credits in the Vindhyan region of India. Science of the Total Environment, 929, 172661.
Mitra., Buisson, M. C., Osmani, Z., Habib., Hossain, M., Siddiqui, M. B., & Mukherji, A. (2022). Mitigation and beyond: Multiple co-benefits of solar
irrigation in Bangladesh. SoLAR Issue Brief Series.
Mittal, V.K., Bhatia, B.S., &d Ahuja, S.S. (1996). A study of the magnitude, causes, and profile of victims of injuries with selected farm machines in
Punjab. Final Report of ICAR Adhoc Research Project, Department of Farm Machinery and Power Engineering, Punjab Agricultural University,
Ludhiana, India.
Moon, H. W., & Ku, K. M. (2022). Impact of an agriphotovoltaic system on metabolites and the sensorial quality of cabbage (Brassica oleracea var.
capitata) and its high-temperature-extracted juice. Foods, 11(4). Available from [Link] [Link]
2304-8158/11/4/498/pdf.
Moreda, G. P., Muñoz-Garcı́a, M. A., Alonso-Garcı́a, M. C., & Hernández-Callejo, L. (2021). Techno-economic viability of agro-photovoltaic irri-
gated arable lands in the EU-MED region: A case-study in southwestern spain. Agronomy, 11(3). Available from [Link]
omy11030593, [Link]/journal/agronomy/.
Mukherji., Chowdhury, D., Fishman, R., Lamichhane., Khadgi., & Bajracharya. (2017). Sustainable financial solutions for the adoption of solar pow-
ered irrigation pumps in Nepal’s Terai.
NASA. (2020). Global climate change. Available from [Link]
Nikoletatos, J., & Halambalakis, G. (2018). Standards, calibration, and testing of PV modules and solar cells. McEvoy’s handbook of photovoltaics:
fundamentals and applications (pp. 1155
1182). Greece: Elsevier Inc.. Available from [Link]
9780128099216, [Link]
OECD Project Report. (2015). Sector competitiveness strategy for Ukraine. Ukraine: Agricultural Financing Policy. Available from [Link]
Oh, G., Kim, Y., Lee, S. J., & Kim, E. K. (2020). Broadband antireflective coatings for high efficiency InGaP/GaAs/InGaAsP/InGaAs multi-junction
solar cells. Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells, 207110359. Available from [Link]
Othman, N. F., Yaacob, M. E., Mat Su, A. S., Jaafar, J. N., Hizam, H., Shahidan, M. F., Jamaluddin, A. H., Chen, G., & Jalaludin, A. (2020).
Modeling of stochastic temperature and heat stress directly underneath agrivoltaic conditions with Orthosiphon Stamineus crop cultivation.
Agronomy, 10(10), 1472. Available from [Link]
Parkinson, S., & Hunt, J. (2020). Economic potential for rainfed agrivoltaics in groundwater-stressed regions. Environment Science & Technology
Letter, 7, 525
531. Available from [Link]
Pascaris, A. S., Schelly, C., Burnham, L., & Pearce, J. M. (2021). Integrating solar energy with agriculture: Industry perspectives on the market, com-
munity, and socio-political dimensions of agrivoltaics. Energy Research & Social Science, 75, 102023. Available from [Link]
erss.2021.102023.
Perrakis, G., Tasolamprou, A. C., Kenanakis, G., Economou, E. N., Tzortzakis, S., & Kafesaki, M. (2020). Ultraviolet radiation impact on the efficiency
of commercial crystalline silicon-based photovoltaics: A theoretical thermal-electrical study in realistic device architectures. OSA Continuum.
Pradhan, G., Meena, R. S., Kumar, S., & Lal, R. (2023). Utilizing industrial wastes as compost in wheat-rice production to improve the above and below-
ground ecosystem services. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 358, 108704. Available from [Link]
Prakash, V. S., Kumar, G. M., Gouthem, S. E., & Srithar, A. (2021). Solar powered seed sowing machine. Materials Today: Proceedings, 46,
3554
3556, [Link] A. et al., 2020).12.976.
Punia, H., Tokas, J., Malik, A., Satpal., Rani, A., Gupta, P., Kumari, A., Mor, V. S., Bhuker, A., & Kumar, S. (2020). Solar radiation and nitrogen use
efficiency for sustainable agriculture. In S. Kumar, R. S. Meena, & M. K. Jhariya (Eds.), Resources use efficiency in agriculture. Singapore:
Springer. Available from [Link]
Rahman, M. M., Khan, I., Field, D. L., Techato, K., & Alameh, K. (2022). Powering agriculture: Present status, future potential, and challenges of
renewable energy applications. Renewable Energy, 188, 731
749. Available from [Link] [Link]
[Link]/renewable-and-sustainable-energy-reviews/.
Reasoner, M., & Ghosh, A. (2022). Agrivoltaic engineering and layout optimization approaches in the transition to renewable energy technologies:
A review. Challenges, 13(2), 43. Available from [Link]
262 Agriculture Toward Net Zero Emissions

Report on the results of the National Commission for State Regulation of Energy and Utilities in 2015: Resolution № 971 of 31.03.2015. [Link] 38.
Report on the results of the National Commission for State Regulation of Energy and Utilities in 2016: Resolution № 470 of 30.03.2017. [Link] 39.
Report on the results of the National Commission for State Regulation of Energy and Utilities in 2017: Resolution № 360 of 23.08 2018. [Link]
jwsx. 48 40.
Report on the results of the National Commission for State Regulation of Energy and Utilities in 2018: Resolution № 440 of 29.03. 2019. [Link] 41.
Report on the results of the National Commission for State Regulation of Energy and Utilities in 2019: Resolution № 975 of 27.05.2020. [Link]
Risks of the global food crisis and challenges for Ukraine. (2011).
Roslan, N., Ya’acob, M. E., Jamaludin, D., Hashimoto, Y., Othman, M. H., Iskandar, A. N., Ariffin, M. R., Ibrahim, M. H., Mailan, J., Jamaluddin,
A. H., Mail, M. F., Aliah, B. S. N., & Lu, L. (2021). Dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC): Effects on light quality, microclimate, and growth of ortho-
siphon stamineus in tropical climatic condition. Agronomy, 11(4). Available from [Link] [Link]
com/2073-4395/11/4/629/pdf.
Rowland, M. R., Chesser, G. D., Linhoss, J. E., Davis, J. D., Campbell, J. C., & Purswell, J. L. (2023). Field survey of electrical grounding systems
on commercial broiler houses in Mississippi and Alabam. Applied Engineering in Agriculture, 39(2), 245
249. Available from [Link]
10.13031/aea.15501, [Link] 5 53991&t 5 3&dabs 5 Y&redir 5 &redirType 5 .
de la Rue du Can, S., Khandekar, A., Abhyankar, N., Phadke, A., Khanna, N. Z., Fridley, D., & Zhou, N. (2019). Modeling India’s energy future using
a bottom-up approach. Applied Energy, 238, 1108
1125. Available from [Link] [Link]
com/inca/publications/store/4/0/5/8/9/1/[Link].
Samatar, A. M., Mekhilef, S., Mokhlis, H., Kermadi, M., Diblawe, A. M., Stojcevski, A., & Seyedmahmoudian, M. (2023). The utilization and poten-
tial of solar energy in Somalia: Current state and prospects. Energy Strategy Reviews, 48. Available from [Link]
esr.2023.101108, [Link]
Sekiyama, T., & Nagashima, A. (2019). Solar sharing for both food and clean energy production: Performance of agrivoltaic systems for corn, a typi-
cal shade-intolerant crop. Environments, 6(6), 65. Available from [Link]
Singh, K., Meena, R. S., Kumar, S., Dhyani, S., Sheoran, S., Singh, H. M., Pathak, V. V., Khalid, Z., Singh, A., Chopra, K., Bajar, S., Ansari, F. A.,
Gupta, S. K., Varjani, S., Kothari, R., Tyagi, V. V., Singh, B., & Byun, C. (2023). India’s renewable energy research and policies to phase down
coal: Success after Paris agreement and possibilities post-Glasgow Climate Pact. Biomass and Bioenergy, 177. Available from [Link]
10.1016/[Link].2023.106944, [Link]
Singh, R., & Singh, G. S. (2017). Traditional agriculture: A climate-smart approach for sustainable food production. Energy, Ecology and
Environment, 2(5), 296
316. Available from [Link] [Link]
Singhal, K., Prajapati, G., & Saxena, V. (2018). Solar powered seed sowing machine. International Journal of Appl iedEngineering Research, 13(6),
259
262. Available at:. Available from [Link]
Srinivasan, G., & Muthukumar, P. (2021). A review on solar greenhouse dryer: Design, thermal modelling, energy, economic and environmental
aspects. Solar Energy, 229, 3
21. Available from [Link]
Sutar, S. M., & Butale MC. (2020). Solar powered multi-functioned electric tractor for agriculture usage. International Journal of Research
Engineering Science & Management, 3(3), 2581
5792.
Sytar, O., Zivcak, M., Neugart, S., Toutounchi, P. M., & Brestic, M. (2019). Precultivation of young seedlings under different color shades modifies
the accumulation of phenolic compounds in Cichorium leaves in later growth phases. Environmental and Experimental Botany, 165, 30
38.
Available from [Link] [Link]/inca/publications/store/2/6/7.
Sytar, O., Zivcak, M., Bruckova, K., Brestic, M., Hemmerich, I., Rauh, C., & Simko, I. (2018). Shift in accumulation of flavonoids and phenolic acids
in lettuce attributable to changes in ultraviolet radiation and temperature. Scientia Horticulturae, 239, 193
204. Available from [Link]
10.1016/[Link].2018.05.020.
Tajima, M., & Iida, T. (2021) Japan evolution of agrivoltaic farms in Japan. In AIP Conference Proceedings. American Institute of Physics Inc.
[Link] [Link]
Tamilselvi, P., & Krishnan, A. (2016). Ergonomic evaluation of conventional agricultural sprayerswith respect to human performance. Agricultural
Science Digest - A Research Journal, 36(3). Available from [Link]
Tariq, G. H., Ashraf, M., & Hasnain, U. S. (2021). Solar Technology in Agriculture. In F. Ahmad, & M. Sultan (Eds.), Technology in Agriculture
(p. 387). IntechOpen. Available from [Link]
Tax Code Of Ukraine (2011).
Tazawa, S. (1999). Effects of various radiant sources on plant growth (Part 1). Japan Agricultural Research Quarterly, 33(3), 163
176.
Tellez-Rio, A., Vallejo, A., Garcı́a-Marco, S., Martin-Lammerding, D., Tenorio, J. L., Rees, R. M., & Guardia, G. (2017). Conservation agriculture
practices reduce the global warming potential of rainfed low N input semi-arid agriculture. European Journal of Agronomy, 84, 95
104.
Available from [Link] [Link]/inca/publications/store/6/0/0/1/0/8.
Thomas, D. R., Harish, S. P., Kennedy, R., & Urpelainen, J. (2020). The effects of rural electrification in India: An instrumental variable approach at
the household level. Journal of Development Economics, 146, 102520. Available from [Link]
Thompson, E. P., Bombelli, E. L., Shubham, S., Watson, H., Everard, A., D’Ardes, V., Schievano, A., Bocchi, S., Zand, N., Howe, C. J., et al. (2020).
Tinted semi-transparent solar panels allow concurrent production of crops and electricity on the same cropland. Adv Energy Mater, 10, 2001189.
Touil, S., Richa, A., Fizir, M., & Bingwa, B. (2021). Shading effect of photovoltaic panels on horticulture crops production: A mini review. Reviews
in Environmental Science and Biotechnology, 20(2), 281
296. Available from [Link] [Link]
[Link]/issn/1569-1705.
 Solar energy harvesting and its use in agriculture Chapter | 12 263

Toledo, C., & Scognamiglio, A. (2021). Agrivoltaic systems design and assessment: A critical review, and a descriptive model towards a sustainable
landscape vision (three-dimensional agrivoltaic patterns). Sustainability, 13(12), 6871. Available from [Link]
Trommsdorff, M., Dhal, I. S., Özdemir, Ö. E., Ketzer, D., Weinberger, N., & Rösch, C. (2022). Agrivoltaics: Solar power generation and food produc-
tion. Solar energy advancements in agriculture and food production systems (pp. 159
210). Germany: Elsevier. Available from [Link]
[Link]/book/9780323898669, [Link]
Trommsdorff, M., Kang, J., Reise, C., Schindele, S., Bopp, G., Ehmann, A., Weselek, A., Högy, P., & Obergfell, T. (2021). Combining food and
energy production: Design of an agrivoltaic system applied in arable and vegetable farming in Germany. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews, 140, 110694. Available from [Link]
Udomkun, P., Romuli, S., Schock, S., Mahayothee, B., Sartas, M., Wossen, T., Njukwe, E., Vanlauwe, B., & Müller, J. (2020). Review of solar dryers
for agricultural products in Asia and Africa: An innovation landscape approach. Journal of Environmental Management, 268, 110730, [Link]
org/10.1016/[Link](W. A. et al., 2020).110730.
Vadiee, A. (2022). Solar heating and cooling applications in agriculture and food processing systems. Solar energy advancements in agriculture and
food production systems (pp. 237
270). Sweden: Elsevier. Available from [Link] [Link]
10.1016/B978-0-323-89866-9.00001-8.
Vallat-Sauvain, E., Shah, A., & Bailat, J. (2006). Advances in microcrystalline silicon solar cell technologies. In P. Capper, S. Kasap, A. Willoughby,
J. Poortmans, & V. Arkhipov (Eds.), Thin Film Solar Cells. Available from [Link]
Wagstaff, J. (2017). Sundrop farms: Mixture of sunlight and seawater leading the way. The Weekly Times, Accessed 2nd.
Weselek, A., Ehmann, A., Zikeli, S., Lewandowski, I., Schindele, S., & Högy, P. (2019). Agrophotovoltaic systems: Applications, challenges, and
opportunities. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 39(4). Available from [Link]
Widmer, J., Christ, B., Grenz, J., & Norgrove, L. (2024). Agrivoltaics, a promising new tool for electricity and food production: A systematic review.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 192, 114277. Available from [Link]
Xin, P., Li, B., Zhang, H., & Hu, J. (2019). Optimization and control of the light environment for greenhouse crop production. Scientific Reports, 9(1).
Available from [Link]
Xu, W., Guo, H., & Ma, C. (2022). An active solar water wall for passive solar greenhouse heating. Applied Energy, 308, 118270. Available from
[Link]
Xue, J. (2017). Photovoltaic agriculture - New opportunity for photovoltaic applications in China. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 73,
1
9. Available from [Link]
Ya’acob, M. E., Lu, L., Nobilly, F., Che’Ya, N. N., Aziz, A. A., Dupraz, C., Yahya, M. S., Atikah, S. N., & Mamun, M. A. A. (2022). Analysis of
weed communities in solar farms located in tropical areas—The case of Malaysia. Agronomy, 12(12). Available from [Link]
agronomy12123073, [Link]/journal/agronomy/.
Yadav, M. R., Kumar, S., Lal, M. K., Kumar, D., Kumar, R., Yadav, R. K., Kumar, S., Nanda, G., Singh, J., Udawat, P., Meena, N. K., Jha, P. K.,
Minkina, T., Glinushkin, A. P., Kalinitchenko, V. P., & Rajput, V. D. (2023). Mechanistic understanding of leakage and consequences and recent
technological advances in improving nitrogen use efficiency in cereals. Agronomy, 13(2). Available from [Link]
omy13020527, [Link]/journal/agronomy/.
Zeyad, M., Ahmed, S.M.M., Hossain, E., Tasrif Anubhove, M.S., Hasan, S., Mahmud, D.M., & Islam, S. (2021). Optimization of a solar pv power
plant with poultry demand side management (PoDSM) for poultry farm. In International Conference on Computational Performance Evaluation,
ComPE 2021 (pp. 73
78). Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc., United Kingdom. doi:10.1109/ComPE53109.2021.9751839
9781665436564, [Link] 5 9751776.
Zainol Abidin, M. A., Mahyuddin, M. N., & Mohd Zainuri, M. A. A. (2021). Solar photovoltaic architecture and agronomic management in agrivoltaic
system: A review. Sustainability, 13, 7846. Available from [Link]
Zheng, J., Meng, S., Zhang, X., Zhao, H., Ning, X., Chen, F., Abaker Omer, A. A., Ingenhoff, J., Liu, W., & Sarker, U. (2021). Increasing the compre-
hensive economic benefits of farmland with Even-lighting Agrivoltaic Systems. PLoS ONE, 16(7), e0254482. Available from [Link]
10.1371/[Link].0254482.
Zisis, C., Pechlivani, E. M., Tsimikli, S., Mekeridis, E., Laskarakis, A., & Logothetidis, S. (2019). Organic photovoltaics on greenhouse rooftops:
Effects on plant growth. Materials Today: Proceedings, 19, 65
72. Available from [Link]