Fire Alarm Systems Chapter 5: Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors - A Reference Manual Chapter 5: Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors 5.1 Chapter Overview and Key Concepts A smoke detector (typically an ionization or photoelectric type) consists of an assembly of electrical electronic components arranged to detect one or more of the fire signatures (by-products of the combustion process). These by-products may consist of gases, and water vapour as well as both visible and invisible smoke particles. ‘The detector includes provision for connection to a source of power, alarm indication and signalling, and optional remote indicator circuits. Numerous refinements have been made over the last 50 years in the development of smoke detection devices, in order to reliably detect a fire condition as early as possible in the developmental stages and before the presence of the heat levels necessary to trigger heat actuated devices such as heat detectors and sprinkler heads. This chapter describes the different detection methods currently used by detector manufacturers. Advantages and disadvantages are discussed, so the reader can make proper choices for detection is in differing environments. 5.2 Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, the reader should be able to: * Understand the different by-products created by the combustion process * Understand the term ‘fire signatures’ and its importance in the detection process * Differentiate between the various stimuli that affect smoke detectors * Discuss the reasons for the application of smoke detectors + Determine the better choice of ionization or photoelectric detector * Select the detector least apt to ‘false-alarm’ in any particular ambient situation * Understand the importance of continuing maintenance of smoke detectorsChapter 5: Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors Fire Alarm Systems - A Reference Manual Language defined - Chapter Glossary (Also see Main Glossary) ‘Throughout the various codes and standards, certain words and phrases are used to identify specific items, situations, assemblies or processes. Before beginning a study of any of these documents, it is important that the definitions applicable to fire protection are clearly understood. Failure to understand the meaning of a defined term in a code requirement often leads to an incorrect interpretation of that requirement. Special terms that will be found in this chapter are listed below. Also refer to the Main Glossary at the end of this Manual. Term Definition Active Field ‘A device that can be uniquely identified by the control unit to Device determine its presence and operating status, and which may be ‘commanded to operate or to change its operating parameters independently of other field devices that share a common circuit Addressable ‘A device that can be individually and uniquely identified by a control Device unit. The address is set using binary/hexadecimal/decimal methods using dipswitches, rotary switches or solid-state memory Fire ‘An enclosed space, separated from all other parts of the building by Compartment _fire separations having the required fire-resistance rating Fire Detector - A device for sensing the presence of visible or invisible particles of Smoke ‘combustion, the concentration of which exceeds a pre-determined level Flame Detector A detector that is designed to sense the radiation emanating from a flame. Two common types of flame detectors are ‘infrared’ and ‘ultraviolet’ detectors Interconnected Superimposed floor areas or parts of floor areas in which floor Floor Spaces assemblies that are required to be fire separations are penetrated by openings that are not provided with closures Plenum ‘A chamber forming part of an air-duct system Return Duct A duct for conveying air from a space being heated, ventilated or air-conditioned back to the heating, ventilating or air-conditioning appliance Self-Closing ‘An approved device which will ensure closing after having been opened Smoke Alarm A combined smoke detector and audible alarm device designed to sound an alarm within a room or suite in which it is located, upon the detection of smoke within that room or suite‘Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors Fire Alarm Systems Chapter - A Reference Manual Term Definition ‘Smoke Barrier A continuous membrane, either vertical or horizontal, such as a wall, floor, or ceiling assembly that is designed and constructed to restrict the movement of smoke. A smoke barrier may or may not have a fire resistance rating. Such barriers may have protected openings ‘Smoke A space within a building enclosed by smoke or fire barriers on all Compartment sides, including the top and bottom Supply Duct A duct for conveying air from a heating, ventilating or air- conditioning appliance to a space to be heated, ventilated or air- conditioned Vertical Service _ A shaft oriented vertically that is provided in a building to facilitate Space the installation of building services including mechanical, electrical and plumbing installations and facilities such as elevators, refuse chutes and linen chutesChapter 5: Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors Fire Alarm Systems - A Reference Manual 5.3 Detector Design Standard ‘The Underwriters Laboratories of Canada standard pertaining to the design of smoke detectors is CAN/ULC-S529 Standard for Smoke Detectors for Fire Alarm Systems. This ULC Standard contains the design parameters to which all system smoke detectors are tested and listed. Detector design varies from manufacturer to manufacturer, and so the following tabling of design specifications contains both ULC requirements and typical or average industry parameters: * Operating voltage: Nominal 22V. DC (I6V - 30V) © Current Draw (standby): 20 microamps, © Current Draw (alarm): 25 milliamps * Temperature Range: 0° C to 38° C «+ Humidity Range: 0% to 93% Relative Humidity (non-condensing) ‘+ Air Velocity: 0-300 Metres Per Minute * Altitude: Sea level to 2,000 metres * Sensitivity: Variable from 0.5% to 4.0% per-foot obscuration. To re-state, the foregoing parameters are ‘typical’ and are for general information. It is of great importance that a system designer carefully selects the appropriate detector for the particular hazard description, paying close attention to operating principles and application guidelines. 5.4 Principles of Operation The two most common types of smoke detectors are ionization (or products of-combustion) detectors, which generally respond more quickly to invisible smoke particles in the incipient stage of a fire, and photoelectric detectors which generally respond more quickly to visible smoke in the smouldering stage of a fire. Beam type detectors, which are also discussed in this chapter, operate under the photoelectric principle. 5.4.1 lonization Smoke Detectors Sensing Chambers ‘The ionization-sensing chamber, with a so-called bi-polar design, consists of one negative and one positive electrically charged plate, separated by an air gap, which is open to the atmosphere. A very small amount of radioactive material ionizes the air between the plates and creates molecules containing both positive and negative ions. These are 5-4 ©Fire Alarm Systems Chapter 5: Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors ~ A Reference Manual attracted to their oppositely charged plates thus creating a small ionization current. When particles of combustion (in the .01 to 0.4 micron range, and not detectable by the human eye] enter the chamber, there is a corresponding decrease in the ionization current, which in turn is sensed by electronic circuitry monitoring the chamber. When the current is reduced by a predetermined amount, a threshold is crossed, and an alarm condition is established. 1 Electrodes 4 Signal (electric current) 2. Radioactive radiation source 5 Smoke particles 3 Sampling chamber Dual-chamber detectors were first used in the 1950's and have proven themselves to be reliable. This design utilizes two ionization chambers. The first is a sensing chamber that is open to the outside air as described above. Many things such as particulate matter, humidity and atmospheric pressure affect this sensing chamber. The second, or reference, chamber is partially closed, and is not affected by particulate matter such as smoke, because its tiny openings effectively block their entry. It is, however, affected by atmospheric changes. In this manner the dual-chamber design automatically compensates for normal atmospheric changes and considerably reduces, or even eliminates, resultant nuisance alarms. In a dual-chamber ionization detector, electronic circuitry monitors both chambers and compares their outputs. If the humidity or the atmospheric pressure changes, both chambers are affected equally and cancel each other. If combustion particles enter the sensing chamber, its current flow will decrease while the current flow in the reference chamber remains unchanged. The resulting imbalance is detected by the electronic circuitry. With present technology, within certain limitations, it has been possible to eliminate one of the ionization chambers and replace it with an electronic reference and compensating circuit. The use of dual or single chambers does not directly affect the sensitivity of the detector. It does however, affect the ability to compensate for environmental changes. The © 5-5Chapter 5: Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors Fire Alarm Systems 5-6 - A Reference Manual dual chamber design is still regarded as having a greater ability to compensate for environmental changes with respect to humidity and atmospheric pressure. For many years, these problems were not a primary concern of designers, because the sensor did not have to be set that sensitively. Approval agencies have added a slow, smouldering fire test to their test series, and conventional dual chamber sensors had to be set more sensitively (closer to their alarm threshold) to pass this test. Dust, humidity, air currents and their effect on chamber performance again became an overriding concern to chamber designers. ‘There are a number of problems that can affect dual-chamber and single-chamber ionization detectors. Dust, excessive humidity or condensation, significant air currents and tiny insects can be misread as particles of combustion by the electronic circuitry. The more sensitive a detector is set, the more likely it is that these conditions will affect the performance of the detector. ‘This design cannot successfully compensate for excess ambient air velocity. Some detectors will have a very minor change in sensitivity as air velocity varies, while others may become dramatically more or less sensitive, depending on their design. Unipolar/Bipolar ‘There are two variations of ionization chambers: Bipolar and Unipolar. ‘The important difference is that the unipolar design reduces the area within the chamber, where ionization occurs, making it approximately three times more sensitive to products-of-combustion than a comparable bipolar chamber. The difference between the unipolar and the bipolar chamber detector does not necessarily make the unipolar detector (as a unit) more sensitive to smoke. All ionization detectors are threshold alarm devices and are capable of a much higher sensitivity than what is practical for a fire detector. However, for a given detector’s sensitivity, a much more positive signal is produced by the unipolar detector than by the bipolar detector. There is a greater signal-to-noise ratio, and therefore greater stability is obtained. Particle Size ‘The current in an ionization chamber also depends upon the molecular structure or composition of the gas between the electrodes, Depending upon the type, number and size of gas molecules, a larger or smaller quantity of ions will be produced. The rate and drift of the ions is also dependent upon their size. The ionization detectors become more sensitive with gases that are heavier than air and less sensitive with gases that are lighter than airFire Alarm Systems Chapter §: Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors ~ A Reference Manual '0,0001 pm 0,001pm 0.01pm 0.4m jum 10pm 100 um However, current flow is quite different. When products of combustion enter an ionization chamber such gases cause a sharp current drop. During the combustion process a large number of particles are produced. ‘These particles are considerably larger and heavier than normal gas. molecules. One effect of these large particles is an increased absorption of the radioactive alpha particles, which reduces ionization in the chamber. The main influences, however, are the heavy particles that are less mobile than normal air ions. The heavy ions require a much longer time to travel to the electrodes in the ionization chamber. The probability of them colliding with another particle of opposite charge and thus recombining to form a neutral particle is therefore much greater than in the case of normal air ions. This increase in recombination results in a lowering of the ionization current. © 5-7Chapter 5: Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors Fire Alarm Systems 5.4.2 5-8 - A Reference Manual Photoelectric Smoke Detectors ‘The photoelectric smoke detector senses the presence of visible smoke from a fire condition. The sensing is accomplished either by the obscuration of a light beam by smoke, or by the reflection of light off smoke particles onto a light sensitive electronic component. ‘The heart of any photoelectric type smoke detector is its light source and its light-sensitive sensor or receiver. These are physically separated within the detector chamber housing. Over the years, the incandescent lamp has been replaced by high-intensity infrared light-emitting diodes (LEDs). ‘The light source and sensor are enclosed within a surrounding labyrinth or shroud, Constructed of a maze-like, multi-layered, black-finished, light-absorbing material, the labyrinth effectively inhibits any light from outside the detector from penetrating into the detection chamber housing the light receiver. As with Ionization detectors, the design of the detection chamber of photoelectric detectors is also very complex and early warning detection with freedom from unwanted alarms requires attention to several design parameters. A high-intensity light source in the detector allows for the detection of smoke particles that are either fewer in number or smaller in size than when using a lower intensity source. Ina similar manner, the spatial separation between the source and receiver affect detector sensitivity. It is critical that CLEAN - NO SMOKE the type of light source, light- sensor and the spatial separation be considered at the same time when designing the chamber. The use of a pulsating light source allows the detector to require the presence of repetitive alarm pulses prior to triggering an alarm response, as well as reducing the wit tty ght scanaredby average power requirem o& gray wa ‘smoke partic average power requirement of emnpiag enarier. __takiatosaleom.Fire Alarm Systems Chapter 5: Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors - AReference Manual Obscuration Type This detector relies on the ability of certain types of smoke to block or absorb light, and consists simply of a light source and a light-sensing element. 2 6 2 6 1 3 1 Light source 4 Signal 4 2 Lens 5 Smoke particles 3 Photoelectric call 6 Lens ‘The light-receiving cell will be some type of photovoltaic or photo- resistive cell. Photovoltaic cells are normally selenium or silicon cells that produce a voltage when light strikes the cell. Photo-resistive cells are normally cadmium or cadmium selenide sulphide cells that change their electrical resistance characteristics when light strikes the cell. The light source and the light receiving cell must be compatible with respect to the light levels and spectral composition of the light. Reflected-Light Type This type of photoelectric detector is commonly referred to as either ‘reflected-beam’ or ‘light-scattering’. There are many variations of this, type of detector. The main operating characteristics of this detector are completely the opposite to the obscuration type of detector. Under normal conditions, light from the light source does not reach the light sensitive cell. This is accomplished by housing the light source and light sensitive cell in a labyrinth, which is a dark chamber, so that the sensor cell does not see either the light source or any extraneous light from outside the detector. Some detectors are designed to be sensitive to a specific light wavelength that is only generated by the light source located in the detector. In the design of this type of detector it is only essential that the light from the light source does not reach the light-receiving cell. Extrancous light entering the detector will have no effect.Chapter 5: Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors Fire Alarm Systems - A Reference Manual Reflected-light photoelectric smoke detectors operate on the principle of light reflection off visible smoke. Light from the internal source is scattered by smoke particles in its path, and a portion of this light is reflected toward the sensor. Because black smoke will absorb light, this type of detector is most responsive to grey or light-coloured smoke. ‘There are presently two types of construction used in spot-type photoelectric detectors. These are forward scattering’ and ‘side scattering’. When light strikes smoke particles, it is basically scattered in all directions although particle size and wavelength of the light source influence the degree and direction of the scattering. 1. Light source 4 4 Signal aks 2 Lens ~ 5 Smoke particles 4 3 Photoelectric cell 6 Lens In the forward scattering detector, the light source and sensor are ‘in line’ and the light from the light source is blocked from reaching the sensor by a physical barrier. When light is scattered by smoke particles, the scattered light will bypass the barrier to reach the sensor. Current technology utilizes highly dependable, infrared, light-emitting diodes as the light source. If smoke entering the detection chamber exceeds approximately 1.5% obscuration-per-foot, sufficient light is reflected onto the sensor to trigger the detector into alarm. Laser diodes can achieve sensitivities of below 1% obscuration per foot. In some models, the light source is pulsed, and a second pulse of reflected light is required before the detector will alarm. 5.5 Detector Selection Considerations Buildings contain a variety of combustibles, making it very difficult to predict what size of particulate matter will be produced by a developing fire. The fact that different ignition sources have different effects on a combustible will further complicate the choice. A lighted cigarette will produce a slow smouldering fire if dropped onto a bed or a chesterfield, however if it falls on a newspaper or ina 5-10 ©Fire Alarm Systems Chapter 5: Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors - A Reference Manual waste basket, the resulting fire may be more of a fast flaming fire than a slow smouldering one. Given all the numerous variables, with fire load and ignition sources, it is imperative to carefully consider the type of detector best suited for a particular application. The selection process firstly involves a thorough understanding of fire phenomena and the types of fires that may be encountered. Secondly, the types of combustible materials and the corresponding by-products of combustion produced, must be taken into consideration. 5.5.1 Fire Phenomena Fire phenomena (e.g, temperature increase, light obscuration or flames), are physical values that are subject to measurable change during the development of a fire. ‘The combustion process can be principally viewed from the perspective of a conversion of both energy and substance. Energy conversion releases energy into the environment. Substance conversion produces many by-products ranging from non-toxic to highly toxic, depending on the substances present at the seat of the fire. Energy conversion releases energy through both radiation and convection. The frequencies of radiated energy released during a fire are to be found across a broad spectrum in the ultraviolet frequency (UV) band, the visible light band, and the infrared (IR) band, Energy release by convection essentially takes place through the ambient air. First, the kinetic energy of the air molecules is increased, resulting in a temperature increase. The associated expansion leads to an upward air flow. Due to this flow, cooler air and thus oxygen flows to the seat of the fire, ‘The conversion of substances taking place during a combustion process is characterized by the various chemical reactions that can occur at the seat of the fire, depending on the substances present. The substance conversion of a fire is determined by the different chemical reactions that may occur at the seat of the fire, The resultant substances either remain at the fire seat (e.g. ashes) or are distributed into the environment surrounding the fire. In the latter case, they in the form of very fine, and evenly distributed, solid or liquid matters mixing with the ambient air. These gaseous conversion by-products are referred to as aerosols, and are always spread through the airChapter §: Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors Fire Alarm Systems 5.5.2 5.5.3 5-12 = A Reference Manual Types Of Fires. ‘The fire phenomena occurring with a smouldering or open fire differ both in terms and intensity. ‘The main property of the combustion process is that it does not go on independently but requires a continuous supply of new energy. The fire can be extinguished by stopping the energy supply. The propagation of that fire type is thus restricted to the size of the heat source, which is why we can speak of overheating accompanied by chemic decomposition. As soon as the ignition temperature is reached, the fire develops to a glowing or even open fire, ‘The glowing fire is an independent process. The glowing temperatures are high and the particles produced are thus relatively small. The visible particles are only a small part of the particle spectrum generated. Typical for a glowing fire are incipient fires in hay or cotton bales. Characteristic of open fires is the production of soot, i.e. black smoke. Although here too, the major part of the particles generated is in the non- visible range. Studies have shown that in almost all cases, including the carly stage and smouldering phase, more invisible particles than visible ones are generated. Summarizing, we can state that large volumes of volatile fire aerosols are produced with almost all hostile fires. Smoke has thus become the most important fire phenomenon for early detection of fire. Depending on the size and concentration of the fire aerosols, they may be visible or invisib! Test Fires Both ionization and photoelectric smoke detectors are required to respond to the same test fires established by Underwriters Laboratories of Canada. The allowable sensitivity ranges are verified by their performance in these test fires, to ensure that they have sufficient sensitivity to certain fire phenomena, albeit some faster than others depending on the type of fire. Manufacturers produce smoke detectors for the global marketplace, therefore, they must meet country or region specific test fire requirements, in order to gain proper approvals. Airport Smoke TextFire Alarm Systems Chapter 5: Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors - A Reference Manual From an international perspective, the following data from the European EN-54 Test Fire protocols, should provide invaluable information. The tests are set up in such a way that each fire produces a different, typical aerosol spectrum. Such fires are mandatory to achieve approval, as well as being used for testing the response behaviour of existing fire detection systems. TF ‘TF2 TFS TFS Open cellulose PYrolytio. eeeral Liquidfire Liquid fre Tro fwoos,” snolng te seid re (pon) (eb acon) Negligible Negligible ‘Strong ‘Strong Weak Very weak ‘Strong Yes Yes No Predominan Predominantly Predominantly Predominantly tly invisible invisible Visible invisible Party invisible None Light, strongly Light, strongly Dark ne one Very dark Very dark EN-54 test fires are artificially induced, ideal fires that rarely occur in practice, as real fires usually produce a mix of smoke types. The advantage of the EN-54 test fires is that they produce reproducible fire phenomena and thus enable exact comparisons between the response behaviour of different detectors or sensors. The figure above shows the qualitative, basic capability of the various detectors to respond to EN-54 test fires. A heat detector cannot respond when a fire does not produce heat (TF2 and TF3). The sensor design has an additional impact on the quantitative response behaviour of the sensor. The response of optical smoke detectors to TF1, for example, depends on the scattering angle. Ionization detectors are generally superior in detecting fast-flaming fires that are characterized by combustion particles in the .01 to 0.4 micron size range and are thus more sensitive to dark or black smoke. Photoelectric detectors, on the other hand, may be slow in responding to dark or black smoke. Neither detector is particularly sensitive to the type of thick black smoke generated by a oil-filled transformer fire. Ionization detectors are preferable when complex and sophisticated machinery is to lonization Smoke be protected, because of the superior Detector detection of invisible products ofChapter 5: Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors Fire Alarm Systems - A Reference Manual combustion. As nearly all plastics (such as polyurethane and polystyrene} or combustible liquids (gasoline, naphtha) produce black smoke when they burn, an ionization detector will provide quicker response. Photoelectric detectors are superior in detecting slow smouldering fires that are characterized by particulates in the 0.4 to 10.0 micron size range and are thus more sensitive to light grey smoke. Photoelectric detectors are better utilized, when combustion particles are present from combustion producing machines, such as fork lifts, welders etc., and near kitchens. Opened Photo Smoke Any areas containing materials that might Detector produce lighter-coloured smoke from a slow smouldering fire will be better protected with photoelectric detectors. To be able to reliably detect all expected incipient fires, where fires can be expected to produce different products of combustion, a mixture of two detectors may be of benefit. These areas may include electrical risks such as computer rooms, switching installations and telephone exchanges. Selecting the best-suited detector type requires both profound technical knowledge and a grasp for the application itself, its risk, the combustible load, the possible fire progression and the probable and achievable fire 5.6 Building Code Requirements Asis the case with all fire alarm devices, it is the Building Code that contains the application requirements for smoke detectors. Where a fire alarm system is required, smoke detectors must be installed: + in each sleeping room and each corridor serving as part of a means of egress from sleeping rooms in portions of a building classified as Group B major occupancy, «in cach room in a contained use area and corridors serving those rooms, * in each corridor in portions of a building classified as Group A, Division 1 major occupancy, * in each public corridor in portions of a building classified as Group C major occupancy, * in each exit stair shaft, and 5-14 ©Fire Alarm Systems Chapter 5: Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors - A Reference Manual © in the vicinity of certain draft stops. Some jurisdictions require that smoke detection be provided in cach corridor serving classrooms in elementary and secondary schools. The Building Code makes no reference to the type of detector that is required - the designer therefore can choose either a photoelectric detector or an ionization type of detector for each application requirement. This selection process should take into account the detection capability of each type, as well as the affect that the anticipated environment might have on either of the two types. Indeed, because a beam type detector is considered to be a smoke detector, it is entirely permissible to utilize beam type smoke detectors instead of area type detectors in any application. In this case, the designer would also have to consider the cost factors in addition to the detection capability and the environmental aspects. 5.7 _ Installation Requirements 5.7.1 Maximum Spacing and Area Coverage ‘The installation of smoke detectors must be in accordance with the recommendations of the manufacturer and the current CAN/ULC S524 Installation of Fire Alarm Systems. Each smoke detector carries a maximum area rating of 83 square metres and spacing of 9.1 metres. Smoke detectors installed on the ceiling must be not less than 100 mm from the wall, measured to the edge of the detector. Detectors may also be installed on the wall 100 to 300 mm from the ceiling, measured to the edge of the detector. The maximum distance from a smoke detector to the furthest STOKE» Heat and Speaker Layout point of a side wall or corner within its zone of protection cannot exceed 70% of the detector spacing. This would apply to rectangular areas as well as corridors. For irregularly shaped areas, the distance between smoke detectors may be greater than the specified spacing, provided the maximum distance from a detector to the furthest point of a side wall or corner within its zone of protection is not greater than 70% of the detector spacing,Chapter 5: Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors Fire Alarm Systems 5.7.2 5.7.3 - A Reference Manual The above ratings are maximum ratings for areas that may have solid beams up to 100 mm in depth. Careful consideration should be given to all features which would have a bearing on detector location, such as ceiling heights, peaked or sloped roofs, air handling system diffusers, air stratification currents, partial partitions, uninsulated roofs, thermal barriers, smoke, air pollution, vapours, dampness, danger of explosions, high stock piling and type of fire load, burn characteristics and value of contents in any given room. Ideally, smoke tests should be performed, where feasible, to investigate prevailing conditions prior to installation, to obtain the best detector placement and spacing. One should also take into account the visibility of the detector, especially the alarm indicator, or additional remote indicators used and especially accessibility of the detector for cleaning and maintenance. Ceiling Heights Smoke detector spacing is not required to be reduced for higher ceiling height but may be affected by ceiling beam construction. On ceilings above 3600 mm in room height, detector spacing should be based on fire type, growth rate, engineering judgment and manufacturer's recommendations. As smoke and heat rise from a fire, they tend to spread or disperse in the general form of an inverted cone. Therefore, the concentration within the cone varies inversely as an exponential function of the distance from the source while a reduction in thermal lift results from the horizontal dilution of the combustion products (normal inverted cone effect), and a simultaneous cooling of the products. This effect is significant in the early stages of a fire, and as it progresses in intensity, the cone angle narrows and the significance of the height effect is lessened. As smoke detectors are ‘early warning’ devices, the room height becomes of prime importance. Beam Construction Beam-type ceilings are allowed to be treated as a smooth ceiling if the beams project no more than 100 mm below the ceiling, and smoke detectors are installed in accordance with the spacing requirements of Subsection 5.7.3 of CAN/ULC-S524 installation of Fire Alarm Systems Where the beams project more than 100 mm and less than 300 mm below the ceiling, and the ceiling height is less than 3600 mm, the detector spacing of smoke detectors at right angles to the direction of beam travel must be a maximum of 50% of the smooth ceiling detector spacing allowance.Fire Alarm Systems Chapter 5: Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors - A Reference Manual 5.7.4 5.7.5 5.7.6 Where the beams project more than 300 mm below the ceiling, or the ceiling height is more than 3600 mm, each bay or area formed by the beams must be treated as a separate area. Exit Stair Shafts A smoke detector must be installed at the highest point of the exit stair shaft. In exit stair shafts exceeding 18 m, smoke detectors must be installed at every third floor. Interior horizontal exit passageways forming exit stair shafts exceeding 18 m in height must also be provided with spot type smoke detectors in accordance with Clause [Link] and Subsection [Link], Corridors. When spot type smoke detectors cannot be used due to abnormally low ambient temperature, below 0° C, appropriate fixed temperature spot type heat detectors may be installed as an alternative. High Air Movements And Humidity Smoke detector spacing must be reduced proportionately in areas with high air movements and cannot be installed directly in the stream of the air supply. Smoke detectors in areas above a relative humidity of 93% or an air velocity greater than 1.5 m/s must be of a type compatible for such applications. High Humidity Water Thermal Layers Treatment Room Because the temperature differential between the air at the floor and the air at the ceiling is accentuated on high ceilings, peaked or steeply gabled ceilings, as well as uninsulated roofs and skylights, a thermal barrier may exist which inhibits combustion products from reaching the ceiling. In such areas it becomes necessary to install the detectors some distance below the ceiling. There are also occasions where thermal barriers may not be present at all times: + Ina building with an uninsulated roof, a thermal barrier may develop during the day, yet at night the phenomena may not occur because of 5-17Chapter 5: Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors Fire Alarm Systems 5.77 - A Reference Manual the cool night air. It is required to locate two detectors per detector area, one on the ceiling for night detection, the other a 10% distance below the ceiling for day detection. Stratification + Ina skylight which constitutes a surface area of more than 10% of the area assigned to one detector, and with a depth exceeding 300 mm, additional detectors are required to be installed at a distance of 50% the depth of the skylight. Where such skylights are open at times and even equipped with fans, careful attention should be given regarding air currents and their effect on smoke movement. «With large exposed glass areas, where the ceiling height exceeds 6000 mm and the area of the exposed glass is greater than 50% of the exposed exterior wall, a second identical layer of detectors is required, projecting 10% below the ceiling height. Air Movements, Changes And Air Velocity Factors Airflow patterns must also be considered, and a general rule is to keep detectors away from air supply points. Detectors should be installed near air return points so that products of combustion are drawn towards the smoke detector. CAN/ULC-S524 ([Link]) states that spot type fire detectors shall not be located in a direct airflow or closer than 450 mm from an air supply outlet or from an air exhaust outlet measured to the edge of the detector. Porous ceilings or ceilings containing perforations which are used to supply air into the room must also receive special consideration. If thisFire Alarm Systems Chapter 5: Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors A Reference Manual 5.7.8 type of ceiling is encountered then a bafile must be mounted above the detector to prevent air blowing down past the detector that would prevent products of combustion from reaching the detector. Again, for critical applications, the air velocities or the number of air changes in a given area should be considered. Higher air velocities or air changes are encountered mainly in computer or electronic equipment rooms, and good engineering practice calls for a reduction in the designed area coverage of detectors. This factor must be considered from two separate aspects. The first being that with higher air velocities or air changes, smoke is either diluted or quickly vented from the protected area and therefore detection becomes difficult. This requires additional detectors for proper protection. The second factor is that the sensitivity of ionization detectors is affected by air moving across the sampling chamber. As mentioned earlier, some detectors become more sensitive, some less sensitive and with some the influence is negligible. If detectors become less sensitive then even more detectors should be considered. If the HVAC system is shut down due to repairs or energy savings measures, the placing of smoke detectors is affected as they may no longer protect adequately and such has to be taken into consideration. ‘The following general rules apply: + In areas having moderate air conditioning or ventilation, such as offices, the detector coverage should be slightly reduced, about 15% to compensate for this movement. * In areas with high air movements, e.g. computer rooms, detector spacing should be reduced substantially to about 20 m?. * An asymmetrical layout is generally the most important tool for applying detectors in air-conditioned areas. Extraneous Environmental Influences Atmospheric pressure changes, humidity and temperature variations, as well as air velocities can influence smoke detector sensitivity as mentioned earlier. Minor changes of atmospheric pressure are compensated for within the detector and do not materially affect sensitivity. However, lower air pressure at higher altitudes, will decrease ionization type detector sensitivity, while higher air pressure will increase sensitivity. An increase in relative humidity can increase the detectors sensitivity. While some particular detectors may operate above 93% humidity, with increased sensitivity, such operation is not advisable because of condensation in the detector chamber or on the photoelectric LED. Generally, most detectors will operate normally at temperatures between 0°C and 38°C. However, the lower the temperature, the more sensitive the detector will be in the majority of cases, but gradual changes are 5-19Chapter 5: Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors Fire Alarm Systems 5.7.9 5-20 - A Reference Manual usually within the compensation range. Detectors must be protected against the danger of water condensation. Air velocity affects detectors, although effective performance can be expected from a well-designed detector up to 300m per minute. Detectors should be carefully placed so that they are not subject to air blasts. Under the influence of air currents, in an ionization detector, part of the ions generated will be blown out of the detecting chamber, reducing the current, which increases the sensitivity. Possible nuisance alarms by moving air, which does not contain fire aerosols, can be expected. On the other hand, this effect may be advantageous under some circumstances, because, with a quick spreading fire, the increased sensitivity will signal a fire incident faster. Tests have proven that negative and positive air pressures above or below the neutral plane within a building can have an effect on the smoke detector sensitivity to the point of non-operation or too high sensitivity. Such pressures can invade the electrical raceways connecting the various devices, and could be released through the back box into the detector, either driving smoke or smoke particles away, or drawing in dirt or dust. To avoid smoke detector false alarms, raceways leading to the detectors are required by the ULC Installation Standard to be sealed with a sealing compound or fitted with a special seal plate if the detectors will be subject to pressure differentials. Each of the above environmental items alone, generally do not signal a false alarm, since the compensation circuit or chamber can make the necessary adjustments. However, when a combination of changes in humidity, temperature and air currents occur, the chances of a false alarm are suddenly magnified. If the temperature increases, together with an increase of humidity, then the sensitivity will also increase, and if exposed to air currents, as well as some dust particles carried by the air current, then a detector will most likely initiate an alarm. In conclusion, special consideration is required when placing detectors in such environmental problem areas and will require not only special detectors, designed for industrial application, but also special placement selection, possibly using a test fire and instrumentation to determine the best position. Application Do's and Don'ts Smoke detectors offer the earliest warning of a fire at a reasonable cost. ‘They have saved thousands of lives in the past and will save more in the fature. Nevertheless they do have limitations. As seen above, the perfectly engineered application using the correct type of detector is the most important factor in fire detection system design, as it is also the only way to avoid unnecessary nuisance alarms. The problem most often encountered when using smoke detectors is theFire Alarm Systems Chapter 5: Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors - A Reference Manual 5.8 5.8.1 incorrect application, not only by the engineer, who produces the system design, but also by the installer, who may not be generally familiar with these units and their operation. The best way to avoid unwanted alarms is not to install detectors in environments that can cause them to malfunction, or to install detectors specially designed for those environments. Examples follow: * Excessively Dusty or Dirty Areas: Consider using specialty detectors, Applications would include textile mills, dusty manufacturing facilities, paper mills, recycling centres and animal holding areas. * Outdoors: Avoid using detectors outdoors, in open storage sheds, or other open structures affected by dust, air currents, or excessive humidity and temperature extremes. © Wet or Excessively Humid Areas: Avoid damp, wet or excessively humid areas, or next to bathrooms with showers. + Extreme Cold or Hot Environments: Avoid very cold or very hot environments, or unheated buildings or rooms where the temperature can fall below or exceed the operating temperature range of the detector. At temperatures above or below the operating range of the detector, its internal components may not function properly. + Areas with Combustion Particles: Avoid areas where particles of combustion are normally present, such as in kitchens, or other areas, with ovens and burners, or in garages where particles of combustion are present in vehicle exhausts. When a detector must be located in or adjacent to such an area, a heat detector may be more appropriate. * Manufacturing Areas: Avoid manufacturing areas, battery rooms, or other areas where substantial quantities of vapours, gases, or fumes may be present. Strong vapors can make detectors overly sensitive or less sensitive than normal. In very large concentrations, gases heavier than air, such as carbon dioxide, may make detectors more sensitive, while gases lighter than air, such as helium, may make them less sensitive. Aerosol particles may collect on detector chamber surfaces and cause nuisance alarms. + Fluorescent Light Fixtures: Avoid placement near fluorescent light fixtures. Electrical noise generated by fluorescent light fixtures may cause unwanted alarms. Install detectors at least 0.3m away from such light fixtures. Beam-Type Smoke Detectors General Beam Detectors are normally referred to by two slightly different names and the two names are synonymous: Projected (or reflected) Beam Detector, and Linear Beam Detector. 5-21Chapter 5: Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors Fire Alarm Systems 5.8.2 5.8.3 5-22 - A Reference Manual Beam type smoke detectors are used in areas where smoke-generating incipient fires are to be expected and where spot type detectors cannot be used. Typical application areas are: «very high rooms (atriums, hangars) * large rooms or spaces where maintenance of spot type detectors would be more difficult or more expensive (libraries, galleries) «areas with strong operational danger of contamination of spot type detectors (sawmills, corrosive atmospheres, high air turbulence) * historical buildings in which spot type detectors are unwanted for aesthetic reasons, Design Standard At present, there is no ULC Standard pertaining to this type of detector, but is considered as an individual unit, using the smoke detector ‘Standard $529 as the operational guide with additional design parameters. Mode Of Operation ‘The detector operates on the principle of light obscuration, whereby they measure the light attenuation caused by smoke. In systems without a reflector, they consist of separate transmitter and receiver units usually mounted at the opposite ends of the area to be protected. Some systems accommodating the transmitter and receiver in the same housing, use a remote reflector, and have the advantage that they need to be connected to the detection circuit at one point only and therefore maintenance is easier. Both systems work according to the same measuring principle - reduction in light intensity due to smoke. The transmitter emits a parallel light bundle in an invisible infrared beam through the lens. In the absence of smoke, virtually all light reaches the light-sensitive receiver and produces a specific electrical signal. As a smoke field develops, the detector senses the cumulative obscuration - the percentage of light blockage created by a combination of smoke density and the linear distance of the smoke field across the projected beam, and therefore a weaker electrical signal is received. Some of the light beams are absorbed by contact with smoke particles, while others are reflected or scattered by the particles, and may simply change direction. However, the particular contribution of these two effects is unimportant to the operation of the receiver, because black particles result in a greater amount of absorption, while white particles produce more scattering, resulting in a similar response characteristic.Fire Alarm Systems Chapter 5: Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors ~ A Reference Manual 5.8.4 If the above-mentioned weaker signal falls below the receiver's field programmed sensitivity, the receiver will actuate an alarm condition. Very small, slow changes in the quality of the light source are not typical of a smoke signature, These changes may occur because of environmental conditions such as dust and dirt accumulation on the reflective surface and are therefore offset by the receiver's compensation circuit. If the beam is totally obstructed by a solid object or if the housing cover of any of the units is removed, then the incoming signal falls below the trouble reference voltage and a trouble signal is initiated. The detector provides both alarm and trouble relays and these can be used to interconnect into a building Fire Alarm System or off-site monitoring system. Response Characteristics The beam detector measures the total smoke accumulation between the transmitter and the receiver. The smoke density reading that triggers the alarm is dependent upon the distance between the two units. If the smoke is evenly distributed in the room or area, the response sensitivity will decrease over an increased distance between the two units. The main reason for this is that the beam emitted by the transmitter is not strictly a parallel bundle of rays. It exhibits a certain degree of scattering that makes it conical in shape. As the radiation energy decreases towards the outside, the beam can be divided into three regions: * the effective region corresponding to the line of sight to the receiver with the diameter of the beam approximately 35 mm, * the second or core region contains sufficient radiation to operate the receiver. Some deviation is permitted, which is mainly due to cold or heat effecting structural building changes, and ‘+ the last is the scattered region; the energy within this area can influence the receiver but is not sufficient to trigger an alarm ‘Therefore the alignment of the detector is very important, as the beam can only be adjusted by about 10% in all directions. Solid mounting is imperative, so that the beam direction is guaranteed within the limits allowed. Electrically, each unit (transmitter and receiver) requires a filtered and regulated 24 Volts D.C. supply. The photocell light source is generally a gallium arsenide LED, a source that is highly reliable and has a long life. The reduction in efficiency during the life of the LED is very low, giving the beam a stable sensitivity over time. It is normal for the LED to be pulsed, helping to produce a high intensity beam. ‘The receiver is comprised of an optical assembly, a phototransistor and an amplifier. The silicon phototransistor produces an electrical output 5-23Chapter 5: Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors Fire Alarm Systems 5.8.5 5-24 - A Reference Manual that is proportional to the intensity of the received beam. In addition to the expected beam focusing function, the lens discriminates against light sources that are situated away from the beam axis and therefore not focused onto the phototransistor. Thus, the detector does not respond to extraneous light, ‘The output pulses from the phototransistor are fed to comparator circuits which delay any alarm response until there has been sufficient obscuration of the beam intensity to warrant an alarm condition. Usually, a further delay is designed into the circuit to ensure that the reduction in beam intensity was not caused by transient conditions. Some beam detectors will also produce an alarm condition when quantities of heat pass through the beam, causing turbulence. In this situation, the beam is deflected by refraction as it passes through the turbulent air and this causes fluctuations in the intensity of the received beam. The frequency of fluctuation is dependent upon the size of the fire but typically ranges from about 1 Hz for large fires to 30 Hz for small fires. Beam intensity fluctuations due to heaters tend to be outside this frequency band. Fans typically produce higher frequencies and radiators produce lower frequencies. The detector usually discriminates against this cause of false alarm. It is interesting to note that in some units the heat-sensing portion can be de-activated in the event of false alarm problems and subsequently the units function as smoke detectors only. Location and Spacing To adequately protect a room, several beams may be required, the distance between the beams being dependent upon the room height. CAN/ULC-S524 Installation of Fire Alarm Systems states that location and detector spacing shalll be in accordance with the manufacturer's, documented installation instructions. It is also recommended that the detector be installed near the ceiling free of obstructions, such that smoke and other fire-related gases will pass through the beam as they rise to the ceiling. A minimum distance requirement is given by CAN/ULC-S524 Installation of Fire Alarm Systems to prevent cross- interference, and this distance is dependent on the distance between transmitter and receiver. Location and spacing parameters are recommended by manufacturers. For example, on smooth ceilings, a space of not more than 18.3 m between projected beams, and one-half of the maximum spacing between. a projected beam and a sidewall (wall parallel to the beam travel) may be used as a guideline. Some manufacturer's recommendations may limit this criterion. ‘The noted spacing applies to rooms or areas with flat ceilings. Generally, the length of the beam can be, as mentioned earlier, up to a maximum of ©Fire Alarm Systems Chapter 5: Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors - A Reference Manual 5.8.6 100m. Beam detectors can monitor up to 20 m high rooms. In higher rooms such as a very high atrium of a hotel, its suitability may need to be ascertained by test fires and then be supplemented by additional beam detectors at a second, and possibly a third, level. Thermal barriers below the ceiling can prevent ascending smoke from reaching the ceiling. Therefore beam type smoke detectors must be installed below the thermal barrier to be expected based upon the ceiling height. One manufacturer recommends 3-30 cm below the ceiling on a 6 metre room height, and up to 20-80 cm on a 12 m room height. In applications where reduced spacing is required, care should be given to keep two parallel beams at a minimum distance so that the receiver from one detector cannot see the light source from another detector ‘There are other spacing guidelines for areas with beams, sloped ceilings or rooms divided by glass partitions, etc. For these spacing guidelines the detailed manufacturer's instruction must be consulted and strictly followed, Installation Guidelines ‘The transmitter, receiver and/or reflector units may themselves be mounted in any orientation (horizontally, vertically or at any angle) as long as the two units face each other so that the beam can be properly aligned. ‘There must be a permanent line of sight between the transmitter and receiver. Care should be taken that the beam is not constantly interrupted by moving objects such as overhead cranes. The detector must be secured in a way that it is fixed and inflexible, The mounting surface should be free from vibration. Concrete and brick walls are acceptable, whereas wood or steel construction is mostly unsuitable, as they may be affected by temperature or moisture changes, wind or snow pressure. The location should not experience direct sunlight or high intensity halogen or fluorescent lighting that could shine directly into the receiver. High levels of dust, smoke or vapours may cause nuisance alarms or high maintenance costs. In general, the beam detector is not affected by normal changes in ambient environmental conditions, As with every type of smoke detector great care must be taken as to the accessibility of both parts of the beam detector. 5-25Chapter 5: Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors Fire Alarm Systems ~ A Reference Manual 5.9 5.9.1 5.9.2 5-26 Air Sampl g/ Aspiration Type Detectors General Air sampling detectors are also known as aspiration smoke detection (ASD). Generally speaking, air sampling type systems can be used in any application where a conventional smoke detector might be used. It also might be used where environmental conditions such as high air currents make the use of conventional detectors problematical, ASD Pipes ‘These systems are most often used in special detection situations such as room monitoring (storage rooms, cooling facilities, computer rooms, art galleries, aircraft hangars) and for object monitoring (control panels, IT and telephone facilities, radio stations) Mode of Operation Air is continuously drawn (by a pump) from the protected space through an air sampling tube network. The typical sampling network has a maximum area coverage of 1,858 m2. This sampling of air is fed through a detector chamber. In a manner similar to a light scattering photoelectric ceiling detector, the air sample is monitored for smoke content.Fire Alarm Systems Chapter §: Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors - A Reference Manual 5.9.3 ‘Suction mechanism ‘The pump, air filtering, and smoke detection features are all quite highly specialized, to the extent that the control unit is able to quite accurately measure varying levels of smoke content. The ASD triggers an alarm as soon as the average smoke concentration of all sampling openings exceeds the alarm threshold level. It does not matter whether this value is caused by very high smoke concentration at one sampling opening or by a slighter higher smoke concentration at several sampling openings. As a general rule, ASD systems are classified in the following sensitivity categories: + normal sensitivity with a range of 1.0 to 0.1%/m + high/highest sensitivity with a range of 0.1 to 0.005%/m Ifa fire is to be detected as early as possible, the ASD system must trigger an alarm as soon as there is smoke at one sampling point. Such systems usually require a very high ASD sensitivity. Application Current technology requires that these systems be designed and installed as separate stand-alone systems. 5-27Chapter 5: Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors Fire Alarm Systems 5.9.4 5-28 A Reference Manual Interconnections from the controller into the building Fire Alarm System would utilize auxiliary contacts of the controller interconnected into the appropriate zone(s) of the Fire Alarm System. ‘Typical application areas for aspirating smoke detectors are: «rooms with a high concentration of valuable property where even the smallest aerosol concentrations must be detected (EDP rooms, chip production facilities) + very high rooms where the smoke concentration below the ceiling is strongly diluted due to the large volume (atriums, hangars) * large halls in which the maintenance of spot-type detectors would be more difficult, or where spot-type detectors would be essentially more expensive than air sampling detectors + areas where spot-type detectors are prone to contamination (recycling facilities, heavy-duty industry) * rooms where strong deceptive phenomena such as moisture condensation are to be expected «historical buildings in which spot-type detectors are unwanted for esthetical reasons «areas with increased danger of vandalism (e.g. in prisons) Installation Guidelines CAN/ULC-S524 Installation of Fire Alarm Systems, Section 5.10 states that location and detector spacing of air sampling type detectors shall be in accordance with the manufacturer's documented installation instructions. Networks shall be designed on the basis of and be supported by sound dynamic fluid principles to ensure proper performance. Network design details shall include calculations showing the flow characteristics of the piping network and for each sampling point. Inlet ports must be not less than 100 mm {rom the wall or ceiling. With normal room monitoring, the pipe system and the suction points are selected in a way that each sampling point has a coverage area of 40 to 80 m®, which is comparable to spot-type smoke detectors. The pipe system is mounted below the ceiling, In false floors and suspended ceilings with a corresponding combustible load, the pipe system is mounted in such a way that the sampling points are at the highest possible point. Due to the large air volume, strong smoke dilution can be observed in large high rooms such as storage rooms, atriums or hangars. If a fire in such a room is to be detected at an early stage, a correspondingly sensitive system must be chosen. In addition, in high rooms, thermal barriers often occur below ceilings, caused by strong solar radiation or by air warming due to fire. Such thermal barriers partially or completelyFire Alarm Systems Chapter 5: Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors - A Reference Manual prevent the smoke from reaching the ceiling. This must be taken into account in placing the ASD sampling tubes. When planning ASD systems in special areas, additional points mentioned below must be taken into consideration. Installation in Dirty Environments: In addition to maintaining a reliable detection, ASD systems must also be resistant to contamination in rough environments. The smallest of particles are deceptive elements for optical systems, leading to false alarms or, in the worst case, impairing the system in such a way that it can no longer work reliably. For this reason, filters are built in the pipe system in rough environments, filtering dirt particles before they can penetrate the measuring system. In certain environments, the suction pipes are additionally purged periodically to clean them from dirt or deposits. This assures a reliable transport of the aspirated air to the measuring system. Installation in Arcas with High Air Circulation: Air conditioning equipment or air recycling systems can cause high air circulation, which in turn sometimes produces essential smoke dilution, as the smoke is mixed with fresh air before it reaches the detectors. In such conditions, it makes sense to use ASD systems with increased or very high sensitivity. It also makes sense to feed a sample of exhaust air to the ASD, in addition to the “pure” ambient air. The exhaust air is monitored directly before reaching the room ventilation system’s outlet opening. Installation in Humid Environments: In humid environments, water traps with sluice valves are installed in the suction pipe. Installation in Refrigeration Warehouses: Due to the very dry air and the highly combustible isolating and packaging material, refrigeration warchouses constitute a high fire risk. A fire in such a facility may propagate quickly and cause a lot of damage, therefore early detection of a spreading fire is of utmost importance in this case. In refrigeration warehouses, ASD with high sensitivity are normally used. To prevent frost formation on the suction openings, the pipe systems are provided with a blow-out mechanism. This is of special importance in the entrance area where high relative air humidity prevails due to the air circulation, resulting in a high tendency of frost formation. Installation in Areas Prone to Vandalism: In areas prone to vandalism, the suction pipe is mounted in the ceiling. Only very small, almost invisible holes are present in the monitoring area. This type of installation can often be found in penal institutions. Installation in Culturally Significant Buildings: In culturally significant buildings, for example with historic ceilings, spot-type fire detectors are often not wanted for aesthetic reasons. In buildings such as churches, cathedrals, museums, libraries or other historical buildings, ASD systems are increasingly applied, systems in which the pipe system is © 5-29Chapter 5: Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors Fire Alarm Systems - A Reference Manual integrated in the ceiling and is thus invisible. The same applies to sophisticated modern buildings, such as concert halls, hotels and office buildings. Object Monitoring: IT systems, server racks, telephone systems, radio stations and other electronic or electrical facilities are potential fire risk due to their relatively high power consumption. A typical electrical fire i usually preceded by a rather long smouldering phase, with the normally low smoke volume being additionally diluted by ventilation. If this low smoke volume can be detected early enough, it usually suffices to disconnect the endangered equipment from the power supply. This is exactly where ASD systems in object monitoring come into effect: An incipient electrical fire must be detected as early as possible so that appropriate countermeasures can be initiated and possible damage can be minimized. ASD systems for object monitoring are designed in such a way that at least one suction opening is provided in each object, for example in a server rack or control panel. 5.10 Air-Duct-Mounted Detectors ‘The purpose of an air-duct-mounted smoke detector is to respond to a build-up of smoke within the duct and to then shut down the air handling system so as to stop the spread of smoke from the fire area to other parts of the building. It is designed to protect people from the resulting negative effects that may result if smoke were re-circulated, will protect building contents from smoke damage, and protect the HVAC system itself from fire, since many fires start within the HVAC motor controls themselves. It is not meant to be an area fire detector and must never be considered as a replacement for ceiling mounted area detectors for the following reasons: * Smoke may not be drawn from open areas when the HVAC system is shut down due to power failure, energy savings measures or during repairs, © Dilution of smoke laden air by clean air from other parts of the building, or by dilution of outside air intakes, may allow high density of smoke in a room or area without sufficient density of smoke in the duct system necessary to alarm the detector in the duct, and «If the air filters in the duct become clogged through dust or dirt accumulation, air quantities may be reduced causing less air circulation, thus reducing detection opportunities. 5.10.1 Code Requirements ‘The Building Code requires that every circulating HVAC system be equipped with a duct type smoke detector to prevent the circulation of smoke where the air handling system: * Serves more than one storey, or more than one suite in a storey, or 5-30 ©Fire Alarm Systems Chapter 5: Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors - A Reference Manual 5.10.2 5.10.3 * Serves more than one area in a Group B 2 Division 2 occupancy, which requires two zones or fire compartments, each not more than 1000 square metres in area, or * Is not provided with fire dampers as permitted in a Group B Division 3 occupancy Operating Principles Essentially, an air-duct- mounted type smoke detector is a smoke detector head mounted within a box-like, aerodynamically designed enclosure for mounting on the outside wall of the air-handling duct. Two air-sampling tubes complete the assembly. One tube with a row of holes along its length, which extends the width of the duct, carries a sampling of the air from the duct into the enclosure. The air is forced through the detector head and then is pushed out through a short exhaust tube back into the air duct. In this manner a constant sampling of the air in the duct is tested by the smoke detector. Most manufacturers provide technology enabling duct smoke detection throughout a broad range of airflow environments. Many difficult to solve HVAC problems occur in low airflow duct applications where reliable smoke detection is critical. These technologies allow for smoke detection at air speed velocities of 30 metres per minute or greater, while continuing the same reliable performance up to 1200 metres per minute. ‘The manufacturer's installation guidelines should be consulted for specific air velocity restrictions. Installation Guidelines CAN/UI $524 Installation of Fire Alarm Systems sets the following additional requirements for location and quantity of detectors to be installed in an air duct system: * Air duct type smoke detectors are to be installed in the main supply duct, downstream of the mixing box, filters, and fan. Where this cannot be done, detectors shall be installed in each of the branch lines as close as practical to the supply fan downstream of the mixing box, filters and fan. + Where air velocities are greater than 1.5 metres per second, one air duct type smoke detector shall be installed for every 1.5 square metre of cross-sectional duct area. 5-31Chapter 5: Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors Fire Alarm Systems 5.11 5.111 5-32 - A Reference Manual © Where air velocities are less than 1.5 metres per second, one air duct type smoke detector shall be installed for every 0.5 square metres of cross-sectional duct area. * Air duct type smoke detectors shall be securely installed in such a way as to obtain a representative sample of the air stream from the central area of the duct by: + Rigidly mounted to the wall of the duct with the sensing element protruding into the duct; or © Outside the duct with rigidly mounted sampling tubes protruding across the width of the duct. «Air duct type smoke detectors mounted outside of a duct utilizing sampling tubes, shall permit access for verification of airflow from the duct to the smoke detector. «Smoke detector locations shall be selected to permit access to the entire assembly. «Smoke detectors shall be installed in a straight section of duct, From a practical point of view the following considerations should also be taken into account when installing duct smoke detectors: «Avoid locations where, within a short distance, warm heated air meets cold outside air which could result in water condensation on the detector. + Also, locate the detector upstream of any humidifier in the system. A recommended practice is to use remote alarm indicators in conjunction with duct detectors, as it will help to identify the detector in alarm. Many manufacturers also offer a remote reset unit, so that one does not necessarily have to reset at the detector unit, often located in the ceiling, Consideration must still be made for access to the detector for maintenance purposes. Smoke Alarms General Smoke alarms are self-contained units (containing both fire detection and signalling components) that provide local warning only to occupants in the immediate area, typically being a dwelling unit or suite. In new construction, these devices are usually connected to a 120 VAC power source. In cases of residential retrofit, the Fire Code allows for the installation of battery-operated smoke alarms to satisfy code requirements for occupant safety. As with smoke detectors installed in a Fire Alarm System, these smoke alarms are available as either ionization or photoelectric models. Some utilize both sensing principles. Combination ionization smoke alarms and carbon monoxide detectorsFire Alarm Systems Chapter 5: Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors - A Reference Manual 5.11.2 provide convenient protection for a multitude of hazards where required by various codes and by-laws. Building Code Requirements The Building Code provides the following detailed requirements for the installation of smoke alarms; + Smoke alarms conforming to CAN/ULC-S531, Smoke Alarms, shall be installed in each dwelling unit and, except for care or detention occupancies required to have a Fire Alarm System, in each sleeping room not within a dwelling unit. * At least one smoke alarm shall be installed on each storey and mezzanine of a dwelling unit. * On any storey of a dwelling unit containing sleeping rooms, a smoke alarm shall be installed in a location between the sleeping rooms and the remainder of the storey, and if the sleeping rooms are served by a hallway, the smoke alarm shall be located in the hallway. + Asmoke alarm shall be installed on or near the ceiling. + Asmoke alarm shall be installed with permanent connections to an electrical circuit and shall have no disconnect switches between the overcurrent device and the smoke alarm. * Ifmore than one smoke alarm is required in a dwelling unit, the smoke alarms shall be wired so that the actuation of one smoke alarm will cause all smoke alarms within the dwelling unit to sound. * Smoke alarms shall be installed in conformance with CAN/ULC-S553, Installation of Smoke Alarms. * A manually operated device is permitted to be incorporated within the [Link] a smoke alarm [ition installed in a dwelling unit oO dé so that it will silence the E io oe, signal emitted by the :- “ smoke alarm for a period of L P- ea not more than 10 minutes, rose TD after which the smoke alarm will reset and again ao sound the alarm if the level ON ry of smoke in the vicinity is Coe) sufficient to reactivate the smoke alarm. 8-33Chapter 5: Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors Fire Alarm Systems 5.11.3 5-34, - A Reference Manual Testing And Maintenance ‘The Fire Code mandates that smoke alarms in dwelling units, guest suites and in cach sleeping room not within a dwelling unit must be maintained in operating condition by the owner. In the case of a rental unit, the landlord is deemed to be the owner. Fire alarm technicians may also perform required testing and maintenance as part of their regular Fire Alarm System inspections. ‘The (Ontario) Fire Code requires that where an interconnected smoke alarm system has been installed in residential occupancies, that may also incorporate manual stations and heat detectors, these systems must be tested and maintained by qualified persons. These interconnected systems operate as a fire detection and alarm signalling system, except they only operate on 120 VAC power and therefore have no control panel providing standby battery power in the event of a power failure. ‘The (Ontario) Fire Code states the following; Any person who performs work on an interconnected smoke alarm system shall have successfully completed a programme or course acceptable to the Fire Marshall, and must perform the test and maintenance in accordance with the requirements of Part 6, whereby reference is made to CAN/ULC-S552, Standard for the Maintenance and Testing of Smoke Alarms. ‘The Canadian Fire Alarm Association’s educational programme satisfies these qualification requirements, in order to allow fire alarm technicians to legally comply with the interconnected smoke alarm system test and maintenance requirements.Fire Alarm Systems Chapter 5: Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors ~ A Reference Manual 5.12 | Chapter Summary 1, The design standard covering all smoke detectors is CAN/ULC-S529 ‘Standard for Smoke Detectors for Fire Alarm Systems. 2, There are two common types of smoke detectors in use in Canada: ionization and photoelectric. The former are considered to be quicker at detecting fast flaming fires, whereas the latter are better at detecting slow smouldering fires. 3. lonization devices are sensitive to several different types of common non-fire aerosols including steam. Photoelectric detectors are responsive to non-fire dusts. Therefore care must be taken to ensure that smoke detectors are properly applied and installed in correct locations. Further, the Building Code requires only that smoke detectors be installed - the choice of detector type is left up to the system designer. 4. The Building Code tells the designer where, in a building, smoke detectors must be installed. Generally speaking they must be used where people sleep, or where they are confined because of mental or physical restraints. 5. CAN/ULC-S524 Installation of Fire Alarm Systems is the document that we refer to, to learn precisely where in a room, and how, smoke detectors are to be installed. 6. As was true of heat detectors, smoke detectors have a definite maximum area of allowable coverage. It is referred to as the maximum allowable spacing between similar devices in a large room. 7. Air must enter the inner detecting chamber of all smoke detectors. Because of this, smoke detectors can quickly become dusty or dirty. They therefore must be cleaned and tested on a regular basis. 8. Aspiration detectors are highly accurate smoke detection devices. Because they are a stand-alone system, and still rather expensive compared to standard ion and photo devices, aspiration systems find use as special detection systems for computer rooms, electrical control rooms, libraries etc. 9. Air-duct-mounted smoke detectors are an important detection method, to ensure that smoke from the fire area of a building is not spread through the HVAC system to other parts of the building. They are not a replacement for required ceiling-mounted devices. 10. _ All smoke detectors must be provided with specific needs such as filtered and regulated DC power. Smoke detectors must be ‘compatible’ with the control unit with which it is intended to work. © 5-35Chapter 5: Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors Fire Alarm Systems - A Reference Manual 5.13 Review Questions # || Question Section 5-1 The Fire Code mandates that smoke alarms in dwelling un guest suites and in each sleeping room not within a dwelling unit must be maintained in operating condition by the Owner Technician Electrician Io |o |o [> Fire Official 5-2 A smoke alarm shall be installed with permanent connections to an electrical circuit and shall have no onnect switches between the overcurrent devi |__| smoke alarm. and the True_ B | False 5-3 ir duct type smoke detectors are to be installed: A| in the main supply duct, downstream of the mixing box, filters, and fan. in the main return duct, on roof top units serving just one compartment On both supply and return fans serving just one compartment, 5-4 In culturally significant building, for example with historic | ceilings that have painted frescos, what is the best detector to utilize for aesthetic reasons? Spot-type fire detectors ‘Air Sampling Detection No detection institute a permanent fire watch lo lo | > Heat detectors 5-36 ©Fire Alarm Systems - A Reference Manual Chapter 5; Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors 5-5 Thermal barriers below the ceiling can prevent ascending smoke from reaching the ceiling. Therefore may be installed below the thermal barrier to be expected based upon the cei A | Beam type smoke detectors B | Flame detectors. _ C | Sprinkler heads D | None of the above 5-6 ‘Smoke detectors should not be located too close to a supply- i diffuser because - it causes the detector to get dirtier quicker. B | If placed directly in the stream of the air supply it will not be able to detect the smoke since the air stream will push the smoke away from the detector. C | CAN/ULC-$524 does not allow smoke detectors to be installed within 450 mm of the air diffuser. D | All of the above 5-7 Atmospheric pressure changes, humidity and temperature variations, as well as air velocities can influence _ A | smoke detector power capacity B | smoke detector addressabilit C | smoke detector ascetics D | smoke detector sensitivit 5-8 This detector operates on the principle of light obscuration, whereby they measure the light attenuation caused by smoke. What classification of detector? Thermal lonization Photo lo |o Jo [> All of the above _ 5-37Chapter 5: Smoke-Actuated Fire Detectors Fire Alarm Systems - A Reference Manual 5-9 Due to the large air volume, strong smoke dilution can be observed in large high rooms such as storage rooms, atriums or hangars. If a fire in such a room is to be detected | at an early stage, a correspondingly sensitive system must be chosen. The most recommended system for this type of application is? A. Thermal Detector |B Linear Thermal Detector D | Rate of Rise Heat Detector 5-10 The purpose of an air-duct-mounted smoke detector is to: A| Respond to a build-up of smoke within the duct and to then shut down the air handling system so as to stop the spread of smoke from the fire area to other parts of the building. t | B | Respond to a build-up of heat within the duct and to then shut down the air handling system so as to stop the spread of smoke from the fire area to other parts of the building C | Respond to a build-up of smoke within the floor area and to then shut down the air handling system so as to stop the spread of smoke from the fire area to other parts of the building. D | Respond to a build-up of heat within the floor area and to then shut down the air handling system so as to stop the spread of smoke from the fire area to other parts of the building 5-38 ©