Chapter 3.

3
FIELDS/ CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: Geotechnical Engineering
Objectives:
To understand Geotechnical Engineering as a field under Civil Engineering.
To know the trend of Civil Engineering development.
To familiarize with the current softwares and methodologies used in Geotechnical
Engineering
To familiarize with the jobs/ careers under Geotechnical Engineering

1.1 Geotechnical Engineering as a Discipline

Geotechnical Engineering is the branch of engineering concerned with the analysis, design
and construction of foundations, slopes, retaining structures, embankments, tunnels, levees,
wharves, landfills and soil or rock.

Geotechnical Engineering is the discipline within the civil engineering related to the
performance of the soil mechanics, including their subsurface conditions, determination of the
physical, mechanical, and chemical properties that will influence the project under consideration,
and the assessment of the risks that may be created by conditions of the site.

1.2 Areas/ Subfields of Geotechnical Engineering

1.2.1 Soil Mechanics
Soil Mechanics includes the study of soil composition, strength, consolidation, and the use of
hydraulic principles to deal with issues concerning sediments and other deposits.
Soil Mechanics is one of the major sciences for
resolving problems related to geology and geophysical
engineering.
Soil Composition – Is an important aspect of nutrient management. While soil minerals and
organic matter hold and store nutrients, soil water is what

readily provides nutrients for plant uptake. Soil air, too, plays an integral role since many of the
microorganisms that live in the soil need air to undergo the biological processes that release
additional nutrients into the soil.
The basic components of soil are minerals, organic matter, water and air. The typical
soil consists of approximately 45% mineral, 5% organic matter, 20-30% water, and 20-30%
air.
 Soil mineral and organic matter hold and store nutrients, soil water is what readily
provides nutrients for plant uptake. Soil air, too, plays an integral role since many of the
microorganisms that live in the soil need air to undergo to biological processes that release
additional nutrients to the soil.
The composition of the soil can fluctuate on a daily basis, depending on numerous
factors such as water supply, cultivation practices, and/or soil type.

Soil Classification - deals with the systematic categorization based on distinguishing characteristics
as well as criteria that dictate choices in use. Engineers, typically Geotechnical Engineers classify the
soil according to their Engineering properties as they relate for use of foundation support or building
material. The Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) the most common Engineering classification
system in North American for soils, Has three major classification group:
(1) Course Grained Soil
(2) Fine Grained Soil
(3) Highly Organic Soil.

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON GRAIN SIZE-

- the terms used to indicate particle size and not to signify nature soil type in this system
are clay, silt, sand and gravel

TEXTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL

- it is the classification of soil exclusively based on particle size and their
percentage distribution
- this system specifically names the soil depending on the percentage of sand, silt and
clay
- the triangular charts are used to classify soil by this system

AASHTO SOIL CLASSFICATION SYSTEM

 - otherwise known as PRA classification system
- developed based on particle size and plasticity characteristics of soil mass.
- in this system the soils are divided into seven major groups. Some of the major groups further
divided into subgroups.
- soil having fine fractions are further classified
based on their group index
- when the group index value is higher, the quantity of the material is poorer

UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

- based on both grain size and plasticity characteristics of soil

the same system with minor modification was adopted by ISI for general engineering purpose
(ISI 1498-1970) is system t h a t divides soil into three major groups, coarse grained,
fine grained and organic soils and other miscellaneous soil materials
- coarse grained soils are those with more than 50% of the material larger 0 . 075
mm size. Coarse grained soils are further classified into gravels (g) and sands (s) - fine
grained soils are those for which more than 50% of soil finer than 0.075 mm sieve size. They
are divided into 3 sub-divisions as silt (s), clay, and organic salts and clays based on their
plasticity nature. They are added in l, m and h symbol to indicate low plastic,
medium plastic and high plastic respectively

1.2.2 Soil Test and Survey

A. TEST FOR PARTICLE SIZE
A.1 SIEVE ANALYSIS determines the grain size
distribution curve of the soil sample passing
them through a stack of sieves or decreasing mesh
 opening sizes and by measuring the weight retained
on each sieve generally applied to the soil fraction
lager than 0.075 mm, there are two different
procedures for dry and wet sievings. Wet sievings
is used when the particle aggregate and form hard
lumps.

A.2 HYDROMETER TEST

Defines the grain size distribution curve for soils that are too fine to be tested with sieves.
Sorts soil particles by size using the physical process of s e d i m e n t a t i o n .
The grain size i s calculated from the distance of sedimentation of soil particles. The percent
by weight is determined by measuring the unit of the soil-fluid suspension. If the soil
samples have particle sizes ranging from sand to silt or clay, sieving and hydrometer analysis
are combined.

B. TEST TO EVALUATE THE EFFECT MOISTURE

B.1 ATTERBERG TEST

Liquid Limit Test

The liquid limit test, defined in ASTM Standard D4318, determines the water content at
which the behavior of a clayey soil changes from plastic to liquid. However, the transition from
plastic to liquid behavior is gradual over a range of water contents, and the shear strength of the
soil is not actually zero at the liquid limit. The precise definition of the liquid limit is based on
standard test procedures. Liquid Limit can be determined using the Casagrande cup method,
which is widely used in the United States or with a cone penetrometer, which is more
prevalent in Europe.

Plastic Limit Test

Plastic limit test is a test that involves rolling out a thread of the fine portion of a soil on a flat, non-
porous surface. The procedure is defined in ASTM Standard D4318. If the soil is at a moisture
content where its behavior is plastic, this thread will retain its shape down to a very narrow
diameter. The sample can then be remolded and the test repeated. As the moisture content falls
due to evaporation, the thread will begin to break apart at larger diameters. The plastic limit is
defined as the moisture content where the thread breaks apart at a diameter of 3.2 mm (about
1/8 inch). A soil is considered non-plastic if a thread cannot be rolled out down to 3.2
mm at any moisture possible.
 Shrinkage Limit Test

Shrinkage limit test is a test that evaluates the water content of a soil where further loss of
moisture will not result in an additional volume reduction. The test to determine the shrinkage
limit is ASTM D4943. The shrinkage limit is much less commonly used than the liquid and plastic
limits.

C. TEST TO DENSITY OF SOIL

C1. LABORATORY TESTS

C1.1 STANDARD PROCTOR TEST

The soil is compacted in a mold that has a volume of 944 cm3. The diameter of the mold
is 101.6 mm. during the laboratory test, the mold is attached to a baseplate at the bottom
and to an extension to the top. The soil is mixed with varying amounts of water and then
compacted into three equal layers by a hammer that delivers 25 blows to each layer. the
hammer has a mass of 2.5 kg and has a drop of 30.5 mm. Total compactive energy
required for SPT=600 KN

C1.2 MODIFIED PROCTOR TEST

Same mold 944 cm3, 101.6 mm diameter, hammer mass 4.54 kg and drop height 45.7 cm
mold is connected with base plate at bottom and extension at top
no. of layers is 5 no. of blows to each layer is 25 compaction energy 2700 KN-m/m2
C1.3 GYRATORY COMPACTION TEST
designed to compact asphalt specimens. It also handles soils,
emulsions, and concrete. It is a customer favorite because it is user-
friendly, reliable, durable and well supported. The g2 compacts
material at a constant consolidation pressure, a constant angle of
gyration, and a fixed speed of gyration using an electro- mechanical
system.

C2. FIELD TESTS

C2.1 SAND REPLACEMENT METHOD

can be used in different type of soils and the results obtained are much more appropriate
than the core cutter method
the calculation is lengthy as it involves many steps and you need more area of the
reach to test
it also tend to be less accurate than nuclear density gauge

C2.2 CORE CUTTER METHOD

well suited for soft soils like clay soils or other cohesive
soils that are placed as fills cannot be used for coarse
grained soil as the core cutter would not penetrate through
them due to high resistance at the tip of the instrument

C2.3 WATER REPLACEMENT METHOD

used for determination of field compaction or field density in large excavation pits for earth
embankments, road fills or structural system

C2.4 RUBBER BALLOON METHOD

although it can get large samples, direct readings are obtained but
it is little awkward
method that is slow and can be abandoned easily in case of balloon breakage

C2.5 NUCLEAR MOISTURE DENSITY METER

fastest of all methods and is easiest to redo when needed cannot
be used if rocks are in the path and it can lead to ambiguous results if
miscalibrated

D. TEST FOR STRENGTH OF SOIL

D.1 CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO METHOD

-is a measure of resistance of a material to penetration of standard plunger under
controlled density and moisture conditions
-it was developed by the California Division of Highways as a method of classifying
and evaluating soil-subgrade and base course materials for flexible pavements

D.2 HVEEM STABILOMETER METHOD

used to analyze the resistance offered by the asphalt aggregate mix in the form of
horizontal pressure towards the traffic wheel induced loading
 it is obtained through imposing the vertical stress sample of the mix. is used to
determine the strength of pavement in horizontal direction

D.3 TRI-AXIAL DESIGN METHOD

In a triaxial resilient modulus test a repeated axial cyclic stress of fixed magnitude
load.

E. SOIL SURVEY
Soil survey is a systematic study of the soil of an area including classification and mapping of
the properties and the distribution of various soil units.

made for specific purposes than could have been made otherwise.

The objective of soil survey is to map the distribution of the different soil types, describe these types,
and interpret the maps in a form that is useful for land management and ecosystem studies.

1.2.3 Foundation Engineering

Foundation Engineering is the engineering field of study devoted to the design of those
structures that support other structures, most typically buildings, bridges or transportation
infrastructure. It is at the periphery of Civil, Structural and Geotechnical Engineering disciplines and
has distinct focus on soil-structure interaction.

A foundation is the lowest part of the building structure. It is also called as groundsill, which transfers
loads to the ground.

TYPES OF FOOTING Shallow Foundations

Several types of shallow foundations discussed below:

1. Isolated Spread Footing

This is the most common and simplest type of foundation as this is the most
economical type of foundation. Generally used for ordinary buildings (Generally up to five
stories).

Isolated footing type foundation consists of footing at the base of the column. This type of
foundations is independent footings. Usually, each column has its own footing. The footing directly
transfers the loads from the column to the soil. The footings may be rectangular, square or circular in
shape. The size of the footing can be roughly calculated by dividing the total load at the column
base
by the allowable bearing capacity of the soil.
 2. Wall Footing or Strip footing
This type of footing is used to distribute loads of
structural load-bearing walls to the ground. Wall foundation runs along the direction of the wall. The
width of the wall foundation is generally 2-3 times of the width of the wall.

The wall footing is a continuous slab strip along the length of the wall. Stone, brick, reinforced
concrete etc. is used for the construction of wall foundations.

3. Combined Footing

The combined footing is very similar to the isolated footing. When the columns of the structure are
closely placed, or the bearing capacity of the soil is low and their footing overlap each other,
combined footing is provided.
The foundations, which are made common to more than one column, are called combined footings.
They may be rectangular, tee-shaped or trapezoidal in shape. The main objective is the uniform
distribution of loads under the entire area of footing. For this is necessary to coincide the center of
gravity of the footing area with the center of gravity of the total loads.
 4. Cantilever or Strap Footing

Strap footings are similar to combined footings and reasons for considering or choosing strap
footing is similar to the combined footing.
In strap footing, the footings under the columns are built individually and connected by strap
beam. Generally, when the edge of the footing cannot be extended beyond the property line the
exterior footing is connected by strap beam with interior footing.

5. Raft or Mat Foundation

Raft or Mat foundations are used where other shallow foundation or pile foundation is not suitable. It
is also recommended in situations where the bearing capacity of the soil is poor, the load of the
structure is to be distributed over a large area or structure is constantly subjected to shocks or jerks.

Raft foundation consists of a reinforced concrete slab or T-beam slab placed over the entire area of
the structure. In this type of foundation, the entire basement floor slab acts as the foundation. The
total load of the structure is spread evenly over the entire area of the structure. This is called Raft
because in this case, the building seems like a vessel which floats on a sea of soil.

Deep Foundations

Several Types of Deep Foundations Are Discussed Below:

1. Pile Foundation
Pile foundation is a common type of deep foundation. They are used to reduce cost and when
as per soil condition considerations, it is desirable to transmit loads to soil strata which are beyond
the reach of shallow foundations.
Pile is a slender member with a small cross-sectional area compared to its length. It is used to
transmit foundation loads to a deeper soil or rock strata when the bearing capacity of soil near the
surface is relatively low. Pile transmits load either by skin friction or bearing. Piles are also used for
resist structures against uplift and provide structures stability against lateral and overturning forces.
Pile foundations can again be classified based on its material and its mechanism of load transfer
or function. Several types of pile foundations are shown in the following chart.

2. Pier Foundation

Pier is an underground structure that transmits heavier load which cannot be transmitted
by shallow foundations. It is usually shallower than pile foundations.
Pier foundation cylindrical structural member which transfer heavy load from
superstructure to the soil by end bearing. Unlike pile, it can only transfer load by bearing and by
not skin friction.

3. Caisson Foundation
Caisson foundation is a watertight retaining structure used as a bridge pier, construction of dam etc.
It is generally used in structures which require foundation beneath a river or similar water bodies.
Reason for choosing caisson foundation is that it can be floated to the desired location and then
sunk into place.
1.2.4 Retaining Wall
RETAINING WALL
Retaining wall could be a structure used for maintaining the bottom surfaces at very different
elevations on either aspect of it. It provides lateral support to vertical slopes of soil. They keep soil
that might otherwise collapse into an additional form. The preserved soil is brought up as backfill. It
has to be designed to carry the soil back, otherwise, it will tip over or "overturn”. There are many
varieties of materials, which will be wont to produce holding walls like concrete blocks, poured
concrete, treated timbers, rocks, or boulders. Some are straightforward to use, others have a shorter
generation, and however, all will retain soil.

GRAVITY RETAINING WALLS depends on its self- weight only to resist lateral earth pressure,
massive because it requires significant gravity load to encounter act soil pressure, sliding,
overturning and bearing forces and shall be taken into consideration while this type of retaining
wall structure is designed. It can be constructed from different materials such as concrete, stone,
masonry units

TYPES OF GRAVITY RETAINING WALS

1. CRIB RETAINING WALL
- are constructed of interlocking individual boxes made from timber or pre-cast concrete
- then the boxes are filled with crushed stone or granular materials to create a free draining
structure suited to support planter areas, but it is not
recommended for support of slopes or structures.

2. GABION RETAINING WALL

are multi-celled, rectangular wire mesh boxes, which are filled with rocks or other
suitable materials employed for construction or erosion control structures used to stabilize
steep slopes.
3. CANTILEVER RETAINING WALL
composed of stem and base slab constructed from reinforced concrete, precast
concrete or most common prestressed concrete type.
most common prestressed concrete type used as retaining wall
either constructed on site or prefabricated offsite requires smaller
quantity of concrete compared with gravity wall but its design and
construction shall be executed carefully. Similar to gravity wall,
sliding, overturning and bearing pressure shall be taken into
consideration during its design
4. COUNTER-FORT/BUTTRESSED RETAINING WALL
it is a cantilever retaining wall but strengthened with counter
forts monolithic with the back of the wall slab and base slab counter fort
spacing is equal or slightly larger than half of the counter fort height
counter-fort wall height ranges from 8-12 mm

5. ANCHORED RETAINING WALL

This type of retaining wall is employed when the space is limited or thin retaining wall is required
suitable for loose soil over rocks considerably high retaining wall can be constructed using this
type of retaining wall structure system
Deep cable rods or wires are driven sideways into the earth, then the ends are filled with
concrete to provide anchor. Anchors act against overturning and sliding pressure.

6. PILED RETAINING WALL

are constructed by driving reinforced concrete piles adjacent to each other piles are
forced into a depth that is sufficient to counter the force which tries to push over the wall
employed in both temporary and permanent works economical until the height of 6
meters.
 7. MECHANICALLY STABILIZED EARTH (MSE) RETAINING WALL
Among the most economical and most commonly constructed retaining walls
is supported by selected fills (granular) and held
together by reinforcements, which can be either
metallic strips or plastic meshes types include
panel,
concrete block and temporary earth
retaining walls

8. HYBRID SYSTEMS retaining walls that use both mass and reinforcement for stability.

1.2.5 Earthworks
Exponent’s engineering geologists and geotechnical engineers are specialists in
characterizing subsurface conditions, determining the history of site grading and their effects
on stability, and evaluating the performance of cut or fill slopes and compacted fill through
monitoring and computer analysis. Infrastructure is a vital component of our modern society.
The reliability of our infrastructure is based, in part, on the stability of the ground on which it is
founded and the earth with which it is built. Virtually all new infrastructure projects and land
development involve modification of the ground surface topography by grading—the excavation,
hauling, and placement of rock or soil material—to create building pads, roadway subgrade, and
foundations. Grading and earthwork are typically the least expensive and most reliable means of
improving relatively shallow weak or compressible soil conditions by removal and replacement of
the suspect material. Examples include the removal of landslide shear zones and replacement
with compacted earth material (called a “shear key”) or when volumes of collapsible soil are
removed and compacted as engineered fill.
 1.2.6 Ground Improvement

Ground improvement involves the modification of soil

properties or constructing inclusions within the soil to
achieve a required performance. Hayward Baker’s
experience providing optimal ground improvement
solutions spans four decades and thousands of projects.
The mechanism of achieving ground improvement varies
by technique and soil conditions. Densification by means
of vibration or displacement is an effective means of
improving granular soils. Reinforcement involves
constructing or inserting stiff elements within a soil mass
to create an improved composite material. Soil can be
improved by adding cementations materials by either
permeation in granular soils or mixing in all soil types.
The insertion of vertical drains decreases the amount of

1.2.7 Slope Stabilization

Slope stability is the potential of soil covered slopes to
withstand and undergo movement. Stability is
determined by the balance of shear stress and shear
strength. A previously stable slope may be initially
affected by preparatory factors, making the slope
conditionally unstable. Triggering factors of a slope
failure can be climatic events can then make a slope
actively unstable, leading to mass movements. Mass
movements can be caused by increase in shear stress,
such as loading, lateral pressure, and transient forces.
Slope stabilization is important in the design of such excavations as open pits, quarries, and
foundations, rock-fill dams, slopes of other types of embankments, and reservoirs, where
movement may have serious consequences. Investigations into slope stability include
measurements of shape, geologic structures, and soil strengths. Stabilization can be
achieved through slope reinforcement by constructing structural elements such as jet grout
or soil mix. Columns, conventional piles, drilled shafts, or combinations of these. Raito
 has extensive slope stabilization experience and can bring that knowledge to bear on your
project.
1.2.8 Offshore Geotechnical Engineering
Offshore (or marine) geotechnical engineering is concerned with foundation design
for human-made structures in the sea, away from the coastline (in opposition to
onshore or nearshore). Oil platforms, artificial islands and submarine pipelines are examples
of such structures.

There are a number of significant differences between onshore and offshore geotechnical
engineering. Notably, ground improvement (on the seabed) and site investigation are more
expensive, the offshore structures are exposed to a wider range of geohazards, and the
environmental and financial consequences are higher in case of failure. Offshore structures are
exposed to various environmental loads, notably wind, waves and currents. These phenomena may
affect the integrity or the serviceability of the structure and its foundation during its operational
lifespan – they need to be taken into account in offshore design.

In subsea geotechnical engineering, seabed materials are considered a two-phase material

composed of 1) rock or mineral particles and 2) water. Structures may be fixed in place in the seabed
— as is the case for piers, jettys and fixed-bottom wind turbines—or maybe a floating structure that
remains roughly fixed relative to its geotechnical anchor point. Undersea mooring of human-
engineered floating structures include a large number of offshore oil and gas platforms and, since
2008, a few floating wind turbines. Two common types of engineered design for anchoring floating
structures include tension-leg and catenary loose mooring systems. "Tension leg mooring
systems have vertical tethers under tension providing large restoring moments in pitch and roll.
Catenary mooring systems provide station keeping for an offshore structure yet provide little
stiffness at lo w tensions."
1.3 Softwares used in Geotechnical Engineering
BEARING CAPACITY AND SETTLEMENTS – LOADCAPS
software for the computation of bearing capacity on loose or rocky soils, computation of
bearing capacity factors, analysis of soil reinforced with geogrids, calculations of: increase
bearing capacity, deformation in the reinforcements, tensile force in the reinforcement for
membrane effect
DEEPFOUND-SETTLEMENTS OF MAT FOUNDATIONS ON PILE
the settlements of mat foundations on piles are not easy to calculate. The software
DeepFound offers the possibility to calculate the settlements of mat foundations on piles using
the computation method PDR proposed by Poulus (2000) deriving from the combination
of the methods Poulus and Davis (1980) and the method Randolph (1994).
EARTH SMALL DAMS – ESD
software for the check of earth small dams under both static and seismic conditions check
under:
full tank, empty tank, quickly, emptied tank. hydraulic piping check determination of the seepage
rate through the world, seepage length, saturation line trend.
ADONIS
is an easy-to-use yet powerful geotechnical- engineering tool for the linear and
nonlinear analysis of geotechnical problems
it features a full graphical user interface (GUI) for pre-processing or post-processing and uses
fully automatic mesh generator to create complex finite element meshes. The graphical
interface enables a quick generation of complex models, and the enhanced output facilities
provide a detailed presentation of computational results.
the ADONIS post-processor has a relatively advanced data visualization and interpretation
package. Global output visualization tools (contour plots and deformation plots)
together with mouse navigations allow user to quickly home in on regions of most interest.
Modeling result can be visualized using the graphing tools provided.
GEOTECHNICAL AND F.E.M. ANALYSIS SYSTEM – GFAS
G.F.A.S. (geotechnical and F.E.M. analysis system) software for mechanical analysis of
soil using finite elements method. The traditional methods of analysis based on the concept of
limit equilibrium (LEM) do not allow the determination of stresses and deformations in the
analyzed volumes. These limitations have led to the need to integrate the conventional
analysis with analysis based on numerical models. These methods use the numerical
evaluation of the problem and do not require simplifications to the calculations.
1.4 How to become a Geotechnical Engineer
Geotechnical engineers are geological experts, who work with other professionals to analyze,
assess, and ensure geographical stability and safety of man-made structures. Their objective is to
survey the foundation of a construction project—rocks, soil, and other natural formations—
and determine its integrity. They may be a part of designing support structures and making
recommendations in regards to any possible problems. Not only are they responsible for
guaranteeing a sound foundation, but they must also factor in the reliability of a structure during any
number of natural disasters, designing safety strategies to combat any threats.
Geotechnical engineers are not only experts in geological formations and substances, but
they are professionals who use engineering principles to perform many duties.
They are responsible for onsite examinations, which includes the supervision of all sample
collection, analysis, and data mining. Geotechnical engineers must determine the physical safety, as
well as the impact of chemical compositions in regards to any natural and construction resources.
They are responsible for devising a plan to remove and dispose of any hazardous materials.
Due to the safety risks involved with all construction, geotechnical engineers are charged with
a tremendous responsibility; therefore, they should possess the following attributes and skills:
Critical thinking
Problem solving skills
Sound judgment
Excellent communication
Practical and technical traits
Organization
Technologically savvy (CAD software)
Aptitude for engineering principles
Knowledgeable of geological compositions and formations
Knowledgeable of construction techniques and materials
 Environmental concern and passion
To become a geotechnical engineer, individuals should
- possess, at minimum, a bachelor’s degree in a related field. Senior positions require advanced
degrees and licensure, while teaching positions at universities require a Ph.D.
Step 1: Obtain a bachelor’s degree. Aspiring geotechnical engineers will need to earn a degree from
an accredited program.
Step 2: Obtain a Professional license.
Step 3: Obtain a graduate degree (optional for advancement). Nearly one quarter of all civil
engineers has a master’s degree. If an individual wishes to work as a project manager or supervisor,
it is most likely necessary to have an advanced degree. Many senior positions require at least a
master’s degree in a relevant field.

Chapter 3.4
FIELDS/ CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING:
Water Resource Engineering
Objectives:
To understand Water Resources Engineering as a field under Civil Engineering.
To know the trend of Civil Engineering development.
To familiarize with the areas under Water Resources Engineering

1.1 Water Resources Engineering as a Discipline Water resources

engineering generally deals with the provision of water for human use,
and the development of techniques for the prevention of destruction from
floods. Water resources engineering also includes the planning and
management of facilities that are constructed for these tasks like
making canals for irrigation and sewers for drainage and to avoid water
logging, and all other issues related with the usage and control of water.
To meet the water requirements of society and the environment.
Initially an estimate is carried out regarding the water available, the
demand now and projected demand when the work will complete and future
considerations, and then the requisite infrastructure is designed,
including the water treatment plants and the pipes network and for the
conveyance of water to the taps and waste water from the toilets to the
treatment units.

1.2 Water Resources

Water resources are origin of water that are essentially required by humans, and water is basically
used for agriculture, industry, domestic purposes, and environmental events. Water on the earth is
mostly salt water with only 3% as fresh water.
The majority of the fresh water is frozen in glaciers and the polar ice caps, and the remainder is
found as ground water, with only a fraction available above the ground. Although fresh water is
considered to be available as a renewable resource, the supply of pure fresh water is gradually
decreasing in the world. The rate of increase in world population exceeds the rate at which the
water supply is increasing so that there is an acute shortage of water in many parts of the world.
During the twentieth century, more than half of all global wetlands were lost.

1.3 Areas of Water Resources Engineering

1.3.1 Fluid Mechanics
Fluid mechanics is the branch of physics concerned with the mechanics of fluids (liquids, gases,
and plasmas) and the forces on them. It has applications in a wide range of disciplines, including
mechanical, civil, chemical and biomedical engineering, geophysics, oceanography, meteorology,
astrophysics, and biology.
Fluid Mechanics can also be defined as the science which deals with the
study of behavior of fluids either at rest or in motion. This article
needs additional citations form verification. It can be divided into
fluid statics, the study of fluids at rest; and fluid dynamics, the
study of the effect of forces on fluid motion. It is a branch of
continuum mechanics, a subject which models matter without using the
information that it is made out of atoms; that is, it models matter from
a macroscopic viewpoint rather than from microscopic.
Fluid mechanics, especially fluid dynamics, is an active field of
research, typically mathematically complex. Many problems are partly
or wholly unsolved, and are best addressed by numerical methods,
typically using computers. A modern discipline, called computational
fluid dynamics (CFD), is devoted to this approach. Particle image
velocimetry, an experimental method for visualizing and analyzing fluid
flow, also takes advantage of the highly visual nature of fluid.
1.3.2 Hydraulics
Hydraulics is the study of fluids whether in motion or at rest.
Hydrodynamics is the study of fluids in motion, and hydrostatics
considers the properties of fluids in static equilibrium (motionless).
Concepts from these fields will be used as necessary to explain the
operation of hydraulic devices. A water turbine or wheel operates with
a large change in the kinetic energy of water; they are hydrodynamic
devices. Specifically, the use of hydraulics (or pressure hydraulics)
for power transmission will be considered here. Power transmission is
the result of the force of a confined liquid. The confined liquid
merely transmits the force generated by the power supply; the flow
contributes to the other component of work, i.e., displacement. The
amount of work accomplished depends on the overall force and the
overall distance to which it is applied. The power supply may be an
electric motor, gasoline engine, or hand power. Although the liquid
must flow to cause motion, its velocity is usually sufficiently low so
as to have only a small kinetic energy component relative to the
overall work accomplished (making the hydrodynamic component a trivial
consideration). Some common systems that use hydraulics are hand
operated hydraulic jacks and presses, power steering and brakes on many
vehicles, backhoes, and hitch controls of agricultural tractors.
Hydraulic systems offer many advantages, including a high level of
flexibility due to their compact size per given level of power, the use
of small forces to control large forces, their relatively simple and
economical design and operation, and self-lubricating components.
Energy is easily transferred by fluid under pressure instead of
cumbersome systems of gears and chains or pulleys and belts. Vibration
is usually minimal in hydraulic systems. Safe operation of hydraulic
systems is important as the high pressure involved is potentially
dangerous. A failure of the system such as the accidental release of
the system's oil may lead to catastrophe, such as when loaded booms or
weights fall suddenly.

1.3.3 Hydrology
Hydrology is the study of water. Hydrologists examine the physical
processes involved in the global water cycle, which spans most
disciplines in Earth and environmental sciences. The hydrological
community includes physical scientists, engineers, and water resource
managers, and in common practice it is distinct from the oceanography
and atmospheric science communities, because hydrology concentrates on
surface water and groundwater in terrestrial environments. The Earth
Systems and Environmental Science module adopts this convention, and
this article provides an overview of the core areas of hydrology: the
global water cycle, lakes, rivers, wetlands, groundwater, the
cryosphere, water resources, aquatic biology, and water chemistry.
Hydrology is the scientific study of the movement, distribution and
management of water on Earth and other planets, including the water
cycle, water resources and environmental watershed sustainability. A
practitioner of hydrology is called a "hydrologic engineer", working
within the fields of civil and environmental engineering, earth or
environmental science and physical geography. Using various analytical
methods and scientific techniques, they collect and analyze data to
help solve water related problems such as environmental preservation,
natural disasters, and water management.
Hydrology subdivides into surface water hydrology, groundwater
hydrology (hydrogeology), and marine hydrology. Domains of hydrology
include hydrometeorology, surface hydrology, hydrogeology, drainage-
basin management and water quality, where water plays the central role.
1.3.4 Water Engineering
Water engineering is about how water interacts with all aspects of the
built and natural environments. Water engineering looks at the way that
natural systems such as rivers, estuaries and the coasts behave, as
well as designing infrastructure to store and direct water.
1.3.5 River Engineering
River engineering is a branch of civil engineering that involves
the control and utilization of rivers for the benefit of human kind.
Its scope includes river training, channel design, flood control, water
supply and navigation improvement.

River engineering is also necessary to provide protection against

floods and other river disaster. The emphasis is often on river
responses, long-term and short-term, to changes in nature, and
stabilization and utilization, such as damming, channelization,
diversion, bridge hydraulic structure design, hazard
mitigation, and environmental enhancement, construction, and sand or
gravel mining. Evaluation of river responses is essential at the
conceptual, planning, and design phases of a project and requires
the use of fundamental principles of river and sedimentation
engineering.
1.3.6 Water Resource Management
Water resource management is the activity of planning, developing,
distributing and managing the optimum use of water resources. It is a
sub-set of water cycle management. The field of water resources
management will have to continue to adapt to the current and future
issues facing the allocation of water. With the growing uncertainties
of global climate change and the long term impacts of management
actions, the decision-making will be even more difficult. It is likely
that ongoing climate change will lead to situations that have not been
encountered. As a result, alternative management strategies are sought
for in order to avoid setbacks in the allocation of water resources.
 Ideally, water resource management planning has regard to all the
competing demands for water and seeks to allocate water on an equitable
basis to satisfy all uses and demands. As with other resource
management, this is rarely possible in practice. One of the biggest
concerns for our water-based resources in the future is the
sustainability of the current and even future water resource
allocation. As water becomes scarcer, the importance of how it is
managed grows vastly. Humans need finding a balance between what is
needed in the environment is an important step in the sustainability of
water resources. Attempts to create sustainable freshwater systems have
been seen on a national level in countries such as Australia, and such
commitment to the environment could set a model for the rest of the
world.

1.3 Largest Dams in the World

GARDINER DAM
Gardiner Dam is the largest earth filled
dam in Canada and one of the largest
embankment dams in the world. The dam is
located south of Saskatoon on the South
Saskatchewan River. Gardiner Dam was
completed in 1967 and created Lake
Diefenbaker, the dam’s reservoir. Lake
Diefenbaker has a capacity of 9.4 cubic
kilometers (7,620,700 acre-feet).

The Gardiner Dam’s main purpose is to efficiently utilize the waters of

the South Saskatchewan River for irrigation, recreation, urban water
supply, and electrical power. Gardiner Dam now provides irrigation to
about 100,000 acres (40,468.564 hectares) of land, which allowed new
crops to be grown in the region, including pinto beans, peas, and fava
beans.
Gardiner Dam was named for James G. Gardiner,
the former premier of Saskatchewan and Lake Diefenbaker was named after
former Canadian Prime Minister John G. Diefenbaker, who initiated the
plans for the dam.
NUREK DAM

Although the Nurek Dam isn’t quite as

large as the other dams on this list it
is the tallest dam in the world with a
height of 300 meters (980 feet). Nurek
Dam is located across the Vakhsh River,
which is the largest river in Tajikstan.
Nurek Dam is one of five hydroelectric
dams along the Vakhsh River. Of the five
hydroelectric dams, Nurek Dam provides
the most electricity, about 3,000 MW –
this accounts for about 75% of
Tajikstan’s electricity [Link] Nurek
Dam is used to irrigate1,600,000 acres
(650,000 hectares) of farmland in
Tajikstan.

TARBELA DAM
Tarbela Dam, which is located in
Pakistan, is the largest earth filled
dam in the world. The dam created the
Tarbela Reservoir, which currently
has a capacity of 14.3 cubic
kilometers (11,600,000 acre- feet).
The Tarbela Dam was built over the
Indus River.
Before the dam was built in the late
1960s through the late 1970s, the
flow of the Indus River was
unpredictable. This caused the
agricultural yield in Pakistan to be
uneven, especially during the
country’s main growing season.
The Tarbela Dam is currently
undergoing its fifth extension, which
will increase the dam’s electricity
generation capacity by 1,410 MW.

FORT PECK
Fort Peck Dam is another large dam
located along the Missouri River in the
United States. Fort Peck Dam has been in
operation since 1940 and produces an
annual average 2.6 million mega-watt
hours of electricity. Fort Peck Lake,
the reservoir created by the dam, is the
fifth largest man-made lake in the
United States.
Fort Peck Dam provides much needed water
to Montana, which experienced severe
droughts before the dam was completed in
1940. Fort Peck Dam also made it easier
to navigate the Missouri River and the
dam was actually the first dam built in
 the upper Missouri River Basin.
Fort Peck Dam was commissioned by
President Franklin D. Roosevelt during
the Great Depression. The construction
of Fort Peck Dam provided jobs to over
50,000 people.

OAHE DAM
Oahe Dam was built by the U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers throughout the late 1940s to
late 1950s. The Oahe Dam forms Lake Oahe,
which is the fourth largest reservoir in
the United States. Lake Oahe hasa
capacity of 29 cubic kilometers
(23,137,000 acre- feet).
The Oahe Dam generates most of the
electricity for the north-central United
States. The dam and lake were named after
the Sioux Indian word Oahe, which
means “a foundation” or “place to stand
on.” Oahe Dam provides enough electricity
to power over 259,000 homes annually.

GARRISON DAM

Garrison Dam is another large dam in the United States

and is located on the Missouri River. The reservoir formed
by Garrison Dam is called Lake Sakakawea, which has a
volume of 29 cubic kilometers (23,821,000 acre-ft). Lake
Sakawea is the third largest reservoir in the United States.
Garrison Dam is the fifth largest earthen dam in the world
and has a height of 64 meters (210 feet) and a length of
3,444 meters (11,300 feet).
Although the Garrison Dam is an important source of
power and irrigation for the surrounding areas, the
building of the dam displaced Native Americans and
flooded their farmlands.

THREE GORGES DAM

Overall, the Three Gorges Dam in China is considered
the largest dam in the world (but we arranged this list by
reservoir volume). Three Gorges Dam is the world’s
largest
hydroelectric power plant and has a installed capacity of
22,500 MW. While the Three Gorges Dam may be
impressive in both size and power output, it is considered
one of the world’s biggest environmental disasters. The
building of the Three Gorges Dam has displaced more
than 1.2 million people; caused flooding in nearby towns
and cities; has polluted the nearby water and land,
threatening the local plants and animals; and has
increased the seismic activity in the area.
Three Gorges Dam has shifted around so much water
that it has slowed down the Earth’s rotation.
ASWAN HIGH DAM
The Aswan High Dam is located near Aswan, Egypt
close to the border of Sudan. The Aswan High Dam lies
across the Nile River and its reservoir is called Lake
Nasser, which is one of the biggest man-made lakes in
the world. Lake Nasser has a capacity of 132 km³
(107,000,000 acre-ft) and the water is used to irrigate the
surrounding land in both Egypt and Sudan.
Aswan High Dam was completed in 1970 and since then,
the dam has helped to control the annual flooding of the
Nile River. Additionally, the Aswan High Dam provides
about half of Egypt’s power supply.
When the Aswan High Dam was built, the ancient temple
complex of Abu Simbel, built in the 13th century BCE,
had to be relocated.

GURI DAM

Guri Dam in Bolívar, Venezuela is the largest dam in

the world based on reservoir volume. The dam’s
reservoir can hold up to 135 cubic kilometers (32.39
cu mi) of water. Guri Dam is also one of the world’s
tallest dams with a height of 162 m (531 ft).
In addition to holding back the Caroni River, the Guri
Dam is also a hydroelectric power plant and the
second largest in the world based on installed
capacity, which is 10,235 MW. The Guri Dam provides
about 73% of Venezuela’s energy needs Guri Dam
provides about 12,900GW/h of energy to the entire
country of Venezuela.

KARIBA DAM
Kariba Dam is the world’s biggest dam based on water
storage capacity. Located at the former Kariwa (Kariba)
Gorge, the dam creates Lake Kariba, which has a storage
capacity of 185 billion cubic metres of water and a surface
area of 5,580km2. The Lake Kariba covers a length of
280km and is 32km wide at its widest section. curvature
The double concrete arch dam is owned by Zambezi River
Authority and was constructed between 1955 and 1959 by
Impresit of Italy.
The dam is designed to avert a one in 10,000-year flood
event. The dam is 128m high, 617m in length, and was
constructed using 1.036 million cubic meters of concrete. It
comprises of two power stations generating a combined
1,470MW of energy, which constitutes approximately 60%
of the hydropower outputs for Zambia and Zimbabwe.

1.5 Largest Dams in the Philippines

SAN ROQUE DAM
LOCATION: San Manuel and San Nicolas Pangasinan
RESERVOIR VOLUME: 835,000,000 m3
 STRUCTURE
STRUCTURE HEIGHT: 200 m (660 ft)
LENGTH: 1,130 m (3,710 ft)
TYPE OF DAM: Embankment
DESCRIPTION:
It is the largest dam in the Philippines and sixteenth largest in the world. The dam impounds a
reservoir with a surface area of about 12.8 square kilometers extending north into the municipality
of Itogon, Benguet.
PICTURE:

MAGAT DAM
LOCATION Alfons Lista, Ifugao/ Ramon, Isabela
:
RESERVOI o
VOLUME 745,000,000 m3
R
STRUCTUR :
HEIGHT 114 metres (374 ft)
E
STRUCTUR :
LENGTH 4,160 metres (13,650 ft)
E TYPE OF:DAM: Large Rock Fill Dam

DESCRIPTION:
It was Southeast Asia's first large multipurpose dam. The dam is part of the Magat River
Multipurpose Project (MRMP) which was financed by the World Bank and whose purpose is to
improve on the existing Magat River Irrigation System (MARIS) and to triple the production of rice
in the Cagayan River basin.
PICTURE

AMBUKLAO DAM
LOCATION: Brgy. Ambuclao, Bokod, Benguet
RESERVOIR VOLUME: 327,170,000 m3
STRUCTURE HEIGHT: 129 m (423 ft) STRUCTURE LENGTH: 452 m (1,483 ft) TYPE
OF DAM: Earth-fill Embankment
 DESCRIPTION:
The Ambuklao Hydroelectric Power Plant is one of the oldest power plants in the country and was
among the first large hydroelectric power plants constructed in the Philippines.
PICTURE:

LA MESA DAM
LOCATION: Quezon City, Philippines
RESERVOIR VOLUME: 50,500,000 m3
STRUCTURE HEIGHT: 24 meters (79 ft) TYPE OF DAM:
Earth Dam
DESCRIPTION:
The La Mesa Dam was constructed in 1929 during the United States
administration of the Philippines. The La Mesa dam later became part of a
larger dam system with the opening of the Ipo Dam in Norzagaray, Bulacan
in 1936, the Angat Dam in the same locale in 1967. The three dams
formed part of the Angat-Ipo-La Mesa water system.
PICTURE:

PANTABANGAN DAM
LOCATION: Pantabangan, Nueva Ecija
RESERVOIR VOLUME: 9,174,658 m3
STRUCTURE HEIGHT: 107 m (351 ft) STRUCTURE LENGTH: 1,615 m (5,299 ft) TYPE OF
DAM: Earth-fill Embankment DESCRIPTION:
The multi-purpose dam provides water for irrigation and hydroelectric power generation while
its reservoir, Pantabangan Lake, affords flood control. The reservoir is considered one of the
largest in Southeast Asia and also one of the cleanest in the Philippines.
PICTURE:
1.6 How to Become a Water Resources Engineer?

The following are guide on how to become a water resources engineer.

1. Earn a Bachelor’s Degree in engineering (four years)
2. Earn a Master’s Degree in water systems engineering (two years
3. Establish state licensure in environmental engineering (timeline varies)
4. Gain practical experience in the field (one to four years)
5. Become a Professional in water resources and environmental engineering (at least four
years)
6. Consider further board and professional certification (at least eight years)