GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING (CGEV301)

Retaining Structures
 Retaining Structures
• Retaining structures are generally designed to offer
lateral support for : backfill, embankment or other
material – in order to maintain different elevation
of ground surface on both sides of the structure
• Or structures to hold an unstable bank of ground

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Retaining Walls - Applications

• Different form
• Different size
• Different loading conditions Swimming pool

• Different failure concerns

• Vertical slab

Roadway

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Retaining Walls - Applications

High-rise building

Basement wall

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Gravity Retaining Walls
Cement mortar Plain concrete or
stone masonry
Cobbles

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Cantilever Retaining Walls

Reinforced;
smaller
section than
gravity walls

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 Sheet Pile

Sometimes referred
to as embedded
wall

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Soil Nailing / Anchoring

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 Reinforced Earth

Reinforced earth walls are increasingly becoming popular.

Geosynthetics

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Precast Segmental Retaining Wall Systems

▪ Good drainage & allow plant growth.

filled with
soil

Interlocking

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Road Embankment

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Terminology of Gravity Retaining Walls

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Terminology of Gravity Retaining Walls

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Gravity Retaining Walls – Design Considerations

Primary modes of failure to consider

1. SLIDING along base (Translation)

2. OVERTURNING about the toe

3. BEARING FAILURE of supporting base

4. Excessive settlement

5. Overall failure of wall and soil

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Gravity Retaining Walls – Design Considerations

Primary modes of failure to consider

1. SLIDING along base (Translation)

2. OVERTURNING about the toe

3. BEARING FAILURE of supporting base

4. Excessive settlement

5. Overall failure of wall and soil

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Gravity Retaining Walls – Design Considerations

Primary modes of failure to consider

1. SLIDING along base (Translation)

2. OVERTURNING about the toe

3. BEARING FAILURE of supporting base

4. Excessive settlement

5. Overall failure of wall and soil

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Gravity Retaining Walls – Design Considerations

Primary modes of failure to consider

1. SLIDING along base (Translation)

2. OVERTURNING about the toe

3. BEARING FAILURE of supporting base

4. Excessive settlement

5. Overall failure of wall and soil

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Gravity Retaining Walls – Design Considerations

Primary modes of failure to consider

1. SLIDING along base (Translation)

2. OVERTURNING about the toe

3. BEARING FAILURE of supporting base

4. Excessive settlement

5. Overall failure of wall and soil

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1. Sliding

W
Active Earth
Pressures

PA
PP
Passive Earth A
Pressures T

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 2 2
Block no.

3 3
1
1

toe
toe

Wi = weight of block i; Total weight = V = Rv = wi

xi = horizontal distance of centroid of block i from toe

Rankine theory: Analyse the stability of this rigid body with

vertical walls
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 Safety against sliding along the base
 = Interface / Soil-concrete
PP +  V tan  + B·ca friction angle  (2/3)
Fsliding =
PA ca = Adhesion beneath the
base  (2/3)c

Base Width
to be greater
than 1.5

2 2
PA H
3 PA
3
1
PP 1
T h PP
toe T
N
toe
y N
y

PP= 0.5 KPh2 PA= 0.5 KAH2

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Cohesionless soil
2. Overturning

W
Active Earth
Pressures

PA
PP
Passive Earth A
Pressures T

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 Safety against overturning about toe
PP h / 3 +  V y
Foverturning = where: Vy = wi xi
PA H/3

to be greater than
1.5 (cohesionless
soil) and 2.0
(cohesive soils) 2 2
PA H
3 3 PA
1
PP 1
T hh P
P
toe T
toe
y N
y N

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3. Bearing failure

Check if vertical stress (due to weight, shear stress on

wall and anchor loads) applied to underlying soil is
greater than soil can withstand.
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Note: Usually, L is considered to be 1 m
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For rectangular or square footing

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4. Overall failure

Refer to section on Slope Stability

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 Minimum factors of safety

Typical geotechnical design criteria for rigid retaining structures

Sliding - 1.5
Overturning - 2.0
Bearing capacity - 2.0
Overall stability - 1.5

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Example
The cross section of a cantilever retaining wall is shown in figure below. Calculate
the factors of safety with respect to overturning, sliding, and bearing capacity. Take
the ultimate bearing capacity of the soil as 567.41 kN/m2.

(Das and Sivakugan, 2017)

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Solution

H1 = 0.458 m
β = 10°
Summary of forces on wall:
γ1 = 18 kN/m3
Wsoil(2)
ϕ' 1 = 30˚
c' 1 = 0 kPa

H2 = 6.0 m
Pa
Wwall(2)
Wsoil(1) β = 10°
Wwall(3)
D = 1.5 m

Pp1
Pp2

H3 = 0.7 m
Wsoil(3)
γ2 = 19 kN/m3 0.2 m Wwall(1)
ϕ' 2 = 20˚ 0.7 m 0.5 m 2.6 m
c' 2 = 40 kPa 30
From the figure,

H' = 7.158 m
H ' = H1 + H 2 + H 3
= 2.6 tan 10 + 6 + 0.7 Pa
= 0.458 + 6 + 0.7 β = 10°
= 7.158 m

Active earth pressure:

cos  − cos 2  − cos 2  Pa = 1 K a 1 H '2 cos 
Ka = 2

cos  + cos 2  − cos 2  = 1

2 (0.3549)(18)(7.158) 2 cos10
cos10 − cos 2 10 − cos 2 30 = 161.17 kN/m
=
cos10 + cos 2 10 − cos 2 30
Separating Pa into its vertical and horizontal
= 0.3549
components:
Pav = Pa sin  Pah = Pa cos 
= 161.17 sin 10 = 161.17 cos10
= 27.99 kN/m = 158.72 kN/m
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  ' p = 114.3 kPa
Passive earth pressure:
1 + sin  Pp1
Kp = Pp2 D = 1.5 m
1 − sin 
1 + sin 20
=
1 − sin 20  ' p = 172.4 kPa
= 2.040

At z = 0 m:  ' p = K p 'v +2c' K p = (2.040)(0) + 2(40) 2.040 = 114.3 kPa

At z = D = 1.5 m:  ' p = K p 'v +2c' K p = (2.040)(1.5 19) + 2(40) 2.040 = 172.4 kPa

Pp1 = 114.3 1.5 = 171.4 kN/m acting at vertical distance of 0.75 m from base
Pp 2 = 0.5  (172.4 − 114.3) 1.5 = 43.6 kN/m acting at vertical distance of 0.5 m from base

Total passive force, ΣPp = Pp1 + Pp2 = 215.0 kN/m

171.4  0.75 + 43.6  0.5
Which acts at a lever arm of = 0.70 m from the base.
215.0
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The following table can be prepared to calculate the resisting moment (γconcrete = 23.58 kN/m3):

Force / Moment arm Moment

Force (kN/m)
section no. about toe (m) (kNm/m)
Wwall(1) 4.0 × 0.7 × 23.58 = 66.02 2.00 132.04
Wwall(2) 6.0 × 0.5 × 23.58 = 70.74 1.15 81.35
Wwall(3) 1/2 × 0.2 × 6.0 × 23.58 = 14.15 0.833 11.79
Wsoil(1) 6.0 × 2.6 × 18 = 280.80 2.70 758.16
Wsoil(2) 1/2 × 0.458 × 2.6 × 18 = 10.72 3.13 33.59
Wsoil(3) 0.7 × 0.8 × 19 = 10.64 0.35 3.72
Pav 27.99 4.0 111.96
– ΣV = 481.06 – –
– – – –
ΣPp 215.0 0.7 150.5
ΣMR = 1283.11

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The overturning moment:

 H'  7.158 
M O = Pah   = 158.72  = 378.71 kNm/m
 3   3 

Factor of safety against overturning:

M R 1283.11
FSOverturning = = = 3.39  2.0  Okay
MO 378.71

Factor of safety against sliding:

FSSliding =
V  tan  + c B + P
b p Where δ ≈ (2/3) × ϕ‘2 = 13.333°
Pah cb ≈ (2/3) × c‘2 = 26.667 kPa
481.06 tan 13.333 + 26.667  4 + 215.0
=
158.72
435.68
= = 2.74  1.5  Okay
158.72
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Factor of safety against bearing capacity failure:
B  M R −M O
e= −
2 V
4 1283.11 − 378.71
= −
2 481.06
= 2 − 1.880
B 4
= 0.120 m  = = 0.667 m  Okay
6 6 141.91 kN/m2 98.62 kN/m2

max
qmin =
V 1  6e  = 481.06 1  6(0.120)  = 141.91 kN/m 2
(toe)
B  B 4  4 
= 98.62 kN/m 2 (heel)
qu
FSBearing capacity =
qtoe
567.41
= = 4.0  2.0  Okay
141.91
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Design Considerations – Factors to consider
The selection of the appropriate wall type depends on many
factors that include:
• Soil and groundwater conditions
• Height and ground topography
• Availability of suitable fill material
• Construction constraints (space, access, equipment,
specialist techniques available)
• Environment – appearance and impact during construction
• Ground movements and their affects on adjacent structures
• Underground obstructions and services
• Design life and maintenance requirements
• Cost
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Design Considerations – Factors to consider

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