PHYSICAL EXAMINATION OF VARIOUS FOOD GRAINS

Collection of Primary Samples

Sampling of grains begins with the collection of the primary sample i.e. sample
of the consignment. The process involved in this exercise should take into
consideration the following:

1) Each primary sample should be taken from a randomly chosen position in the
consignment, as far as practically possible.

2) The primary samples should consist of sufficient material to provide the

laboratory sample(s) required.

3) The minimum number of primary samples to be taken from the consignment

shall be as indicated herewith in Table 1.1 in cases where –

Table 1.1: Collection of primary sample Minimum number of

Weight of the consignment (kg) primary samples (units)*
to be taken from the
consignment

< 50 kg 3

50 - 500 kg 5

> 500 kg 10
 Acceptance and rejection of diagonal portions in the quartering method

The minimum size required for laboratory samples is as given in Table

Collection of laboratory Examples Nature of Primary Samples Minimum Size of Each
sample Product to be Taken Laboratory Sample

Solid products Bread, flour, dried Packages or other 0.5 kg

fruit whole units, or units
taken with a sampling
device

Pulses Dried beans, dried peas 1 kg

Cereal grains Wheat 1 kg
Oilseeds Peanuts 0.5 kg

Let us understand this concept by taking an example of wheat flour sample.

From a given primary sample, take 500 gm of flour. Spread the whole sample
into a circle on the table and the circle (containing the flour) is divided into 4
equal parts. Discard the 2 alternate sections. Again spread the remaining 2
sections into a circle and discard 2 alternate samples. Do it 2-3 times, till the left
over sample is of the desired size, which may be 25-50 g.

Once the sample size is determined, the sample is ready for physical evaluation.
Let us get to know the process of evaluation next. Principles of Food Science
Food grains are judged for quality by their physical, chemical and microbiological
examination. The physical examination includes checking grains for foreign
matter, organic matter, damaged grains, weeviled grains, fragments, shrivelled
grains and admixture. The various fractions as adulterants can be defined as:

1) Foreign matter means any extraneous matter other than food grains
comprising of:

• inorganic matter, consisting of metallic pieces, sand, gravel, dirt, pebbles,

stones, lumps of earth, clay and mud, animal filth and in the case of rice,
kernels or pieces of kernels, if any, having mud sticking on the surface of
the rice, and
• organic matter, consisting of husk, straws, weed seeds and other inedible
grains and also paddy in the case of rice.

2) Damaged grains means kernels or pieces of kernels that are sprouted or internally
damaged as a result of heat, microbe, moisture or weather, viz., ergot affected grain and kernel
burnt grains.

3) Discoloured grains means those grains that are discoloured to such an extent that such
discolouration materially affects the quality of the grains.

4) Weevilled grains means kernels that are partially or wholly bored by insects injurious to
grains but does not include germ eaten grains and egg spotted grains.

5) Admixture or other edible grains means any edible grains (including oil seeds) other than the
one, which is under consideration.

6) Green grains means, which are immature or green.

7) Shrivelled grains are dried and mature grains.

Grains are checked for their conformance to standards. What is a standard? Standard is
something, which is set-up and established by the authority for measuring quantity, weight, extent
value, quality. The tolerance limit of different fractions in various food grains as given in the
Prevention of Food Adulteration Act is given in Table 1.3.

Table 1.3: Tolerance limit of Wheat Jowar/ Bajra Rice Channa

different fractions in various whole
food grains Fractions

Foreign matter% by wt. (max) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Admixture% by wt.(max) 6.0 3.0 _ 4.0

 Damaged% by wt (max) 6.0 6.0 5.0 5.0

Weevilled% by count (max) 10.0 6.0 10.0 10.0

PHYSICAL EXAMINATION OF VARIOUS FOOD GRAINS

Aim: To determine the quality of various food grains commonly used and
grade them accordingly.

Objectives

After undertaking this activity, you will be able to:

• determine the various fractions involved with the physical examination of

grains, and
• check the nonconformance of grains in terms of physical examination to the
standards.

Materials Required

For conducting the activity we would require the following materials:

• Food Grains* (list any seven food grains which you shall evaluate):

……………………………………………………………………………..

……………………………………………………………………………..

……………………………………………………………………………..

• Scoop, dipper or borer to remove a unit from bulk material and from packages
• Weighing machine
• Clean brush for collecting the fractions
• Tared butter paper or poly packs for keeping the fractions.

(* Food grains can be bajra, jowar, arhar dal, wheat grains, rice, channa whole
etc., the minimum packing should be at least 250 g).

Methodology

Follow the following steps to carry out the activity:

1) Place the sample on a hard, clean, level surface.

2) Mix the sample thoroughly.

3) Divide the sample into four approximately equal portions.

4) Combine two diagonally opposite portions, including all fine material, and
weigh.

5) If sample does not meet the minimum required weight, then set the sample
aside and carry out the quartering process for the remaining mixture.

6) Each additional sample, using the quartering process, is to be added to the

original sample until the minimum weight is obtained.

Note: For each food product, follow the procedure listed above.

Precautions
We would like you to consider the following precautions while conducting the
practical:

1) During sampling of agricultural plant products for analytical purposes, every

precaution should be taken to prevent contamination and deterioration of the
samples or subjecting the samples to such changes that the residue content
thereof is affected.

2) Weighing should be carried out accurately.

3) The collection of the fractions should be done with a clean brush and not with
fingers.

4) The fractions should be properly categorized.

Findings

Put down your findings, for each of the food grain examined, in the tabular form
under the different heads in the format given on page 19.

After picking, weigh the sample and the different fractions from the original
sample to find % of each in the sample. Put down the findings in the last two
columns.

Inference

Sum up your findings for each food grain examined here in the space provided.

Food grains
1) ……………………………………………………………………………...

2) ……………………………………………………………………………...

3) ……………………………………………………………………………...

4) ……………………………………………………………………………...

5) ……………………………………………………………………………...

6) ……………………………………………………………………………...

7) ……………………………………………………………………………...

Conclusion: (In this section, present a summary of your findings. Comment

which sample had the best or bad quality, had maximum adulteration etc.)

DETERMINATION OF THE MOISTURE CONTENT

Aim: To determine the moisture content in the given sample of flour.

Objectives

After undertaking this activity, you will be able to:

• assess the moisture content in the given sample of flour,

• determine the moisture content for dry samples, and

• check the given sample for conformance to the standard for moisture content.
Principle
Moisture content in the flour can be determined by:
i) Oven Drying method, and
ii) Infrared heating

The principle behind each of these methods is given herewith:

Oven drying

This method consists of measuring the weight lost by foods due to evaporation of
water. However, loss of weight may not be a true measure, as in the foods high
in protein content, only a proportion of "free water" present may be evaporated
at the drying temperature. The remaining which is referred to as "bound water"
may still remain associated with the proteins present in the food. The proportion
of the loss of free water increases as the temperature of drying increases. Thus,
it is important to control the conditions of time and temperature during the
estimation.

Infrared heating

Infrared moisture balance is an instrument for measuring the moisture content of

materials that do not change their chemical structure while losing water under
exposure to infrared radiation. A graduated scale gives continuous percentage
reading of the loss of weight of the sample due to the loss of moisture. Since,
drying and weighing are simultaneous, this instrument is especially useful in
measuring the moisture content of substances that quickly reabsorb moisture.

Materials Required

Collect the following material for carrying out the activity:

• Sample of flour

• Moisture dish-made of porcelain, silica, glass or aluminium

• Oven-electric, maintained at 130 ± 2°C.

• Desiccator

• Weighing balance
Procedure

Now carry out the practical step-by-step as enumerated herewith:

1) Weigh accurately about 5 g of the sample in the moisture dish, previously

dried in the oven and weighed.

2) Place the dish in the oven maintained at 130 ± 2°C for 2 hours.

3) Cool in the dessicator and weigh.

4) Repeat the process of drying, cooling and weighing at 30 minutes intervals

until the difference between two consecutive weighings is less than one
milligram.

5) Record the lowest weight.

6) Calculate the moisture percent by weight as per the formula given herewith.

Calculations
Moisture percent by weight =100(W1-W2)

W1-W2

where,

W1 = weight in g of the dish with the material before drying

W2 = weight in g of the dish with the material after drying to constant weight, and

W = weight in g of the empty dish.

Precautions

1) The oven-dried sample should not be kept in open but in the dessicator before
weighing.

2) The process of drying should be repeated till the difference in the weighings
should be less than 1 mg.

3) The oven temperature should be regulated throughout the process of drying.

Observation and Findings

Now, record your findings herewith:

W = …………… g
W1 = …………… g

W2 = …………… g

Next, calculate the total moisture content according to the formula given above.

Calculations

Moisture % by weight =

Inference

The given sample of flour has ………….. % moisture by weight. The maximum
limit for the moisture content according to PFA, is ………………. % by weight.

Conclusion

(Comment regarding the acceptability of the sample)

…………………………………………………………………………………………

CHARACTERISTICS AND STRUCTURES

Look at the structure and the characteristics of some natural and synthetic
colours given herewith
Amarnath Amaranth is a dark reddish
powder slightly soluble in alcohol.
HCl (hydrochloric acid) does not
change the colour intensity of the
solution. NaOH (sodium
hydroxide) increases it.

Erythrosine Erythrosine is a brown powder. It

is soluble in water and alcohol.
Reaction with HCl produces a
yellowish brown precipitate. NaOH
produces a rich precipitate soluble
in access of the reagent.

Indigo Carmine Indigo carmine is a dark blue

powder, soluble in alcohol and
insoluble in organic solvent.
Colour of aqueous solution fades
on standing.

Tartrazine Tartrazine is a bright-orange

yellow powder freely soluble in
water. The aqueous solution is not
changed by HCl but becomes
redder with NaOH.

Brilliant blue FCF is reddish violet

Brilliant Blue
powder/granules with a metallic
luster. It is soluble in water and
ethanol. It has pale amber
solution in conc. H2SO4, changing
to yellow then greenish blue on
dilution.

Sunset yellow (FCF) is in the form

Sunset Yellow (FCF)
of orange-red crystals, soluble in
water. It forms reddish-orange
solution in conc. H2SO4, changing
to yellow on dilution.
 Fast green (FCF) is dark green
Fast green (FCF)
powder, soluble in water and
ethanol. It forms dull orange
solution in conc. H2SO4 and
bright blue solution in 10%
aqueous NaOH.

Rhodamine B is a green crystal/

Rhodamine B
reddish violet powder. It is soluble
in water, soluble in alcohol and
slightly soluble in HCl and NaOH.

With a basic understanding of the characteristics and structure of the colours, we

move on study about the permissible level as recommended by PFA for
their use in foods.

PERMISSIBLE LEVEL
To regulate and enforce safety about the use of these synthetic colours and dyes
PFA, 1954 has covered their use in part IV comprising of rules 23 to 31. Until
1968, 13 colours were allowed under the purview of the PFA Act. Subsequently, 5
colours were withdrawn due to their toxic properties and 3 new colours were
added in 1973 to make a list of 11 colours. At present, 8 colours are allowed
mainly Carmoisine, Ponceau 4R, Erythrosine, Sunset yellow, Tartrazine, Brilliant
blue, Indigo Carmine and Fast green.

The maximum permissible level of 200 ppm of food colour laid down in Rule 29
of the PFA Act has been recently amended in 1995 to a level of 100 ppm in all
the foods except for jams, jellies and canned foods in which the permissible level
still remains 200 ppm.

As you are now familiar with the kinds and structure of synthetic colours and
their importance in food evaluation, let us therefore, study the process of
estimation of these colours in food.

ESTIMATION OF SYNTHETIC FOOD COLOURS IN FOODS

Food colours in various products need to be isolated, identified and then
quantitatively measured for their limits. Estimation techniques for water soluble
and oil soluble colours vary. One can use the wool dyeing method for isolation of
acidic colours and can also use chromatographic techniques for their
identification and measurement.
To identify them, we must study the colour reactions of these water soluble,
acidic dyes which are characteristic to each colour and thus can be used as
conformatory tests. The reactions of various colours with different chemical
medium are given in Table 8.1.

Table 8.1: Reactions of various colours with different chemical medium

Name of the dye Shade Conc. HCl Conc.H2SO4 10% NaOH Liquor
Ammonia
(NH3)

Carmoisine Violet Little Deep violet Red Red

change

Erythrosine Yellow red Orange Orange No change No change

yellow yellow

Amaranth Violet Slightly Violet to Dull Little

darker brownish brownish to change
orange red

Tartrazine Yellow Slightly Slightly No change No change

darker darker

Sunset yellow FCF Orange Slightly red Redder Brown No change

Indigo carmine Blue Slightly Darker Greenish Greenish

darker yellow blue

Rhodamine Red Colourless Dark blue No change No change

The permitted colours should be checked for their limits through colourimeter.
The absoption maxima of various food colours is given in Table 8.2.
Table 8.2:Absoption maxima of various food colours Name of Absorption maxima
the food colour

Amaranth 520

Fast red E 508

Carmosine 516

Ponceau 4R 507

Erythrosine 527

Green FCF 624

 Indigo carmine 609

Green S 636

Brilliant blue FCF 630

Tartrazine 427

Sunset yellow FCF 482

ISOLATION OF VARIOUS SYNTHETIC COLOURS IN THE

GIVEN SAMPLES OF JAMS, SQUASHES AND SAUCES

Aim: To detect the presence of synthetic food colours in the given samples.

Objectives
After conducting this activity, you will be able to:
• describe the kind of natural and synthetic colours used in the food industry,
• recognize the permissible limits of the synthetic food colours,
• isolate the synthetic colours in various food products, and
• identify these synthetic colours.

Principle

Synthetic colours form a major group of food colours which are classified into
synthetic colour dyes and mineral pigments. These synthetic colours are futher
divided into acidic and basic dyes. The isolation is carried out with the wool
dyeing technique.

To identify them, you must study the colour reactions of these water soluble,
acidic dyes which are characteristic to each colour and thus can be used as
conformatory tests. The reactions of various colours with different chemical
medium are given in Table 8.1 earlier. Write down the reactions once again here
in the format given:

Name of the dye Shade Conc. HCl Conc. H2SO4 10% NaOH Liquor NH3

Carmoisine

Erythrosine

Amaranth

Tartrazine
 Sunset yellow FCF

Indigo carmine

Rhodamine

Materials Required

– Pure white wool {defatted}

– Amyl alcohol
– Sample (Jam, Squash, Sauce)
– Conc. HCl and Conc.H2SO4

– Glacial acetic acid

– NH3 (Ammonia)

– Ammonium hydroxide 2%
– Separating funnels
– NaOH 10%
– Petri dishes
– Solvent ether
– Glass rods
– NaCl 20%
– Beakers

Procedure

Carry out the activity following the procedure enumerated herewith:

1) Preparation of the Sample

Before carrying out the isolation of acidic colours, it is necessary to remove the
interfering substances such as starches and fats, which hinder with the
extraction procedures. The pre preparation of the sample for the extraction
process would involve:

1) For Alcoholic drinks

Boil the alcoholic drinks to remove alcohol.
2) For the starchy products carry out the following steps:
Grind the starchy products like custard powders, cakes, pulses, candied fruits.
 Treat 10 g of the ground sample with 50 ml of 2% NH 3 in 70% ethanol.

Keep aside for one hour.

Centrifuge and take the liquid portion in a beaker.
Evaporate on the water bath.
Dilute the residue with 30 ml of dilute acetic acid.
3) For fatty food products like sausages, meats, fish pastes, processed nuts etc.
Defat the product with light petroleum in soxhlet apparatus.
Treat the defatted sample with 50 ml of 2% NH 3 in 70% ethanol.

Keep aside for one hour.

Centrifuge and take the liquid portion in a beaker.
Evaporate on the water bath.
Dilute the residue with 30 ml of dilute acetic acid.
4) For the acidic products like fruit preserves and sauces
Solid samples are mixed with water and acidified with glacial acetic acid.
2) Dyeing of Wool
1) Immerse a 1m piece of pure white wool in the acidified solution of the
sample.
2) Warm the solution till the wool gets dyed.
3) Take out the wool wash in water.
4) Put the dyed wool in 25 ml of 2% NH4OH and boil it.

5) Add NH4OH in excess till the colour gets extracted and comes in the
solution.
6) Take 24 ml of this aqueous solution add 6 ml of 10% NaOH and 30 ml of
solvent ether.
7) Take them in separating funnel, shake gently to mix all the layers.
8) Remove the aqueous fraction in another beaker.
9) To the ether layer add 5 ml of glacial acetic acid, if pink colour appears in
the ether layer, it indicates the presence of rhodamine.
th
10) Take the aqueous layer from the 8 step, add 10 ml of glacial acetic acid
and 30 ml of ether. Shake well.
11) Remove the aqueous layer in separate beaker and to the ether layer add
excess of 10 ml of conc. NH 4OH. If pink colour appears in the ether layer,
it indicates the presence of Erythrosine.
12) Take 25 ml of the aqueous layer, add 10 ml of 20% NaCl shake and add
30 ml amyl alcohol. Add excess of conc. HCl so that the total volume
becomes 60 ml.
13) Remove the aqueous layer and to this add 30 ml ether. Shake. Pink colour
will appear in the water layer.

14) Remove the water layer and add 10 ml acetic acid. If the water layer is pink, it indicates the
presence of Amaranth. If it is orange, it indicates the presence of Sunset yellow and if
yellow, it may be Tartrazine.
 Results and Observations

Record your observations as indicated herewith:

A) Product analyzed (Give the name of the product): ……………………………..

B) Sample Preparation steps

(Write down the steps followed by you in preparing the sample for analysis in the
space provided herewith):

C) Dyeing of wool

Colour observed------------------------------

Results of Extractions

Note your observations in the format given herewith: Observations

[Link]. Extractions Aqueous Ether layer

fraction

1. First (treated with NH4OH)

2. Second

3. Third

4. Fourth

Conclusions

(Write briefly about the sample and the adulterant found in the sample, summing
up the activity).

…………………………………………………………………………………………..

CONDUCT THE MARKET RESEARCH FOR VARIOUS NEW PRODUCTS AVAILABLE

Aim: To conduct the market research for various new products available.
Objectives
After undertaking this activity, you will be able to:
• recognize the various products available in the market,
• assess the consumer demand,
• identify the ingredients and the novel techniques involved in product
development,
• appreciate the packaging and labeling requirements of different products,
• acquire knowledge about the shelf life of the product, and
• categorize the products into different areas.

Market Research
Market research is an exhaustive process and serves as a guide to familiarize
one with the data collection methods, research methodology and forecasting
techniques. Market analysis covers various aspects related to market and
products such as market size, market growth, market segments, products
available, product demand, technology used, product life cycle and cost
dynamics. In organizations, market research is an integral part of the product
development. Only after conducting market research, the organizations plan
their strategies for product formulation and marketing. Market survey or
research is the only way by which companies can study consumers and their
behaviour. The market research of any organization may address the following
questions:
What kind of product they are planning to put out?
Which market segment they actually target?
What is the market potential of the product or service?
Who are the competitors?
What are the market strategies of the competitors?
What are the customer expectations?
How to project new product or service more attractive for the customer by
means of value addition?
This activity has been designed with a view to give you an idea about the
markets, various products available, the brands available, consumer reactions
and expectations, the target customer, the cost factor involved, the packaging
and labeling requirements of the products.
Methodology
Conduct a survey for various products available in the markets.
Categorize the product according to:
1) Technologies involved, like frozen products, dehydrated products, products
involving high concentration of sugars or salt, canned products, thermally
treated products, products having preservatives or products with combined
techniques.
2) Groups the products according to food groups, like milk and milk products,
cereals and cereal products, fruits, vegetable products, fats and oils, sugars,
meat and meat products.
3) Purpose they serve, example, ready-to-eat products, functional foods,
convenience products, ready- to- serve products, pre-processed or semi-
processed products.
4) Consumption pattern as breakfast preparations, meal preparation, snacks,
desserts, accompaniments and beverages.
After the categorization of the products, the following information should be noted:
• Name of the product
• Technology involved
• List of ingredients
• Brands available
• Packaging
• Label and information on the label
• Shelf life of the product

Results and Observations

Report the information collected in the format given on page 165.
Conclusions and Inference
Number of products surveyed …………………………………………
Products listed in the following categories
………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………….
Product information available
Conclusions
(Comment on the new products available in the market)
………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………

DEVELOPMENT OF A NEW PRODUCT

Aim: To develop a new product from the given product ingredient.
Objectives
After undertaking this activity, you will be able to:
• explore new ideas for product development,
• understand the concept of development of a process,
• gain knowledge about a technique,
• determine the factors affecting the process of development,
• explain the concept of variations, and
• appreciate the packaging and labeling requirements of the product developed.

Methodology
The process of development of the product in laboratory would involve:
1) Study of the ingredient characteristics
2) Idea generation
3) Feasibility
4) Technique standardization
5) Variations
6) Product standardization
7) Product development
8) Sensory evaluation
9) Product modification
10) Final product
11) Label design and Packaging

Important considerations for the process of development

The process of development would involve exploration of various ideas for
example, if the product ingredient provided is Soya, one need to study the
product characteristics first like it being a rich source of proteins and fat. And
also that as it is having low moisture content it can be ground, or made in
powdered form.
Thus, the product ideas can be of types:
Soya powder, or paste used in the formation of: Soya flakes
Soya papad
Soya biscuits
Soya granules can be used for: Namkeen preparation
Or any other snack preparation (can be
used as filling or in the base product)
Soya milk can be extracted and products such as shrikhand, sweets, paneer,
butter can be prepared.
However, it should be kept in mind that the given ingredient should be the basic
or major ingredient in any product formulation.
One should also see the kind of infrastructure available in the laboratory and use the techniques
which can be easily standardized for example, if it is not possible to carry out the controlled
fermentation process one should avoid doing so.
While doing variations in the product formulation, only one variation should be done at one
time so as to attribute the results to a single factor. For example, if you are adding soya flour and
channa flour to wheat flour at the same time, the resulting hardness or softness of the dough
prepared could be because of any of these. Thus, to know the property of each you have to add one
at a time and that to in different proportions.
Standardization of a method can be achieved by the use of standard weights and volume of
ingredients. These standards for weights and volumes of different ingredients and dishes can be
established by use of scales, slicing machines, measuring equipment, standard spoons, scoops and
ladles designed to hold a measured amount of weight or volume of the food.
Sensory evaluation should be conducted at each stage of development so as to assess the
acceptance of the product on the basis of appearance, taste, texture, consistency or
viscosity, mouthfeel etc. Various tests for sensory evaluation can be made use of. These tests
have already been described in Practical 6. Look them up once again.
Packaging and labeling: The final product should be properly packed and labeled and then only
the assessment of shelf life should be carried out. The packaging of the product should be based on
the product characteristics and the availability of the packaging material. Also, the study of
packaging material of the similar products available in the market as carried out in activity 1 of this
practical can be made use of for designing of the packet.
Label for the product should be carefully designed and should hold the following information:
1) Name of the product
2) Product ingredients in the right order
3) Vegetarian/non vegetarian mark
4) Total weight of the product
5) Nutritional information
6) Any specific use of the product
7) Product catering to any specific group of people
8) Observed shelf life
9) Storage conditions required
10) Directions for use, if any
11) Cost of the product

Product cost: Cost of the product would include:

1) Ingredient cost/food cost.
2) Cost of process like any blanching done, dehydration etc.
3) Labour cost generally taken as 10-15% of the food cost.
4) Overheads like any non food material used for processing, packaging and labeling cost.
5) Profits can vary from 15-50%.

Now, keeping the important considerations highlighted above in mind, get down
to developing the new product.
To help you with this, we have included one example here of how to go about developing a new
product. We have taken the example of “Bajra Crunchies”. Read the process given here
carefully and then in the same manner develop your new product.

Name of the product – Bajra Crunchies

Selection Criteria/ importance of selecting the product*

Biscuits are one of the most common bakery products eaten all over the world.
They are the most easily available ready-to-eat energy dense food for both rich
and poor. Although liked by all ages, they are not very popular because of the
empty calories they provide. Biscuits can be made more nutritious by using a
varied ingredient mix which would add to its value. Thus, the present product is
developed keeping in mind the health awareness among Indian consumers and
their demand for a whole product, which is rich in fibre and other nutrients.
Therefore, to increase the nutritive value of biscuits, Bajra and Wheat bran were
added making them iron and fibre-rich.
Basic recipe for Biscuit Preparation
Amount of Ingredients
Refined Flour- 50 g , Butter- 25 g, Castor sugar- 30 g, Baking powder ¼ tsp
Method of preparation
1) Sieve the flour and baking powder together.
2) Cream butter and sugar together till light and fluffy.
3) Add flour to the above mixture and make the dough.
4) Roll out the dough on a floored board into ¼ inch thickness.
5) Cut into shapes and prick each biscuit with a fork.
6) Baked on greased baking tray in a moderately hot oven for 10-15 minutes or till golden brown in
colour.
7) Remove and cool on a wire rack.
Variations carried out

S. Variations Observations Sensory evaluation/

No. remarks
1. Technique variations
No technique variation was ……..
carried out. The addition of
ingredients did not require any
 pre processing.
2. Ingredient variations

Biscuits were prepared using

various ingredients as refined
flour, bajra, wheat bran.
Weights (g)
Refined flour 30 25 20 15 The ingredient mix gave When the biscuits were evaluated
Bajra 20 15 20 20 different result. It was on the sensory scale. It was
Wheat bran 0 05 10 15 observed that the biscuit observed that all the biscuits had
Total weight 50 50 50 50 prepared with even low golden brown colour and smooth
weight of refined flour
texture.
could be prepared and
However, less of refined
the dough prepared was
flour in the last variation and
smooth.
more of bran provided
crunchier taste and thus was
chosen for preparation.

As these high fibre biscuits would

cater to a class of people who are
health conscious, thus a low-fat and a
low-sugar substitute was also tried
out.

Change in the amount of fat used

Weight (g)
Refined flour 15 15 15 15 The biscuits prepared with less When evaluated on the sensory scale,
of fat say 10 g of butter were it was observed that all the variations
Bajra 20 20 20 20 showing cracks during the th
had a pleasant flavour but the 4
process of rolling.
variation showed less brown colour
Wheat Bran 15 15 15 15
formation during the process of
baking. Even when tasted, these
Butter 25 20 15 10
biscuits were very hard.

Castor sugar 30 30 30 30 rd
The 3 variation had less fat was
also liked on the sensory scale and
Baking powder ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼
thus was selected for further
development.

Change in the proportion of sugar

used for preparation of biscuit
 Here, in this ingredient variation we
not only lowered down the amount of
sugar but also added a pinch of salt to
improve the flavour and taste of sugar

Weight (g)
R. flour 15 15 15 15 The dough prepared from each When sensory evaluated even a
variation smaller proportion of sugar say 10 g
was smooth for was giving appropriate sweetness
in the high fibre biscuits. Thus this
preparation of biscuits.
preparation was used for final
product prepared.

Bajra 20 20 20 20

Wheat bran 15 15 15 15
Butter 15 15 15 15
Castor sugar 30 25 15 10
Salt a pinch
Baking Powder ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼

Note: The sensory evaluation is to be done in terms of appearance, colour,

flavour, texture etc.
Standardized recipe
The ingredient mix for the final product (70 g) standardized was:
Refined flour : 15 g
Bajra : 20 g
Wheat bran: 15 g
Butter : 15 g
Castor sugar: 10 g
Salt: a pinch
Baking powder: 1/4 tsp
*Milk : 5 ml
*As the fat content was decreased, a little milk was added to make smooth
dough.
The preparation of the product was carried out in the same manner as indicated
in the basic recipe.
Process flow of the prepared product
Ingredients used are: Maida, Bajra, Bran, Butter, Sugar, Salt and Baking Powder
The process flow chart for developing the bajra crunchies is given herewith:
Cost Calculation
Ingredients used and their costing:

[Link]. Ingredie Cost/ kg Amounts Cost in

nts used product
(Rs)
(75 g)
(Rs)

1. Refined 24 15 0.36
Flour

2. Bajra 20 20 0.40

3. Wheat 20 15 0.30
Bran

4. Butter 150 15 2.25

5. Castor 22 10 0.22
sugar

6. Salt A pinch 0.1

7. Baking 160 ¼ tsp 0.25

 powder

8. Milk 15 10 ml 0.15

Food cost = Rs. 4.03

Cost of process like baking =15% of food cost = Rs.0.60
*Labour cost (self etc.) = 20% of food cost = Rs. 0.81
Ov erheads cost (Packaging, space, equipment etc) = 20% of food cost
= Rs. 0.81
Profits =15% of food cost = Rs.0.60
Total cost for 75 g biscuits would be = Rs.(4.03+ 0.60+ 0.81+ 0.81+ 0.60)
= Rs. 6.85 ≈ Rs. 7.00
*Here, we have 20% labour cost as the product is involving more of the manual work. However,
in industries all the cost go down because of the machinery used and bulk production. Thus, they
have more profit margins.
Nutritive value for 75 g pack of biscuit is as follows:

Ingredien Amt. Energy Protei CHO Fat (g) Fibre Iron Calciu
ts (g) (Kcal) ns (g) (g) (g) (mg) m (mg)

Refined flour 15 52 1.65 11 0.1 0.04 0.4 3.45

Bajra 20 72 2.39 13.5 1.0 0.24 1.6 8.4

Wheat bran 15 ---- --- --- ---- 15 ---- 2.25

Butter 15 73 --- --- 8.1 --- --- ---

Sugar 10 40 --- 10 -- --- --- ---

Milk 10 1 ---- --- 0.1 --- --- 2.1

Total 238 4.0 34.5 9.3 15.3 2.0 16.20

Packaging and labeling of the product

Packaging of biscuits involves both the primary and secondary packets. These
primary package should be laminated paper which should have wax paper
(oil-proof ) and moisture-proof paper, so that there is no absorption of
moisture from the atmosphere which will make the biscuits soggy i.e they
tend to loose their crispness. The secondary packing is normally used to
further protect the biscuits from moisture absorption, breakdown etc. It is
also used as a print media for all the labeling information required.
Labeling
The labeling of the pack should include the following:
• Green dot indicating the Vegetarian mark.
• List of ingredients in the proportion of use as for this pack these would be:
bajra, refined flour, wheat bran, butter, sugar, milk and baking powder.
 • Weight of the product= 75 g.
• Cost of the product which is the MRP= Rs. 7.00.
• Nutritional information per 75 g : as indicated in the table above.
• Date of manufacturing.
• Shelf life or best before say 6 months after the date of manufacturing.
• The product can have its own brand name or logo such as Bajra
crunchies: a natural way to good health.

Now, as you are familiar with the steps of product development, let us start with
the activity 2. Fill in the information or observations in the format given herewith
( you can refer to the above listed example)

METHODS FOR BLANCHING VEGETABLES

Aim: To carry out various methods of blanching for the given vegetables.
Objectives
After undertaking this activity, you will be able to:
• carry out various methods of blanching, and
• select the best method for further processing.

Principle
Blanching and cooling are necessary steps in the processing of vegetables.
Blanching is a partial pre-cooking treatment in which vegetables/fruits are
usually heated in water or in steam before processing. There are many ways of
blanching, depending upon the type of vegetable and the products desired.
The main purpose of blanching before processing is to inactivate enzymes,
remove raw and bitter flavour, stabilize the colour, stabilize the texture, reduce
bacterial load and add desirable additives.
Various methods are employed for blanching of vegetables such as hot water
blanching, steam blanching, microwave blanching with water spray or air cooling
or a combination of these.
Materials Required
Samples of vegetables to be blanched
Metallic Sieves
Microwave
Petri dishes
0.08% peroxide H2O2: Dilute 2.8 ml of 30% H2O2 with water and store in a dark
bottle in a refrigerator. Prepare fresh every week
0.5% Guaiacol in 50% ethyl alcohol
Stop-watch
Thermometers
Beakers
Pestle and mortar
Test tubes
Funnel
Cotton
Distilled water
Filter paper
Procedure
Now carry out the activity following the steps enumerated herewith:
1) Wash the given sample of vegetable thoroughly.
2) Dice or cut the vegetable.
3) Divide the sample into six parts.
4) Expose the first portion of the vegetable to hot water blanching by dipping the
vegetable in water having the temperature of 100° C. Note the time and carry
out peroxidase activity test as given in activity 1. Select the time where the
peroxidase activity is negative.
5) Repeat step 4 with the second portion. In this, the sample should be air dried
after blanching. Carry out the peroxidase test as in activity 1.

6) Place third portion of the vegetable on a sieve and carry out the process of steaming and cooling
in cold water. Note the time and conduct peroxidase activity test.
7) Do the steaming of the fourth portion of the sample along with air cooling of the sample. Select
the time where the peroxidase activity is negative.
8) To the fifth and sixth portion, do microwave blanching along with water and air cooling
respectively. Note for each, the time for peroxidase inactivity.
Results and Discussions
Principles of Food Science
Record your observation in the format given herewith:
S. No. Vegetable Blanching Time taken Cooling Peroxidase Remarks
(min) activity

1. First portion Hot water Water

Second Hot water Air
Third Steam Water
Fourth Steam Air
Fifth Microwave Water
Sixth Microwave Air
2. First portion Hot water Water
Second Hot water Air
Third Steam Water
Fourth Steam Air
 Fifth Microwave Water
Sixth Microwave Air

Inference
From the above results, it was found ………………… vegetable, when blanched
with ………………… and cooled by ………………… gave best results in terms of
colour, flavour and texture retention.
From the above results, it was found ………………… vegetable, when blanched
with ………………… and cooled by ………………… gave best results in terms of
colour, flavour and texture retention.
Conclusion
(Comment on the blanching methods used for and peroxide different vegetables
taken)
………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………….

MOISTURE REMOVAL TECHNIQUES IN FOODS

Aim: To carry out the moisture removal in foods by different drying techniques.
Objectives
After undertaking this activity, you will be able to:
• make yourselves familiarized with different drying techniques, namely sun-
drying, tray drying and microwave drying, and

• select the best method of dehydration on the basis of various parameters such
as drying time and sensory characteristics of foods.

Principle
The principle of removal of moisture from food includes the process of heat and
mass transfer. Factors increasing heat and mass transfer are larger surface area,
greater temperature difference between the heating medium and the food,
higher velocity of air, dry air, low pressure drying process that employ high
temperature for short time do less damage to food than drying process
employing lower temperature for longer time.
Commercially, various drying processes are in use as air convection driers,
cabinet driers, tray driers, fluidized bed driers, spray driers, drum driers, vacuum
drier, freeze drier etc. However, due to limitation of equipment we will be using
three processes of drying. These are:
• Sun drying
• Tray drying
• Microwave

Materials Required
Sample material
Sieves
Filter paper
Tray dehydrator
Microwave
Muslin cloth
Procedure
Carry out the activity following the steps enumerated herewith:

1) Wash the vegetable thoroughly.

2) Dice vegetable into small pieces.
3) Divide the vegetable into six parts.
4) Keep the first part in the tray dehydrator at 70-75°C.
5) Conduct the blanching of the second portion according to previous activity. Air
dry on filter paper for half an hour and keep in the tray dehydrator at 70-
75°C.
6) Keep the third portion after washing for sun dry.
7) To the fourth portion, do blanching and keep for sun drying.
8) Keep the fifth portion in the microwave.
9) To the sixth portion, do blanching and keep in the microwave for drying.
10) Note the change in colour, flavour and texture of all the portions after drying.
11) Keep them for shelf life analysis.
151
Results and Observations
Observe the samples for the sensory attributes (like colour, texture, flavour,
overall appearance) and report under remarks column of the observation table
given herewith. Principles of Food Science
S. No. Weight Blanched Drying Weight Remarks
of the / techniqu of the
vegetabl unblanch e used dried
e (g) ed sample
(g)
For shelf life analysis, the sample should be observed after one month for any
changes in the sensory attributes.
Inference
The vegetable dried by …………………. method gave in the best results in terms of
………………………………………………………………………………………..
Conclusions
(Comment on the different drying techniques used to carry out moisture removal
in sample).
………………………………………………………………………………………….

REHYDRATION TESTS FOR THE DRIED SAMPLES

Aim: To perform the rehydration tests for the dried samples prepared in activity 3.
Objectives
After undertaking this activity, you will be able to:
• gain knowledge about the sensory changes that take place during the
dehydration of the samples, and
• learn about the effectiveness of different drying techniques.

Principle
Rehydration tests for the dried materials are important as they give idea about
the percentage water in the rehydrated material, rehydration ratio and
coefficient of rehydration. However, no standard method for testing these are
available, although are developed by the plants where the daily evaluation of
quality of dried products is made.
Materials Required
Sample: Culture or dehydrated carrots or dehydrated cauliflower or dehydrated
cabbage. (Take any 3 dried sample).
Beakers – (6)
Distilled water
Filter paper
Burner
Funnel
Weighing balance
Petri dish
Procedure
The following procedure for measuring rehydration is suggested by the US
Department of Agriculture. Follow these steps and carry out the activity.

1) Weigh 2-10 g of the dry material (sample) in six beakers of 500 ml capacity.
2) Add 80-150 ml of distilled water*
3) Cover each beaker with watch glass, bring to a boil within 3 min on an electric
heater/burner and continue boiling for 5 minute.
4) Filter through whatman no. 4 filter paper and drain excess water until the drip
from the funnel has stopped.
5) Remove the sample from the funnel and weigh in a weighed petri dish.
6) Set the sample aside for conducting quality tests.
7) Rehydrate six other 10 g samples, boiling two for 10 minutes, two for 20
minutes, and two for 30 minutes.
8) Boiling should be carried out carefully for proper rehydration of samples.
9) Now record your observations and do the calculations as stated herewith.

*Note: You would notice that the precise amount of water which will actually go
into rehydrating the given sample, will vary with material, time and rate of
boiling

Calculations
1) Rehydration ratio- If the weight of the dehydrated sample is x g and the
drained weight of the rehydrated sample is y g then rehydration ratio is
calculated as:
Ratio being x:y
2) Coefficient of rehydration:
d X [100 – b]

Coefficient of rehydration = -------------------------

[a – c] × 100

where,
d = Drained weight of rehydrated sample
b = moisture content of sample before drying
a = Weight of dried sample taken for rehydration
c = Amount of moisture present in the dried sample taken for rehydration.
(Calculation of moisture present is a lengthy and time consuming process.
 We shall hence not go into the process here. For calculation purposes, we
will however take the value 8-10%).
3) Percent water in the rehydrated material
Percent water in the rehydrated material is calculated as:

where,
d = drained weight of rehydrated sample
x = dry matter content in the sample taken for rehydration
Precautions
1) The precise amount of water will vary with material, time and rate of boiling.
2) Start the test with at least enough water to submerge the pieces, but do not
use so much water that excess amounts are present at the end of the test.
3) Shake or stir, if necessary, to ensure wetting of all pieces during the test.
4) Control the rate of heating so as to prevent rapid and variable losses of water
while boiling.

Results and Observations

Record the observations of the experiment conducted by you in the space given

herewith. Start with naming the sample.

Sample Name ………………..

Next, calculate the rehydration ratio and coefficient of rehydration for this
sample.
1) Rehydration ratio =
X=
Y=
Ratio is :
d × [100 – b]

2) Coefficient of rehydration = -------------------------

[a – c] × 100

d = …………………..
b = …………………..
a = ………………….
c = 8-10% Principles of Food Science

Putting into the formula, we have coefficient of rehydration as:

3) Percent water in the rehydrated material is calculated as:
[d – x] × 100
----------------

d = ………….
x = ………….
Percent water is calculated as:

Now, do the calculations for all the dried samples as done for the first sample

Note the Rehydration Coefficient Percent Time taken

results in ratio of water for
the table rehydration rehydration
given
herewith:
Sample
(name of
the
vegetable)

EXPERIMENT 7
GELATINIZATION PROPERTIES OF FOOD STARCHES

Aim
To study the gelatinization properties of food starches.
Equipment
Refrigerator, weighing scale, pans, wooden spoons burners, thermometer and clamp, measuring
cup and spoons, petridishes, toothpicks.
Materials
Corn, wheat, rice, arrowroot starches
Principle
Starches have the characteristic property of thickening food mixtures in the presence of moist heat, the effects
varying with the structure of the starches present. Those starches which contain more amylose tend to have
better gelation properties compared to starches in which amylopectins predominate. Amy lose is not truly
soluble in water but forms hydrated micelles in which the long chains get twisted to form a coil-like structure. It
is this structure that is responsible for the gelling characteristics of cooked and cooled starches. The
amylopectins in starches of roots and tubers are more brush like because of their branched structure, and usually
provide high viscosity, lending to thickening properties in foods, but do not contribute to effective gel
formation.
Procedure
A. prepare a starch sol using 15g starch and 240ml water in the following manner:
(i) Take the starch in a container using a small quantity of the measured water to make a
smooth paste.
(ii) Add the remaining water gradually with stirring to prevent lump formation. Note the clarity
of the sol.
(iii) Cook the mixture over direct medium flame with constant stirring till the mixture begins to
thicken. Note the time taken and the temperature at which thickness is first felt. this is the
temperature at which gelatinization starts.
(iv) Continue cooking for another few minutes till the mixture becomes suddenly thich enough to
coat the back of a spoon.
(v) Remove from heat and note the time taken and temperature at which gelatinization was
completed . Note the clarity of the paste at each stage.
 (vi) Pour the hot mixture into two petridishes, placing one at room temperature (RT) and one in
the refrigerator (FT) to set.
(vii) When set, calculate the percentage sag of the gel to determine its firmness. for the calculation
proceed as follows:

(a) Pierce a toothpick vertically in the centre of the petridish, the pull it out and measure the
moist level using a mm scale. this reading is R1.
(b) Loosen the sides of the petridish with a moist knife and invert the gel on the centre of a plate. Again take
the reading as in (a). This is R2.
(c) Calculate the % sag using the formula % sag= R1 - R2 x 100
R1

B. Repeat A(i-vii) using Maida (Wheat starch).

C. Repeat A(i-vii) using Rice flour.
D. Repeat A(i-vii) using arrow root starch.
Observations
Record your observations with respect to solubility of the starch in cold water, changes in colour, transparency
and solubility on heating, the time and temperature range for gelatinization to occur in each starch, stability of
the gel, its viscosity when poured into petridishes to set and its cutting quality when lunmoulded. The
observation may be recorded according to the format indicated in Tables 2.3 and 2.4.

Table 2.3: Changes on heating of starches

Starch Solubility Viscosity Colour Transparency

Cold H2O Hot

A Corn
B Wheat
C Rice
D Arrowroot
*

Table 2.4: Gelatinization properties of starches

Starch
Gelatinization % Sag Cut Application in
Time °C R.T. F.T. R.T. F.T Cooking

A. Corn
B. Wheat.
C. Rice
D. Arrowroot

Draw your inferences and discuss the suitability of each in food preparation.
Precautions

1. Prepare starch sols always in cold water and then heat.

2. Even heating with constant stirring in essential to prevent lump formation.
3. The bulb of the thermometer should be immersed in the sol and not touch either the sides or bottom of
the beaker or pan.
 4. The time for cooling should be the same for all samples.
5. The measurement of reading for the % sag, should be taken from the centre of the gel in the petridish or
when unmoulded.

Practise Exercise

1. Prepare a porridge from broken wheat (dalia) or semolina(suji) using any srandard recipe, and
comment on the sensory and gelation properties of the products when hot and cold.
2. Using the method learnt prepare the porridge with rice flour and sago. Compare your observations
using the various kinds of starches and indicate your acceptability for the products in order of
preference. Give reasons why one porridge is liked more than the other and how knowledge of starches
can help to improve the acceptability.

EXPERIMENT 8

Aim
To study the various factors affecting the gelatinization properties and setting quality of food starches.
Equipment
Same as in experiment 7.
Materials
Corn, Wheat, rice arrowroot flours
Principle
A number of factors affect the gelatinization properties of the different starches such as their structure, amount
used in cooking, temperature, presence of other substance such as suger, salt ,acid fat and the type of heat
applied. All these and other factors therefore produce varying result in food preparation, and by understanding
these one can alter the factors to achieve desired results in a product for example, if starch is required only as a
thickening agent in food, one can choose a starch that has more amylopectins in its structure. Since they do not
form as good gels as amylase
based starches.
procedure
This experiment is intended to provide a feel of what the science of food can do for us and how we can correct
an unacceptable product by varying anyone or more of the factors that are under our control. the experiment
covers a number of variations, and the results observed applied to everyday
experiences with food.
[Link] of starch concentration
(i) Take different starches and prepare 100 ml sols at 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% concentrations in cold
water ,in separate beakers.
(ii) Heat each sample one by one to 900c and remove from burner
(iii) pour the hot starch of each concentration into 2 Petridishes, leave one at room temperature and
the other in the fridge till set.
(iv)Calculate the % sag as learnt in experiment 7.
(v) prepare a slide at each concentration and examine under the microscope. compare structucre of
raw and cooked starches. comment on the differences.
(vi)label all the sample accurately and keep aside for evaluation.
[Link] of Temperature
(i) Make 5% solution of each starch and cook to 60,70,80,90, and 100o C.
(ii) Proceed as in A(iii-iv).
[Link] of Added substances
(a) sugar
(i) heat a 5% starch sol to 90o c and then add 10,30 and 60 g suger in separate samples.
(ii) cook till sugar dissolves and remove from heat.
(iii) Proceed as in A (iii-iv).
(b) Effect of Salt
Proceed as for (a) except replace sugar with ½, 1 and 2T salt in each sample.
(c)Effect of Acid
Proceed as for (b) but replace salt by ½. 1 and 2T acid either in the form of lemon juice or vinegar

(d) Effect of Fat

Repeat as in (c) replacing acid with ½. 1 and 2T fat or oil.

Note the effect of all the added substances on gelatinization properties of starches comparing them to a standard
in which no additional substances were added.
Observations
Tabulate the observation obtained through experiments A-F,using the format presented in Table
Table 2.5 : Effect of concentration on gelatinization.

Starch Concentration % 5 colour time %sag cut Application

10 15 20 minus

corn
Wheat
Rice
[Link]

Precautions
Same for experiments 6 and 7.

Practive Exerices

1. Cook any two dishes using Wheat, Potato or sago starches in both sweet and salt preparation. Keep the
time,temperature and cooking conditions the same. Record your observations for gelation and
gelatinization properties of the products.
2. What different do you observe when given boiled or fried rice. Explain Why you prefer one to
the other.
3. Make a list of dishes that you eat at home given in which a starch or a food containing it has been used
to provide thickening, coating or gelling properties.

EXPERIMENT 9

Aim
To test the pectin strength if different fruits and vegetables extracts.

Equipment
Cooking pans, steel knife, test tubes, dropper, muslin cloth.

Materials
Alcohol, citric acid, guava, apple, tomato and pumpkin.

Principle

A. (i) Wash guava, remove any blemishes or dark spots and cut into thin slices using a stainless steel
knife.
(ii) For 1kg fruit add 1/5 teaspoon citric acid and 2 ½ cups water to just cover the fruit.
 (iii) Heat the pan to boiling and then cook at simmering temperature (97ºC) for 30-40 minutes or until
the fruit becomes tender.
(iv) Remove from fire and cool slightly, then strain the contents through a muslin cloth without using
pressure to expel the extract so that it is clear.
(v) Test for pectin strength using the alcohol test described on page 33.

B. (i) Repeat A(i-iv) for apple and other fruits and vegetables.
(ii) Compare the pectin strength of each fruit and vegetable extract.
(iii) Measure the extract obtained from the same quantity of each fruit and use for experiments 10 and
11.
(iv) Strain the pulp of each fruit separately and place in refrigerator for use in experiment 12.

Observasions
Tabulate your observations with respect to each food extract commenting on colour, clarity, and pectin strength.
Also note the time taken to prepare each extract and draw inferences as to suitability for jam or jelly making.
Precautions

1. Foods should be sliced very thinly for maximum pectin extraction.

2. Stainless steel knife should be used.
3. Only enough water to cover the fruit should be added.
4. The fruit should be cooked at simmering and not boiling temperature.
5. The extract should be allowed to drip through the muslin without pressing it out.

Practice Exercises

1. Prepare extracts from a wide variety of fruits and vegetables and test their pectin strengths.
2. Classify the foods as low, medium and high pectin fruits and vegetables.
3. Puree the pulp of the fruits separately and add a spoon of butter and sugar and cook till a mass of
caramel colour comes around the ladle while heating. Transfer the hot mixture on to a light greased
chopping board and let it cool to set. Cut into candy sized pieces wrap in grease proof paper and serve
as candy. Observe the differences in colour, texture and taste of the different fruit cheeses prepared.

EXPERIMENT 14

Aim
To study the effect of heat on vegetable and fruits

Equipment
Cooking pans, Steel knife, Weighing balance, bowls, measuring cylinders, cooking stove, thermometer.

Materials
Spinach, cauliflower, carrot, beetroot, apple

Principle
When fruits and vegetable are subjected to heat as in cooking, they lose their selective permeability and
osmosis is inhibited due to the denaturation. Water and other solutes therefore enter and leave the cells by
process of diffusion, Which is slow and uncontrolled. also the cells of or heated tissue lose their turgidity and
become limp, resulting in the loss of crispness. Cooked fruit is therefore tender,translucent, snks to the bottom
of the pan as intercellular gas gets replaced by water. While the insoluble pectic substance change to water
dispersible forms, the adhension between the cells gets reduced although the lignin remains unaltered.

Procedure
A. Effect of dry heat
 (i) Wash 100g each of spinach,cauliflower and carrot [Link] or trim and cut appropriately into
separate pans.
(ii) place the pan on source of heat and cook 3,5,7,10 and 15 minutes, stirring periodically Without covering
the pan. Remove a sample from the pan after time period into a bowl for evaluation.
(iii) Repeat A (ii) but keep the pan covered. Keep samples in separate bowls.
[Link] of mosit heat
(i) Repeat A(i-iii) but add enough water to cover the vegetable. Note the temperature of the liquid at the
different time periods. Keep samples aside as instructed.
(ii) Drain the liquid from the pan into a measuring cylinder for each [Link] the volume and colour.
C. (i) Perform experiments A and B with beetroot and apple, removing sample as learnt.
(ii) Cook the beetroot and apple whole without peeling, and proceed as in A (ii) and (iii). peel cut and keep
aside

Observations
Lay out all the sample neathly labelled, and observe the differences in the cooked products. Tabulate your
results as indicated in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1:Effect of temperature on the cooking of vegetables and fruits.

Fruit/Veg. Veg (Wt.) Time Colour Flavour Texture Taste Applications

Raw cooked Min.

A. Spinach

(i)
(ii)

B. Carrot

(i)
(ii)
[Link]
(i)
(ii)

Computer the results and draw your inferences with respect to the best method of cooking vegatables and
fruits.

Precauations

1. The source of heat should be Kept constant throughout the experiment, Varying only the time of heating.
2. Temperature should be recored accurate at each time period, ensuring that the bulb of the thermometer
dips in the liquied without touching the base or side of the pan.

Practice Exercises

1. cook the vegetables without covering for 3 minutes as and then coverd and cook till [Link] the
yime taken to cook each type of vegetable and fruit. Record your results and comment on the
acceptability of the products.
2. Vary the amount of Water and cook vegetables and fruit for a fixed time only .record your observation,
and comment on the applicability of each method in everyday cooking.

EXPERIMENT 34
Aim
To study the time, temperature and water required for sprouting whole pulses and legumes.
Equipement
Weighing Scall, pans,bowls, thermometer, measuring jar, muslin cloth, sprout maker.

Materials
Whole green and red gram (moong and masoor) and kidney beans(rajma).

Principle
Whole unwashed pulses and legumes are like any seed which when provided the right temperature and humidity
will sprout. This process called germination, requires different periods of time to split depending on the
hardness of the outer layers of the grain, legumes or beans usually requiring more time than smaller pulses.
Procedure

A. (i) Weigh 10g each of the whole green gram, red gram and kidney beans.
(ii) Pick, clean and wash them.
(iii) Soak in 50 ml water for few hours or preferably overnight in a covered pan, top allow
them to swell completely. Weigh each sample, and note the amount of water absorbed.
(iv) Drain out any remaining liquid and tie each sample loosely in a wet muslin cloth and
hang in air. Sprinkle water on the muslin if dry patches are seen.
(v) Keep sprinkle over 1-3 days till sprouts begin to appear. Remove from muslin when the
sprouts are ½- ¾ inch in length. Weigh the Sprouts again and note the water absorption.
(vi) Note the room temperature and the time taken for each grain to sprout.
(vii) Place in covered bowls and refrigerate for evaluation.
B. (i) Repeat experiment A(i-vii) but instead of hanging the grains in muslin cloth use a sprout
maker.
(ii) Note the time and temperature when sprouts are equal in length to those in A.
(iii) Examine samples of experiments A and B and make your observations.
Note : This experiment can be done side by side with other experiments.

Observations
Tabulate the observations made with respect to amount of water absorbed, time taken, temperature of sprouting,
and sensory characteristics of the sprouted grains. Draw your inferences regarding acceptability for use as such,
or after streaming for 10 minutes.
Precautions

1. Drinking water should be used for soaking and sprouting.

2. Weights and time should be recorded accurately.
3. Sprouts should be of the same length before refrigeration.
4. Evaluation should be done as soon as the experiments are completed.

Practice Exercises

1. Stream 10g samples of the prepared sprouts, and note the changes in colour, texture, flavour and
applicability in food preparation. Compare with the unsteamed samples.
2. Prepare a saled with the sprouts using two different salad dressings.
3. What is the utility of sprouting in meal preparation. Explain.
EXPERIMENTS 35

Aim
To study the effect of cooking on whole and washed pulses and legumes.
Equipment
Cooking pans, weighing scale, measuring cup, bowls.
Materials
Green gram whole and decorticated, beans(lobia), water, turmeric, ginger, cumin seed, salt to taste and fat.
Principle
Whole and decorticated (dhuli) pulses and legumes absorb different amounts of water at different temperatures
of cooking. The time taken for achieving a certain consistency is also affected by the pulse components. The
greater the amount of starch the more mushy the consistency of the end product
Procedure

A. (i) Take 20g each of whole and decorticated pulses and beans.
(ii) Pick, clean and wash the pulses and legumes, and soak them for 30 minutes in 200ml of water.
Strain the water into cooking pans and weigh the pulses and legume. Note the amount of water
absorbed by each.
(iii) Put the pulses into the soaking water on the burner, add a pinch of turmeric, fresh chopped ginger
and salt, and allow them to cook till the water is completely mixed with the pulses and does not
separate out.
(iv) Remove from burner when done and note the time taken for cooking. Put the ready pulses in
separate bowls, remove the final wirght and keep aside covered.
(v) Heat 1T oil or fat in a pan, add ½ t cumin seed, and pour the hot fat on top of the boiled pulses.
(vi) Evaluate for colour texture, taste, consistency as well as total water absorption and cooking time.

B. Repeat A(i-vi) but this time do not soak the pulses, directly cook and evaluate.
C. Repeat A(i-vi) but keep cooking time constant, evaluate.

Observations
Tabulate your results as learnt in previous experiments, indicating the differences observed in sensory
characteristics of each pulse under experiments A,B and C. Draw your inferences and show how you
would apply the knowledge gained in the cooking of other pulses and legumes.

Precautions
1. When boiling pulses and legumes reduce the source of heat as soon as it begins to foam to prevent
boiling-over.
2. Weigh and measure accurately.
3. Avoid overcooking and lump formation.
4. Record the time as soon as the pulse is ready and water does not separate out when mixed.

Practice Exercises

1. Prepare any pulse as learnt, but add tomatoes to it and then boil. Note the time taken to cook and
the differences in sensory attributes. Compare results.
2. Sprout whole pulses and any type of dried beans. Comment on their sensory quality and
acceptability on sprouting and after cooking.
3. Prepare a snack using a combination of cereal and pulse. Show how one complements the other in
texture, taste and nutritional quality.

EXPERIMENT 38
Aim
To study the development of gluten in fermented dough’s
Equipment
Baking tin, oven, weighing scale, standard cups and spoons, muslin cloth, thali or deep plate, cooking
thermometer.
Material
Refined flour or Maida, yeast, sugar, salt, water and fat.
Principle
The functional protein of wheat flour is gluten which when hydrated and manipulated forms elastic dough, due
to the linkages which form between the protein molecules. The greater the kneading, the more linkages form and
the stronger is the dough structure. The elasticity also increases and the dough can be stretched in opposite
directions to form a sheet or film or in all directions under the pressure of expanding gas or air which then gets
trapped to provide lightness to products. However, if excessively manipulated the gluten films become weak and
break and the products becomes dense. On exposure to heat the protein coagulates and forms a semi rigid
structure. The lightness of a product therefore, depends on the degree of kneading and the amount of gas
liberated during fermentation of dough prior to cooking.
Procedure

A. (i) Weigh and sieve 300g flour, place in a plate and make a well in the centre.
(ii) Heat 165ml water to 40 oC or till luke warm.
(iii) Crumble 6g fresh yeast and 6g sugar into the well and pour 65ml water preheated to 40 oC over the
yeast sugar mixture.
(iv) Leave, till it starts to froth and using the remaining water knead into dough by stretching and
folding.
(v) Cream together 6g fat and 6g salt and incorporate into the dough while stretching and folding for
approximately 50 strokes.
(vi) Cover the dough with wet muslin and keep aside for 45 minutes away from light, allowing it to
proof.
(vii) Punch and stretch the dough again and place in a bread tin. Cover and allow to proof for a hours.
(viii) Preheat the oven to 425 o C and bake for ½ hour after brushing the surface with water.
(ix) Cool the bread in the tin, then turn out, and leave to cool in air till room temperature.
B. Repeat experiment A using a mixture of refined and whole wheat flour.
C. Repeat using wheat and soya flour in the ratio or 10:1.

Observations

Make observations with respect to the volume, crust, cut, evenness of baking, colour, taste and flavour.
Draw your inferences with respect to effect of yeast fermentation on wheat flour and other flour
mixtures. Tabulate your results.

Precautions

1. Hydration of yeast should be done at 40-60 o C.

2. Avoid using shiny pans for baking as they affect the rate of heat transfer.
3. Bread dough should contain approximately 40% moisture.
4. Salt content should not exceed 2% of the weight of the flour as it inhibits gas production.
5. Sugar is essential for fermentation but should not exceed 10% of flour weight.
Practice Exercises
1. Prepare fermented products using air, lactic acid and yeast for the fermentation. Compare the
results and comment of the extent of glutenization in each.
2. Prepare idli, dosa and dhokla combining cereal and pulse flours. Discuss the appropriate
methods of fermentation and explain why the products are so different in their sensory
qualities.

EXPERIMENT 39
Aim
To demonstrate the effect of roasting on nuts and oil seed.

Equipment
Iron kadai or work, performed ladle, strainer, oven and tray.

Materials
Groundnuts, cashewnuts, gingelly, salt.
Principle
Nuts and oil seeds are generally not eaten raw and have been processed in some manner before being
consumed. The heat treatment improves colour, flavour, and general acceptability as well as their
digestibility. Nuts also provide a good energy source, protein, and other nutrients.

Procedure
A. (i) Weigh, clean and pick 10g each of groundnuts, cashew nuts and gingelly seeds.
(ii) Heat the iron kadai without oil, and lower the flame of the burner.
(iii) Add the groundnuts to the hot kadai and keep turning them over till the outer paper-like
skin gets easily removed and roasted flavour and aroma is noticeable. Remove one nut, cool
in air and test for readiness.
(iv) Remove the nuts from the kadai into a plate, sprinkle salt to taste, cool and weigh. Note
down the difference in weight.
(v) Repeat (i-iv) for cashew nets.
(vi) Repeat (i-iv) for gingelly seeds.
B. (i) Repeat A(i-iv) but this time use a preheated oven at 200ºC for
C. (i) Repeat A(i-iv) but roast the nuts in salt pre-heated along with the kadali.
(ii) plece all the samples together and evaluate their sensory attributes. Comment on their
applicability in food processing and cooking.

Observations
Tabulate your observations and determine the best method of roasting nuts and oilseeds.

Precautions
1. When roasting nuts and oilseed the heating should be even
2. Temperature should be adjusted to the nut or seed to prevent scoring or incomplete cooking.
3. Constant turning over is important.
4. Weighing should be accurate, to determine the weight change during roating.

Practice Exercises
1. Roast the nuts and seeds in a microwave oven and evaluate the quality of the product.
Cover the dish when roasting seeds as spluttering will occur.
2. Prepare a salad and use suitable nuts in it. Explain why you selected particular nuts only.
3. Prepare a pulao and garnish with nuts. Comment on its advantages and acceptability.
4. Prepare laddus with the roasted gingelly seeds, using any basic recipe. Comment on the
product.

EXPERIMENT 42
Aim
To determine the smoking point of fats and oils.
Equipment
Measuring and weighing equipment, pyrex beakers, thermometer and stands, burner, tripod stand and gauze,
stop watch.
Materials
Hydrogenated fat, mustard and refined vegetable oils, butter.
Principle
When a fat or oil is heated to high temperatures the triglycerides gradually breakdown to free fatty acids and
glycerol. The glycerol then gets dehydrated and decomposes to from an unsaturated aldehyde called acrolein
which results in a blue haze or smoke. The temperature at which this appears on teh surface of the oil is known
as the smoking point, and depends on the percentage of free glycerol present in a fat and the rate at which the
molecules get dehydrated. Monoglycerides if present in the oil or at get hydrolysed more easily than
triglycerides. Acrolein has a strong odour and irritates the mucous membranes indicating that the fat is
decomposing and has been heated under uncontrolled conditions.
Procedure

A. (i) Take 100g of hydrogenated fat in a pyrex beaker.

(ii) Fix the thermometer on a stand so that the bulb will dip vertically in the melted fat when the beaker
is placed over the flame.
(iii) Place the beaker of fat over a steady flame and keep on moderate heat throughout the experiment.
Note the temperature of the fat every 2 minutes.
(iv) Continue to heat the fat till a blue haze is noticed rising from the surface of the fat. Switch off the
burner and read the temperature immediately. Record the smoking point and the time taken for the oil
to smoke.
B. (i) Repeat experiment A (i-iv) using 100 ml mustard oil instead of 100g fat.
(ii) Note the smoking point and the time taken.
C. (i) Repeat experiment A (i-iv) using 100 ml vegetable oil.
(ii) Note the smoking point and the time taken.
D. (i) Repeat experiment A(i-iv) using 100 g butter
(ii) Note the smoking point and the time taken to reach it.

Note the volume, colour, viscosity and flavour of the fats and oil before and after they are heated to
smoking point and then cooled to room temperature. Record the differences in their smoking
temperatures.

Observations

Record your observations according to the format presented in Table 10.2. From your observations
determine the fat or oil with the highest smoking point and comment on the changes in volume, and
other sensory qualities. Which is the best oil to use for frying. Give reasons for your choice. Draw
inferences with respect to the changes observed in each oil and discuss the applicability of each
medium in food preparation.

Table10.2. Smoking point of fats and oils

Fat/Oil Smoking pt. Time taken Volume Colour Viscosity Flavour

o
C Minutes I II I II I II I II

Hydrogenated
Mustard
Vegetable
Butter

Plot a graph showing time on the X-axis recorded every 2 minutes for each fat and the corresponding
temperatures on the Y-axis. Show the differences observed and how they can employed in food preparation and
processing with the least damage to the fat.
Precautions

1. Take equal amount for each experiment.

2. Heating should be carried out with a constant flame.
3. Note temperature every 2 minutes and stop the flame as soon as it stars to smoke.
4. Read off the smoking temperature immediately.
5. Use a stop watch for noting time accurately.

Practice exercises
 1. Repeat the experiment learnt using other fats oils such as canola, sunflower, coconut and so on and
compare the smoking temperatures and suitability of the oils for frying.
2. Prepare pooris using fats and oils with low and high smoking points. Compare the products and
comment on their palatability and acceptability. Give reasons for your comments.
3. List five foods in the preparation of which different oils or fats are used. How can you improve the
quality of the foods with your knowledge of fats and oils.

EXPERIMENT 45
Aim
To detect metanil yellow in species
Equipment
Funnel, filter paper, test tubes and stand, dropper and filter paper.
Materials
Turmeric whole and power, water, concentrated Hydrochloric acid (HCL)
Principle
Colours are often added to foods especially species to enhance their brightness, but coal tar dyes like
metanil yellow may have been used which are injurious to health. Detection can therefore assist in
educating the public about the hazard. Jacob(1976) has attributed the colour to testicular degeneration
in males.
Procedure

A. (i) Mix 1/4t of turmeric powder in water, shake vigorously and then filter the solution.
(ii) Dilute a part of the future till it is almost colourless.
(iii) Take some of the diluted sample in another test tube and add a few drops of concentrated
HCL and observe the colour. A magenta red colour indicates the presence of metanil yellow.

B. Repeat A (i-iii) with whole turmeric.

Label the samples, and place on the stand for observation.

Observation
Record your observations with respect to the intensity of the change in colour that takes place in A
and B. Draw inferences and state whether the sample is adulterated with metanil yellow or not.
Precautions

1. Use a dropper for adding concentrated acid, ot it may result in burns.

2. The number of drops of acid added should be same for all samples.
3. Store acid in a cool dark place away from a flame.

Practice Exercises

1. Perform the test on other spices and pulses of yellow to orange colour and see if they are
adulterated. Repeat the test 3 times to confirm your results. Keep a sample of the spice and
the positive test results for record and necessary action.
2. What action would you take if they are found to be adulterated with metanil yellow.
 EXPERIMENT 46
Aim
To test whole red chilli for the presence of Rhodamine B (red colour).

Equipment
Petridish, Cotton swab.

Materials
Whole red chillies, paraffin or mineral oil.

Principle
There are certain red colours such as amaranth,carmoisine, erythrosine, Fast red E and Ponceau 4R which are
permitted under the PFA rules for addition to synthetic syrups and other foods. However, the addition of
inorganic matter and pigments with leads salts, red or yellow earth are prohibited. Addition of artificial colours
to pulses, spices, tea and coffee are strictly prohibited by the PFA Act.
Impure colour preparations can contaminants symptoms ranging from anemia to brain damage can occur.
Chillies and their powders are prone to addition of red colour.

Procedure

A. (i) Pour a little liquid paraffin or oil in a petridish.

(ii) Soak the cotton Swab in it and rub the surface of a red chilli.
(iii) Observe the cotton for colour. If the cotton becomes red then the sample contains added colour.
B. Repeat A(i-iii) twice to confirm your results.

Observations
Record your observations and comment on the intensity of the colour in each sample.
Precautions

1. Take care to see that the sample is clean and dry.

2. Wash your hands thoroughly before and after experiment.
3. Dispose off the paraffin oil carefully, so that it does not contaminate food or food surfaces.

Practice Exercises

1. Test a teaspoon of chilli powder by shaking it in a test tube with paraffin oil. Let it stand for minutes,
shaking it intertmitantly. Observe and check the degree of adulteration if preset.
2. Perform this test with other orange to red whole and powdered spices, pulses and legumes.
comment on the results.

EXPERIMENT 47
Aim
To test for adulterants in coffee power.
Materials and reagents
Coffee power, water KMnO4, Lodine solution, 2%Na OH solution, lead acetate, Selivanoff’s reagent.
Principle
The common adulterants in coffee power are starch, date and tamarind seeds and chicory, The starch responds to
iodine solution, the seeds to 2 % NAOH and chicory to Selvinoff’s reagent and can therefore be easily tested.
Procedure
 A. Testing for starch
(i)Make a decoction of coffee.
(ii) Take 10 ml in a test tube (tt).
(iii)Decolourize it with acidified KMnO4
(v)Observe the change in colour. Blue colour indicates the presence of starch

B. Testing for roasted dates and tamarind tube.

(i) Take ¼ t coffee power in a test tube.
(ii) Add 10ml of 2% NaOH solution and shake well. Keep on a tt stand for 3-4 minutes.
(iii) Observe the colour. If reddish it indicates presence of date seeds, and if pink it shows adulteration
with tamarind seeds.

C. Testing for chicory.

(i) prepare a 2 % water extract of coffee and filter.
(ii) To 5 ml of the clear filtrate in a tt, add 5 ml of Selvionff”s reagent followed by I ml of
concentrated HCL
(iii) Boil for 1 minute over a Bunsen burner. Keep aside on tt stand.
(iv) Observe any change in colour. If a red colour is obtained it indicates the presence of
chicory.

Observations
Tabulate your observations as learnt and record your comments.
Precautions
1. When handling acids care should be taken to pour than down the sides of the tt.
2. Boil solutions on low to medium heat to prevent boiling-over.
3. Use a tt holder for hearting.
4. Store reagents in a cool place.

Practice exercises

1. Test for starch, and other adulterants in powdered tea as learnt. Comment on the colours obtained.
2. Take a blotting paper, moisten with water and sprinkle with dust tea. If yellow. red or orange sports
appear the tea is adulterated.
3. Take a magnet and test tea leaves for presence of iron filings. Compare different brands of tea.
Comment on your results.
4. What would you do if you found your beverages adulterated. stop drinking them or take action against
manufacturers.

EXPERIMENT 48
Aim
To test for presence of sugar in honey
Equipment
Beaker, measuring cylinder, mortar and pestle, evaporating dish
Materials and reagents
Honey, ether, resorcinol and concentrated HCL
Principle
The presence of adulterants always brings about changes in reactions to various reagents depending on the
composition of the food and the substances added.
Procedure

(i) Mix 2g honey with 5ml ether in a mortar and pestle.

 (ii) Decant off the ether extract in to an evaporating dish.
(iii) Repeat the process by treating the extract with ether and collect the residue.
(iv) Allow the ether to evaporate off at room temperature.
(v) To the remaining residue add resorcinol and 1 drop of conc. HCI.
(vi) The appearance of a cherry red colour indicates the presence of sugar.

Observations
Record your observations and comment on the honey sample as observed.
Precautions

1. As in experiments 46 and 47.

Practice Exercises

1. Take honey of different brands in the market and test for the presence of sugar. Comment on the best
brand to buy.
2. Take any syrup sold in the market and test as learnt.
3. Add concentrated HCI to jiggery solutions. A magenta red colour indicates adulteration.
4. To a little powdered sugar, add a few drops of cone. HCI. If effervescence occurs it indicates
adulteration with washing soda.

EXPERIMENT 49
Aim
To Test for adulteration is fats and oils.
Equipment
Glass stoppered test tube, 5ml graduated pipette, test tubes and stand, water bath, Burner and gauze, measuring
cylinder.
Materials and reagents
Ghee, butter, vegetable oil, conc. HCI, 7 N alcoholic KOH
Principle
Fats and oils are easily adulterated with coal-tar dyes, mineral oil, argemone oil, vanaspati and animal fats.
Adding vanaspati to ghee for instance may not be injurious, but when dome with a purely profit motive, because
the former in expensive, is an act of adulteration to be reported against, if not indicated on the label of a
package.
Procedure

A. Vanaspati in ghee
(i) Dissolve a pinch of sugar in 10 ml of conc. HCI taken in aglass stoppeered tt.
(ii) Add 10 ml of melted ghee and replace stopper.
(iii) Shake vigorously for 2 minutes.
(iv) Allow the tt to stand till the acid layer separates our.
(v) Observe the acid layer, if pink the sample contains vanaspati.

Such adulteration can also be detected by shaking 5ml ghee with 5ml dilute HCI and adding 0.2%
furfural solution.

B. Coaltar dye in Butter.

(i) Melt 1t butter in a tt kept in a hot water bath.
(ii) Continue heating until the fat and water layers separate completely.
(iii) Decant off the fat layer from the top into a clean dry tt.
(iv) Dissolve 2ml of the decanted fat in ether, and add to it 1.2ml of 50% HCI.
(v) Shake the tt vigorously and let stand.
(vi) Observe the acid layer. A wine red colour indicates the presenc of coal-tar dye.
C. Mineral oil in vegetable oil.
 (i) Take 5ml vegetable oil in a tt, and add 25ml of 7N alcoholic KOH.
(ii) Saponify the mixture in a hot water bath.
(iii) When competed dilute with distilled water.
(iv) Observe. If turbidity is present, the sample contains mineral oil.

Observations

Tabulate your observations as Learnt.

Precaution
As in experiment 47
Practice Exercises

1. Perform tests as learnt using different oils and blends. Record your observation. Which oil available in
the market would you recommend for use in cooking.
2. Take samples of different brands of butter and margarine and test for adulteration using sensory
evaluation and laboratory tests.
3. To 5ml melted fat add 5ml cone HCL, shake well and add 0.2 % fluoroglucinal solution in ether. Pink
colour shows rancidity in fat. Check other fats and oils rancidity and comment on the results.

EXPERIMENT 50
Aim
Detection of Na HCO3 (chalk) in flour.
Equipment
Beaker, test tubes and stand, burner, thermometer.
Materials and reagents
Whole wheat flour, maize flour, pulse flour, rice flour, dilute HCI, distilled water.
Principle
When any flour is adulterated with chalk or Na HCO3, it gives off Co2 when treated with hot HCI.
Effervescence is noticed in the form of gas bubbles.
Procedure

A. Wheat flour
(i) Take 1t of flour in a tt and shake it with 10ml distilled water
(ii) Warm 20ml dilute HCI to 50-60’C in a beaker, over a burner.
(iii) Add the warm acid along the sides of the tt containing the flour.
(iv) Observe. If effervescence takes place the sample contains chalk.
B. Maize flour
Repeat A(i-iv) using maize flour instead of wheat
C. Pulse flour
Repeat A(i-iv) using pulse flour.
D. Rice flour

Repeat A(i-iv) using rice flour.

Observations
Record your observations and comment on the degree of adulteration observed.
Precautions
Same as experiment 47
Practice Exercises

1. Prepare chapatti using wheat flour that is adulterated with chalk and one that is not .Evaluate for
sensory Characteristics. Record your observations as learnt.
2. Use soya and groundnut flours and test for adulteration.