Introduction and fundamentals of Computer
“A Computer is an electronic machine which can
perform complex arithmetic and logic operations faster
and efficiently than humans.”
“A Computer is a programmable device with a set of
instructions to perform specific tasks and generate
results at very high speed and accuracy as per the user
requirement.”
“Computer is an electronic device that can receive,
store, process, retrieve and output data.”
“Computer is an electronic device that receives raw
data as input from the user and processes it as per the
set of instructions (called program), produces result
(output), and saves it for future use. It has the ability to
store, retrieve, and process data. The raw facts called
as data which can be numbers, words, pictures, movies,
or sounds. Computers can process huge amounts of
data very quickly and accurately.”
“A computer is an electronic machine, operating under
the control of instructions stored in its own memory
that can accept data (input), manipulate the data
according to specified rules (process), produce results
(output), and store the results for future use.”
Computer is derived from a Latin word “computare” which
means to “to calculate”, “to count”, “to sum up” or “to think
together”. So, more precisely the word computer means a
“device that performs computation“.
Characteristics of Computer
A computer is a very fast device. The computer
takes a fraction of seconds to perform any
Speed
operation. The speed of computer is measured in
fractions of seconds.
The accuracy of computer is very high and degree
of accuracy depends upon its design. But for a
particular computer, each and every calculation is
Accuracy
performed with the same accuracy. Errors can
occur in a computer but these are mainly due to
human rather than technological weakness.
Once a Program is in the computer’s memory, CPU
follows the instructions until it meets the last
instruction. Though the program concept many
Automation
takes can be performed simultaneously, some on
foreground and some on background. Thus
automation brings the program execution fast.
Computers can store very large volume of data and
Storage Capacity
instructions.
Unlike human being a computer is free from
monotony, tiredness, lack of concentration etc. and
hence can work for hours together without
Diligence
creating any error. A computer can perform the
last calculation with exactly the same accuracy and
seed as the first one.
Because, computer is an electronic device thus it
perform all operations with 100 % accuracy and
Reliability
reliability. Reliability can affect only error level by
human mind.
A computer is capable of performing multiple and
Versatility
different tasks simultaneously.
Today Computers are used as a communication
Communication
device (Internet calls, video chatting, E- mails)
History of Computer
The evaluation of computer has passed to a number of stages. Man faced the
problem of counting and calculating even during ancient times. Later a series of machines
and devices were invented by man for counting and perform complex calculations. Early
computers were only conceived as calculating devices. Since ancient times, simple manual
devices like the abacus, Tally Stick etc… aided people in doing calculations and these are
considered as the earliest models of computers. They are:
1) Tally Stick: The earliest counting device was probably a form of tally stick. It was an
assigned memory aid device used to record and document numbers, quantities or even
messages. Tally Stick is first appear as on animal bones correct with notches during the
upper Paleolithic age.
2) Abacus: The abacus was initially used for arithmetic tasks. It is the first known calculating
machine and its primitive form was invented by the Chinese. The simplest form of abacus is
a clay board with a number of grooves (channels) in which pebbles could be placed. The
pebbles could be moved, from side to side for counting.
3) Napier’s Bones: They are manually operating calculation devices created by John Napier.
It is a calculating device that allowed the users to carry out multiplication and division.
4) Pascal’s Calculator: It was an adding machine invented by Blaise Pascal. It was the first
practical mechanical calculator, which is mainly used for additional subtractions. Later a
programming language was named to honor Blaise Pascal as “PASCAL” (designed by Niklaus
Wirth).
5) Difference engine: Charles Babbage invented a machine called Difference Engine in the
1820s which was based on the differentiable of the squares of numbers. Difference engines
are automatic mechanical calculators designed to calculate and processing information or
data by arrange it in mathematical tables. The name, the difference engine, is derived from
the method of divided differences.
6) Analytical engine: It was first described in 1837 as the successor to Difference Engine by
Charles Babbage, with the assistance of Ada Lovelace. The Analytical Engine incorporated
an arithmetic logic unit, control flow in the form of conditional branching and loops, and
integrated memory, making it the first design for a general-purpose computer and hence,
Babbage Considered the "father of the computer. The input of programs and data was to be
provided to the machine via punched cards. For output, the machine would have a printer, a
curve plotter and a bell. The machine would also be able to punch numbers onto cards to be
read in later. It is one of the most successful achievements of Charles Babbage and a land
mark in the history of computer.
7) The Punched Card Tabulator: This tabulating machine was an electromechanical machine
designed to assist in summarizing information stored on punched cards. Invented by Herman
Hollerith, the machine was developed to help process data for the 1890 U.S. Census. Later
models were widely used for business applications such as accounting and inventory
control. Hollerith founded a company in 1911 and in 1924, the company was renamed
"International Business Machines" (IBM) and became one of the largest and most successful
companies of the 20th century. Hollerith is regarded as one of the seminal figures in the
development of data processing.
Generations of Computers
Generation Electronic Advantages Disadvantages
component
First (1st) Vacuum tube 1. Helped in calculation and 1. Big size
computational work 2. Very costly
(1946-1954) 3. Slow speed
4. Low accuracy
Examples: 5. Low storage capacity
Mark I, 6. High power
ENIAC , requirements
EDVAC, 7. High heat generation
EDSAC, 8. High failure rate
UNIVAC-1
9. Used machine
language
10. No operating system
Second (2nd) Transistor 1. Smaller size 1. Need air conditioning
2. Less cost 2. Constant
(1955- 3. Better speed maintenance
1964)
4. Low power consumption 3. No operating systems
Examples: and less heat generation 4. Later stage
5. Better storage capacity computers used
IBM 1620,
6. Better accuracy and assembly languages
IBM 1401, more reliability
CDC 3600.
Third (3rd) Integrated 1. Better in all aspects small 1. Initial problem with
Circuits(IC) & medium scale manufacturers
(1964- compared to I & II 2. No insight obtained
1971)
2. Used operating systems into internal working
Examples and high level language
: IBM-360,
ICL-1900,
IBM-370,
VAX-750
Fourth (4th)VLSI or 1. Low cost 1. Less powerful than
Microprocessor 2. Excellent speed and mainframe
(1971-1980) reliability computers
3. Computers close to man
Fifth (5th) ULSI or 1. Very cheap 1. New low level
2. Super speeds language needed
(1980 - Bio-Chips 3. Very high storage
present & capacity
future) 4. Highly sophisticated OS
5. Possess intelligence and
decision making ability
Basic Units of Computer
The template for all modern computers is the “Von Neumann architecture” (also
known as the von Neumann model or Princeton architecture), is a computer architecture
based on a 1945 description by Hungarian mathematician John von Neumann. According
to Von Neumann architecture basic units of computer are:
1) Input Unit
2) Central processing Unit (CPU)
a) Arithmetic Logic Unit(ALU)
b) Control Unit (CU)
3) Memory
4) Output Unit
Input Unit
Computers need to receive data and instruction in order to solve any problem. Therefore we
need to input the data and instructions into the computers. The input unit consists of one or
more input devices. Keyboard is the one of the most commonly used input device.
Input devices: keyboard, mouse, scanner, etc…
Input devices perform the following functions.
1. Accept the data and instructions from the outside world.
2. Convert it to a form that the computer can understand.
3. Supply the converted data to the computer system for further processing.
Output Unit
Output unit receive the information from the processing unit and provide the results
in human readable form.
Output Devices : Monitor, Printer, Plotter, Speaker
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The central processing unit (CPU) is the “electronic brain of the computer”. The CPU
in a personal computer is usually a single chip. It organizes and carries out instructions that
come from either the user or from the software.
CPU performs the following functions:
• It performs all calculations.
• It takes all decisions.
• It controls all units of the computer.
The processor is made up of many components. Two typical components of a CPU are the
following:
1. The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), which performs arithmetic and logical operations.
2. The Control Unit (CU), which extracts instructions from memory and decodes and
executes them, is calling on the ALU when necessary.
Memory
Memory refers to the physical device used to store the program or data on the
temporary or permanent basis for use in a computer or other digital electronic device.
There are two types of memory in computer.
1) Primary Memory
2) Secondary Memory