Critical Engine

●​ The engine when failed has the most impact on both performance and control
●​ Left engine is the critical Engine

Factors that Determine The Critical Engine (P.A.S.T) “LEFT Engine INOP”
●​ P- Factor- YAW
○​ The descending blade produces more thrust than the ascending blade (right
blade)
○​ The distance between the center line and thrust line is greater, producing a
longer arm which causes the aircraft to YAW to the left
●​ Accelerated SlipStream Roll
○​ Related to P-factor as the air flows behind the propeller it speeds up creating
excess lift,
○​ The distance between the center line and thrust line is greater, producing a
longer arm which causes the aircraft to Roll to the left
●​ Spiraling Slipstream YAW
○​ As the propeller spins it creates a spiral, with the INOP left engine the air flows
away from the flight controls making the rudder less effective
●​ Torque ROll
○​ Newton's 3rd law for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction
○​ With the left engine INOP torque work with the asymmetric thrust resulting in less
rudder authority

VMC- Minimum controllable airspeed, the speed at which you can maintain directional control
with one engine INOP. If you go below this speed you can lose directional control
●​ VMC vs Stall Speed (VMC decreases with increase in density altitude, Stall speed
remains the same)

Factors that Affect VMC: CUSTOMFAM

●​ Critical engine inop and windmilling
○​ Creates a lot of drag, which causes VMC to increase, due to less rudder authority
●​ Up to 5° of bank (zero sideslip ball slightly off centered, side slip -ball centered
Relative wind meets the longitudinal axis)
○​ When banked the horizontal of lift is enhanced which helps oppose yaw this
decreases VMC
○​ Why we don’t bank more than 5°
■​ Wont yaw in the direction of inop engine but less airflow over flight
controls
■​ VMC decreases by 3 knots per every 1° of bank
■​ 2-3° bank is optimal
●​ Standard Day At Sea level
○​ Engine performs better, meaning that it is creating more thrust, which enhances
the asymmetric thrust force, Increases VMC
●​ Outside of Ground effect
 ○​ Increases VMC, due to the shift in our lift vector
○​ When in ground effect if you were to experience a vmc roll the ground effect will
lift the wing back up due to that cushion of air
●​ Max Power on Operating engine
○​ Similar to a standard day at Sea Level Increases VMC, less rudder authority
●​ Flaps Takeoff, Gear Up
○​ Increases VMC, this is due to less drag, enhancing that asymmetric turning force
○​ Flaps and gear down,creates more drag and the gear stabilizes due to the keel
effect moving the center of gravity (lowering the CG)
●​ AFT Center of Gravity
○​ Increases VMC, due to the shorter arm between the rudder and the CG
●​ Most Unfavorable weight
○​ Increases VMC, Lightest this is due to having less horizontal component of lift
which doesn’t help you oppose the asymmetric thrust

Accelerate Stop Distance- The runway distance required to reach Vr, experience and engine
failure and come to a complete stop

Accelerate Go Distance- Horizontal distance required to climb to 50ft after experiencing an

engine failure at Vr

Critical Density Altitude - The altitude where stall speed and VMC are the same

Absolute ceiling - The max altitude where you can no longer maintain a climb

All engine Service Ceiling - The max altitude where you can maintain a 100 fpm climb with
both engines working

Single engine service ceiling - The max altitude where you can maintain a 50 fpm climb with
one engine operating

Drift down- When you are above single engine service ceiling and you can no longer maintain
a climb

Vyse- Best rate of climb with one engine operating

Vxse- Best angle of climb with one engine operating

Vsse- Safe single engine speed

**When losing an engine we lose more than 50% of our power due to the loss of excess
thrust so it is more likely a 80% loss of power**
Systems: Engine

●​ 2 Austro E4C engines (manufacturer)

●​ Inline
●​ Turbocharged
○​ Forced induction system uses exhaust gas to turn the turbine which drives the
compressor
○​ How it works: Filtered ambient air, is pressurized in the charger, goes through a
intercooler to be cooled down, and then goes through the engine, once it is out of
the engine it can be routed through the exhaust pipe or the waste gate (this
allows air to the turbocharger)
○​ Waste Gate: Completely open at sea level, The ECU controls the positioning of
the waste gate, there is also a manifold pressure sensor attached to it
●​ Common rail fuel injected:
○​ Pipe that carries pressurized fuel to the engine
●​ Diesel engines
○​ Still have 4 stroke cycles which are intake, compression, combustion and
exhaust. The main difference is that the intake only brings in air, the air is
pressurized to a high temperature of over 500°C, when the fuel is added it burns
immediately and then exhaust
○​ There are glow plugs: This is essential for combustion cycle because ignition is
due to compression and heat. The glow plug is there to pre heat the air in the
cylinder before the engine starts.
●​ Liquid cooled
○​ Engine driven water pump that circulates the coolant. The coolant must reach
88°C before it activates the thermostatic valve which allows for it to pass through
the radiator. The expansion tank helps adjust the pressure in the system, and the
pressure relief valve is there for over pressurization
●​ Can only be operated with the masters on
○​ Due to the ECU which is the engine control unit, this is going to monitor, regulate
and control all engine parameters
○​ 2 ECU’s per engine that operate in a hot standby mode, they are both powered
but the voter determines which ECU to use
○​ Receive electrical power from the ECU
●​ Propeller gear reduction box 1.169
○​ Propeller spins at 1000 rpm while the engine is producing an rpm of 1690

Systems: The Constant Speed Propeller

How it works
●​ Purpose is to maintain rpm, while adjusting the propeller blade angle
●​ ECU Controls the blade angle
 ●​ The Prop governor has flyweights that respond to changes in centrifugal force,
●​ The ECU sets the tension on the speeder spring
●​ The Pilot valve controls the flow of oil into and out of the prop hub
○​ Overspeed: RPM is higher than ECU, Oil drains back into the gearbox, which
increases the blade angle,
○​ Underspeed: RPM is lower than ECU, Oil flows into the prop hub, Blade angle
decreases
●​ Feathered prop: Oil moves out of the prop hub, Higher blade angle and low rpm
●​ Unfeathered prop: Oil moves in the prop hub, lower blade angle but high rpm
●​ Nitrogen pressure accumulator- maintains constant pressure in case you have to restart
in flight

Limitations
●​ Propeller does not feather below 1300 RPM
●​ Windmilling prop can safely be done between 125-145 kts

Systems: The Electrical System

●​ 24 volt main battery
●​ 2 – 28 volt 70 amp alternators
●​ 2- 12v Back up batteries per engine (4 total)
●​ Dry Battery- not part of the electrical system but provides 1.5 hrs of backup power for the
artificial horizon and the pilot flood light (not rechargeable)
●​ Only have 30 minutes of battery power if you have an electrical failure (this is tied to the
engines, so the engine will both stop working)

Systems: The Fuel System

●​ 76.4 total useable fuel (25 gal main tanks), (13.2 gal Aux tanks) Total 79.4
●​ Jet A and Jet A- (main difference is the temperature at which it freezes)
How it works
●​ Main fuel tanks are separated into 3 chambers and uses both High and low pressure fuel
pumps to move the fuel into the engine. The high pressure fuel pump is engine driven.
There are two low pressure fuel pumps (only one is working, unless you have the fuel
pump on then both are working, the Ecu chooses which one to use if one fails). The aux
pump moves fuel from the aux tank to the main tank. Crossfeed allows you to draw fuel
from the opposite tank
Limitations
●​ If the aux fuel pump fails then it cannot move fuel from the aux tanks to the main tanks
●​ The max fuel imbalance from crossfeed is 5 gallons
●​ Having the fuel pump on and the fuel on crossfeed can cause extremely high pressure
and damage the fuel lines

Systems: The Hydraulic System

●​ Hydraulically actuated, electricall, tricycle retractable lading gear with oleo air struts for
How it works
 ●​ Landing gear uses a one way electric pump to move hydraulic fluid to the actuator
○​ Solenoid valves are used to change the direction of the hydraulic fluid
○​ Hydraulic pressure is too low, the electric pump can be activated with a pressure
switch
●​ Pressurized gas container that maintains a constant system pressure and replaces the
fluid lost due to normal leakages
●​ The gear selector controls the valves that move the landing gear.
●​ Retracted gear
○​ Hydraulic pressure on the actuators keeps the gear retracted
●​ Gear Extended
○​ Springs are used to help extend the gear and to lock it in place by engaging with
the hooks
○​ Force on the springs are maintained and can be released through hydraulic
pressure
**When the gear is extended the cylinders are retracted***
Emergency Gear Extension
●​ Below 188 kts
●​ Manual Extension switch that you pull, allows hydraulic fluid to flow pass the bypass
valves into the reservoir and uses gravity to get the gear down
●​ If All 3 lights do not come on, you have to reduce speed below 110 to position the aircraft
to get the gear to lock into place
Gear Switches
●​ 3 Green means the gear is completely down and locked into place
●​ Left and right main- Up limit switch (gear up), Down limit switch (gear down), Squat
switch( weight on the gear is applied)
●​ Nose wheel - Up limit switch and 2 down limit switches ( turn off red unsafe light,
energize the extend solenoid)
Gear Warning Systems
●​ Power is below 20% without the gear
●​ Flaps ldg without gear down

Systems: The Oil System

●​ Wet Sump oil system
●​ Two separate oil systems
○​ Turbocharger and the engine
○​ Gear box

Systems: The Brake System

●​ There are 2 master cylinders that are connected to the pilot brakes
●​ When pressing the brakes, the fluid is released from the reservoir down the brake lines
which causes the actuator squeeze the brake pads which squeezes the brakes

Flight Controls
 ●​ Ailerons- Controlled by rods
●​ Flaps- Ran by a single motor and we have both plain flaps (cruise efficiency) outer and
split flaps inner (helps with enhancing lift without affecting aerodynamics)
●​ Elevator- Elevator pitch stop that prevents full deflection by 2.5° when the power
settings are above 20%, full deflection is regained when the power is below 20%

●​ Rudder- controlled by cables

Engine Failure Procedures

Immediate Response Troubleshooting Feathering (OFF Restarting (ON FAMS
Above 3000ft (CVFA) MAFF) ) 2 mins

Directional Control Circuit Breakers Master OFF Fuel Selector On

Full power Voter dead engine Alternator OFF Alternator ON

Flaps Up Fuel selector off Fuel Pump OFF Master ON

Gear Up Alternate air open Fuel Selector OFF Starter engage

Identify/ Verify Dead

engine

How to Calculate Accelerate Stop Distance

Equation: Normal takeoff roll + Abnormal flap position + 500ft (reaction time)

How to Calculate Accelerate Go Distance

Equation: Normal takeoff roll + 500 ft Reaction time + distance to climb over 50 ft
obstacle