Chapter 1

Introduction and
basic concepts

1
 What is Thermodynamics?

 The science of energy, that

concerned with the ways in
which energy is stored within a
body.

 Energy transformations mostly

involve heat and work
movements.
 The Fundamental law is the
 conservation of energy
principle: energy cannot be
created or destroyed, but can
only be transformed from one
form to another.
 Thermodynamics
The field of thermodynamics is concerned with the science of
energy focusing on energy storage and energy conversion
processes.
Thermodynamics can be defined as the science of energy.
 Internal Energy (Associated with temperature)
 Kinetic Energy : Due to motion
 Potential Energy :Due to elevation
 Chemical Energy :Due to chemical composition

The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek words

therme (heat) and dynamis (power), which is most
descriptive of the early efforts to convert heat into power.
 Thermodynamic and Energy
 Thermodynamics: is the science of energy and the
relationship between its forms.
 Energy: it can be viewed as ability to cause changes.

 The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek words

therme (heat) and dynamis (power), which is most
descriptive of the early efforts to convert heat into power.
 Conservation of energy principle:
 During an interaction, energy can change from one form to
another but the total amount of energy remains constant.
 Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
 Thermodynamic and Energy

 The subject of thermodynamic is closely related to Fluid

mechanics, and the relationship will be considered in developing
this introductory material.
 Thermodynamic tends to take a broader view than fluid
mechanics of the interaction between inputs and their effect on a
system.
 Thermodynamic and Energy

Two basic methods are followed to study thermodynamic,

each of which has strengths depending on the particular
application;
Classical thermodynamics: A macroscopic approach to the
study of thermodynamics that does not require a knowledge
of the behaviour of individual particles.
Statistical thermodynamics: A microscopic approach,
based on the average behaviour of large groups of individual
particles.
Most simple engineering thermodynamic problems can be
solved using macroscopic thermodynamics and this course
will concentrate on this area.
 Laws of thermodynamic

There are four laws of thermodynamics are based on

experiments.
These laws are termed as axioms (self-evident truths), and
have been developed from observations of large number of
experiments.
Zeroth law of thermodynamics: It defines the concept of
temperature.
First law of thermodynamics: It defines the concept of
energy.
Second law of thermodynamics: It defines the quality of
energy, and the direction of processes and even time of
temperature.
 Thermodynamics
Today the same name is broadly interpreted to include all
aspects of energy and energy transformations including: Power
Generation, Refrigeration, and Relationships among the
Properties of Matter.

The design of many

engineering systems, such as
this solar hot water system,
involves thermodynamics.

The energy-efficient home that you may

be living in, for example, is designed on the
basis of minimizing heat loss in winter and
heat gain in summer.
Some application areas of thermodynamics
 Systems And Control Volumes
• Thermodynamic introduces new concepts, and requires a new
vocabulary based on a set of definitions. These will be considered:
• System: A quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for
study.
• Surroundings : All matter and space external to system.
• Control Volume: A volume in space into which or from which a
substance flows.
• Control Surface: The surface that completely surrounds the
volume control
• If there is a mass flux across a boundary, then a control volume is
required.

• The boundary of a system can be fixed or

movable.
• Systems may be considered to be closed or
open.
 Overview

• Basic concepts to form a sound foundation for the

development of the principles of thermodynamics.
• Explain the basic concepts of thermodynamics
such as system, state, state postulate, equilibrium,
process, and cycle.
• Review concepts of temperature, temperature
scales, pressure, and absolute and gage pressure.
• Introduce an intuitive systematic problem-solving
technique.

11
 Systems and control volumes
 System: Surroundings
A quantity of matter or a
region in space chosen for
study.

 Surroundings:

The mass or region outside Boundaries

the system

 Boundary:

The real or imaginary surface

that separates the system
from its surroundings.
 The boundary of a system can
be fixed or movable. 12
 Systems and control volumes
 Systems may be considered to be closed or open.
• Closed system (Control mass):
A fixed amount of mass, and no mass can cross its boundary. But
volume can be changed.
 Systems and control volumes

• Open system (control volume):

Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control volume.
such as a compressor, turbine, or nozzle.

In Mass and
energy
Out
Mass and
energy

14
 Systems and control volumes
Control surface: The boundaries of a control volume. It can be
real or imaginary.

15
 Isolated system
 An isolated system is a general system where no mass, heat
or work may cross the boundaries.

 An isolated system is a closed system with no energy crossing

the boundaries.
 Properties of a system

Property: Any observable characteristic of a system, and it can

be divided into two types: external (or mechanical) and internal
(or thermodynamic properties).
Some familiar external properties are velocity U, energy E.
Some familiar internal properties are pressure P, temperature T,
volume V, and mass m.
Properties are considered to be either intensive or extensive.
Intensive properties: Those that are independent of the mass of
a system, such as temperature, pressure, and density.
Extensive properties: Those whose values depend on the size or
extent of the system, such as mass, area, potential energy.
Specific properties: Extensive properties per unit mass.
17
 Properties of a system
• Property:
Any observable macroscopic
characteristic of a system.
• Some familiar properties are pressure P,
temperature T, volume V, and mass m.
• Properties are considered to be either
intensive or extensive.
• Intensive properties:
Independent of the mass of a system,
such as temperature, pressure, and
density.
• Extensive properties:
Those whose values depend on the size—
or extent—of the system. Total mass,
total volume
• Upper case letter extensive properties
and lower case letter intensive Criterion to differentiate intensive
properties. and extensive properties. 18
Properties of a system

19
Properties of a system

20
 Properties of a system

Temperature
 Temperature is a property introduced by thermodynamics.
 Thermodynamics processes are driven by temperature difference.
 Temperature is measured how hot or cold a body is
 The temperature is usually donated as T or sometime .
 It is a measure of the internal energy level of the fluid, and its unit
in the SI system is ℃ (Celsius) or (Kelvin).
= ℃ + 273.16,

21
Properties of a system

22
Properties of a system

23
 State and equilibrium

State: condition of system defined by properties

The
Thenumber
numberof ofproperties
propertiesrequired
required to
to fix
fix the
the state
state
ofaasystem
of systemisisgiven
givenby
bythe
thestate
statepostulate.
postulate.

At a given state, all the properties

of a system have fixed values. If
the value of even one property
changes, the state will change to
a different one.

A system at two different states.

 The State Postulate

• The number of properties required

to fix the state of a system is given
by the state postulate:
– The state of a simple
compressible system is
completely specified by two
independent, intensive
properties.

The state of nitrogen is fixed

by two independent, intensive
properties.
25
 State and equilibrium

 Thermodynamics deals with

equilibrium states.
Non-equilibrium
 Equilibrium: Equilibrium
A state of balance.
 In an equilibrium state there are no
unbalanced potentials (or driving
forces) within the system.

 Thermal equilibrium:
If the temperature is the same
throughout the entire system.

26
A closed system reaching thermal equilibrium.
 State and equilibrium

 Mechanical equilibrium:
If there is no change in
pressure at any point of the
system with time.
 Processes and cycles

Quasistatic or quasi-equilibrium process:

Slow changes

Process: Any change that a system undergoes from one

equilibrium state to another.
28
 Processes and cycles

Process:
Change from State 1 to state 2
Path:
The series of states through which a system passes during a
process.

 Cycle:
A process during which the initial
and final states are identical.

29
 Processes and cycles

Process diagrams plotted by employing thermodynamic

properties as coordinates are very useful in visualizing the
processes.

Some common properties that are used as coordinates are

temperature , pressure , and volume (or specific volume ).

30
 Processes and cycles
 The prefix iso- is often used to designate a
process for which a particular property
remains constant.

 Isothermal process:
A process during which the temperature T
remains constant.

 Isobaric process:
A process during which the pressure P
remains constant.

31
 Processes and cycles
 Isochoric (or isometric)
process:
A process during which the
specific volume v remains constant.

T
1

2
V

32
 The Steady-Flow Process
 Steady: no change with time
 Uniform: no change with location

 Steady-flow process:
• Steady fluid flow through a control During a steady-flow process, fluid properties within
volume the control volume may change with position but not
with time.
• Total volume, mass, and energy are
constant
• Properties at any one point are constant
• Distribution of properties may be non-
uniform
Under steady-flow conditions, the mass and energy
contents of a control volume remain constant.
 Such as turbines, pumps, boilers, condensers, and
heat exchangers or power plants or refrigeration
systems.

33
 The Steady-Flow Process

A large number of engineering devices operate for long

periods of time under the same conditions, and they are
classified as steady-flow devices.
Steady-flow process: A process during which a fluid
flows through a control volume steadily.

34
 Pressure
Pressure:
Normal force per unit area

68 kg 136 kg

Afeet=300cm2

0.23 kgf/cm2 0.46 kgf/cm2

P=68/300=0.23 kgf/cm2
Temperature Scales
The normal stress (or “pressure”) on the
feet of a chubby person is much greater
T(k) = T (oC) + 273.115 than on the feet of a slim person.

35
 Pressure
 Absolute pressure:
The actual pressure at a given position. It is
measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e.,
absolute zero pressure).
 Gage pressure:
The difference between the absolute pressure
and the local atmospheric pressure.
 Vacuum pressures: Pressures below
atmospheric pressure.

Throughout this
text, the pressure P
will denote
absolute pressure
unless specified
otherwise. 36
 Some SI and English Units

Work = Force  Distance

1 J = 1 N∙m The SI unit prefixes are used in all branches of
1 cal = 4.1868 J engineering.
1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ

The definition of the force units.

37
W weight
m mass
g gravitational
acceleration

The relative magnitudes of the force

units newton (N), kilogram-force
(kgf), and pound-force (lbf).
38
 The Manometer
It is commonly used to measure small and
moderate pressure differences. A
manometer contains one or more fluids
such as mercury, water, alcohol, or oil.

39
 Example-Tut 1.67

• A gas is contained in a vertical, frictionless piston-

cylinder device. The piston has a mass of 3.2 kg and a
cross-section area of 35 cm2. A compressed spring above
the piston exerts a force of 150 N on the piston. If the
atmospheric pressure is 95 kPa, determine the pressure
inside the cylinder.
 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
((If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body,
there are also in thermal equilibrium with each other))

By replacing the third body

with a thermometer, the zeroth
law can be restated as two
bodies are in thermal
equilibrium if both have the
same temperature reading
even if they are not in contact.
 The Ideal Gas Law
In most practical engineering problem the gas (i.e. air or Hydrogen)
is considered as ideal gas.

The properties of these gas at certain state are related to an equation of

state, which called as the ideal gas law or universal gas law.
 The Ideal Gas Law
 For most of the liquid the density is constant and it is slightly
change with the pressure or temperature.
 While for the gases the density is strongly related to the pressure,
and temperature. The relationship stems from the ideal gas law as:
The Ideal Gas Law
The Ideal Gas Law
 Summary

• Thermodynamics and energy

– Application areas of thermodynamics
• Systems and control volumes
• Properties of a system
• Density and specific gravity
• State and equilibrium
– The state postulate
• Processes and cycles
– The steady-flow process
• Temperature and the zeroth law of
thermodynamics
• Pressure

46