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Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ANS STUDIES

This chapter presents the foreign and local literatures

and studies in relation to this study.

Related Literature

Illegal Drugs

Fronda, J. (2022). The prevalence of illegal drug use in

the Philippines is lower than the global average, according to

the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). President

Rodrigo Duterte has claimed that the country could become a

"narco-state". Two of the most used and valuable illegal drugs

in the country are methamphetamine hydrochloride (known locally

as shabu) and marijuana. The United Nations said the

Philippines had the highest rate of methamphetamine use in East

Asia, and according to a U.S. State Department report, 2.1

percent of Filipinos aged 16 to 64 use the drug based on 2022

figures by the Philippines Dangerous Drugs Board. As of 2022,

the United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime report that 1.1

percent of Filipinos aged 10 to 69 use the drug. In Metro

Manila, most barangays are affected by illegal drugs.

Republic Act. No. 9165 enacted on June 7, 2007 is an act

instituting the Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002,

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repealing Republic act No. 6425, otherwise known as The

Dangerous Drugs Act of 1972, as amended, providing funds

therefore, and for other purposes. RA 9165 mandates the

government to pursue an intensive and unrelenting campaign

against the trafficking and use of dangerous drugs and other

similar substances.

According to Santos, O. (2022) what's with drugs that make

the world so deeply concerned about people using them? In the

Philippines alone, an estimated four to seven million of its

104 million population are said to be using prohibited drugs.

As a campaign promise, President Rodrigo Duterte has made the

crackdown on illegal drugs a centerpiece of his administration

for which he has been chastised from all fronts, in and out of

the country. Drug addiction, no doubt, has severely affected

society, cutting across all socio-economic echelons and

demographics. No one can deny that drug addiction is a societal

menace, resulting in countless crimes, financial problems, and

broken relationships, both with families and friends.

According to a primer of the United Nations Office on

Drugs and Crime (2022) all illegal drugs have immediate

physical effects, and they also hinder psychological and

emotional development, especially among young people, says the

UNODC. The effects of illegal drugs do not last long. When they

wear off, a user gets depressed, lonely and sick, appears

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confused, sweats a lot, has red eyes, and neglects his/her

physical appearance. Then comes the irrational craving.

Lasco (2023) stated that young people are vulnerable group

that requires “saving” from the “evils of drug use” - and as a

dangerous threat that requires policing. The current law

governing the country's drug policies, Republic Act, 9165

(Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002), states in its preamble that “it

is the policy of the State to safeguard the integrity of its

territory and the well-being of its citizenry particularly the

youth, from the harmful effects of dangerous drugs.” Republic

Act 9165, for instance, has an entire article devoted to the

“Participation of the Family, Students, Teachers and School

Authorities”, calling for all student organization to have

“program for the prevention of and deterrence in the use of

dangerous drugs”, and for all schools to integrate “instruction

on drug abuse prevention and control” in their curriculum.

According to the Dangerous Drugs Board (2022), the

government agency mandated to formulate policies on illegal

drugs in the Philippines), the most commonly used drug in the

Philippines is a variant of methamphetamine called shabu or

“poor man’s cocaine.” In addition, there are 1.8 million

current drug users in the Philippines, and 4.8 million

Filipinos report having used illegal drugs at least once in

their lives. More than three-quarters of drug users are adults

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(91%), males (87%), and have reached high school (80%). More

than two-thirds (67%) are employed.

Phytila (2023) concluded that many of the most dangerous

drugs in the world are also illegal, but some prescription

medications can be extremely harmful when misused as well.

These drugs range from stimulants that cause a spike in energy

to depressants that bring the body into a tranquil state. Many

drugs classified as opioids, both illegal ones and prescription

medications, are included in the list.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2022)

releases the number of overdose deaths caused in the United

States by each drug class. As of July 2022, the top 3 worst

drugs classes in terms of overdose deaths were Opioids which

have caused more than 61,000 deaths. Of these, more than 14,000

deaths were due to heroin. Non-cocaine psychostimulants

like methamphetamine, responsible for more than 20,000 deaths.

Stimulants, including cocaine, were responsible for more than

18,000 deaths. These are not the only dangerous drug classes,

though. Many prescription and illicit drugs are easily

accessible and dangerous. Everyone should be aware of them for

their own safety and that of their loved ones.

In addition, Preston (2022) mentioned that addiction

experts have been assessing the danger of psychoactive

substances for the last 15 years. Scientific papers and

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classification systems rank over 300 different drugs in order

of the most harmful and the least beneficial to health. The

usual suspects are always there: alcohol, tobacco, heroin,

methamphetamine and cocaine are still among the most dangerous

addictive substances in the world. But recently, synthetic

cannabinoids, such as ‘Spice’ and prescription 14

painkillers,

like Oxycodone, have also made the list.

Also, McCrackin (2019) exposed that the 10 most frequently

mentioned drugs include Fentanyl, Heroin, Hydrocodone,

Methadone, Morphine, Oxycodone, Cocaine, Methamphetamine,

Alprazolam, and Diazepam. Although not mentioned in the CDC

report, alcohol makes its way on the list of most dangerous

substances as excessive alcohol consumption is the third

leading preventable cause of death in the

US. Nicotine, Synthetic Cannabinoids, MDMA, and Ketamine are

also listed due to their dangerous health effects and risk of

abuse.

Psychological Effect

As mentioned by Recovery Crossroads, (2021) the addicted

user may suffer from many other mental illnesses associated

with addiction, such as obsessive-compulsive disorder,

depression, anxiety and tension, schizophrenia, as well as some

mental symptoms. One of the most profound changes that occur in

people who struggle with drug abuse & addiction is in the

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reward center of the brain. As an addicted person needs an

increasing amount of their substance of choice to get the same

high, they become more and more preoccupied with procuring and

using substances. This is what leads to the most damaging

effects of addiction. To the sufferer, friends, family, work,

and being an upstanding citizen become less important than

inebriation. More importantly, the causes and effects of drug

addiction create new mental health issues that can affect the

user and the social network around them.

In addition, there’s a stigma attached to addiction in

society, and there’s a lot of guilt and shame for the

individuals who struggle with the condition. Often, this is

adding fuel to a fire that was already burning strong. People

with substance use disorders tend to evaluate themselves

negatively on a regular basis, which is a habit that has its

roots in childhood experiences. Continual negative self-talk

adds to feelings of shame and guilt. From an outside

perspective, someone with an addiction looks like they’re

repeatedly making bad choices and ignoring reason. However, the

truth is far more complicated and nuanced — so much so that it

can be very difficult for people to overcome a substance use

disorder without inpatient or outpatient addiction program.

This is partly due to a negative feedback loop that occurs in

the mind. When someone is addicted to drugs or alcohol, they

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feel a sense of comfort they haven’t been able to get

elsewhere. Inevitably, this feeling is replaced by guilt and

shame as they sober up and face the consequences of their

actions. However, the weight of these feelings forces them to

seek comfort in substances, Dane, (2021).

Physiological Effect

According to Greenhouse Treatment Center (2022) the

pervasive reach of substance use extends through several organ

systems and their associated physiological processes. Based on

human and animal studies, women are more sensitive to the

consumption and long-term effects of alcohol and drugs than

men. From absorption to metabolic processes, women display more

difficulty in physically managing the consequences of use. In

general, with higher levels of alcohol and drugs in the system

for longer periods of time, women are also more susceptible to

alcohol- and drug-related diseases and organ damage.

Moreover, women who abuse substances have physiological

consequences, health issues, and medical needs related to

gynecology (Peters et al. 2020). Specifically, drugs affect

women's menstrual cycles, causing increased cramping and

heavier or lighter periods. Women sometimes use illicit drugs

as medication for cramping, body aches, and other discomforts

associated with menstruation. On the other hand, women who use

heroin and methadone can experience amenorrhea (absence of

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menstrual periods leading them to believe that they are unable

to conceive and misreading early signs of pregnancy as

withdrawal symptoms. Subsequently, they are unaware that they

are pregnant. Women's substance use also poses risks to fetuses

and nursing infants.

In general, research on the unique physiological effects

of drugs in women is limited and sometimes inconclusive.

Although the differences in the way women and men metabolize

alcohol have been studied in some depth, research on

differences in metabolism of illicit drugs is limited. For many

years, much of the research on metabolism of substances either

used male subjects exclusively or did not report on gender

differences. Historically, women were omitted due to the

potential risk of pregnancy and the possibility that hormonal

changes across the menstrual cycle would wreak havoc on the

drugs' effects and subsequent results, Shane (2020).

Available research is typically based on small sample

sizes and has not been replicated. Race and ethnic background

can affect metabolism and the psychological effects of alcohol

and illicit drugs, as can the psychopharmaceuticals sometimes

used in treatment (Rouse et al. 2020), but their effects have

not been studied. Similar to men, few women abuse only one

substance. Polysubstance use complicates the ability to study

and understand the physiological effects of specific drugs on

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women, while increasing the risk associated with synergistic

effects when substances are combined. Significant gaps in

knowledge exist regarding physiological effects across the

continuum of a woman's life.

Financial Effects

As mentioned by Banyan Drug Treatment (2023) drug abuse

can take a physical and mental toll on a person, causing

problems in every area of their life. While physical

repercussions and relationship problems are the things people

immediately think of regarding addiction, the financial effects

of drug abuse are also very real. As a drug and alcohol rehab

center in Philadelphia, we know that substance abuse can bring

someone to the point of debt and even homelessness. A person’s

physical dependency on a drug can cost them their jobs, homes,

families, and lives.

According to De Leon (2022) drugs cost money. Although

this may be common knowledge, people may only think of the

short-term costs of drugs as their dependency develops. They

may not think of the accumulated cost until they find

themselves in a tight financial situation. People don’t

normally plan for these future money problems because they

don’t normally plan on becoming addicted. Addiction is a long-

term disease that intensifies over time. The longer the

person’s substance abuse problem persists, the more of a

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tolerance they’ll develop and the more drugs they’ll use.

Because that person will always require more drugs to

experience the same effects, the amount of money they spend on

their addiction will continuously increase. With addiction

treatment, individuals in this position can prevent the

financial effects of drug abuse and the other problems it can

cause.

Related Studies

In the study of Orpilla, I. [Link]. (2020) entitled,

“Implementation of Mamamayang Ayaw sa Anomalya, Mamamayang

Ayaw sa iligal na Droga (MASA MASID) Program in Alcala,

Cagayan” which attempted to determine the extent of

implementation on the program of Mamamayang Ayaw Sa Anomalya,

Mamamayang Ayaw Sa Iligal na Droga (MASA MASID) Program in

Alcala, Cagayan for Calendar Year 2019.

The respondents of the study are the twenty-eight (28)

Philippine National Police, eighty (80) Barangay Officials, and

two hundred fifty (250) community residents which include

religious, leaders, businessmen, farmers, youth and

professional groups of ten (10) selected barangays of Alcala,

Cagayan namely: Calantac, Pinopoc, Baybayog and Jurisdiccion.

In collecting data, the researchers conducted interviews

and survey with the use of questionnaire.

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For the data to be collected, it was analyzed through

descriptive and inferential statistics. In the analysis of

profile variable of the PNP-respondents the simple frequency

and percentage were employed. Weighted mean was used to

determine the extent of implementation on the program of

Mamamayang Ayaw Sa Anomalya, Mamamayang Ayaw Sa Iligal na Droga

(MASA MASID) Program. Furthermore, ANOVA or F-test was utilized

to test the significant difference among the extent of

implementation of the MASA MASID Program as assessed by the

three groups of respondents. Also, Pearson-r was used to test

the relationship between the profile variables of the PNP

personnel and their assessments on the extent of implementation

in the MASA MASID Program.

The major findings revealed that the respondents assessed

the MASA MASID program as “Very Much Implemented”. This show

that the respondents are doing their responsibilities as public

servant in their respective assigned of duty to maintain peace

and order particularly in terms of Anti- Criminality, Anti-

Corruption and Anti-Illegal Drugs.

According to the study of Cabangan et. al. (2020)

entitled, “Operation of Barangay Anti-drug Abuse Council

(BADAC)”, DILG Memorandum Circular 2015-63 and 2017-03 mandates

all barangays in every local government to establish its

Barangay Anti-Drug Abuse Council (BADAC) which shall render

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assistance to the law enforcement agencies in the eradication

and clearing operations of illegal drugs. In this study, the

BADAC of Cabagan, Isabela was investigated. Specifically, the

following variables were examined: the extent of implementation

of the BADAC in the three-phases of the anti-drug clearing

operations; functionality of the council, and identified

problems experienced by the BADAC in the implementation of the

drug clearing operations. A total of 643 consisting of 196

BADAC and 447 community residents served as respondents.

Descriptive design was used to analyze and interpret the

data. Further, the needed data were gathered through a

validated and tested questionnaire.

The major findings showed that the BADAC in the three-

phases of drug clearing operations are much implemented.

Moreover, problems are “seldom” experienced by the BADAC

wherein there is a significant difference on the problems

experienced by BADAC when grouped according to barangay.

Therefore, there is an immediate implementation of the three-

phases of the drug-clearing operations in different barangays.

Ogutu (2019) conducted a study entitled “A Study of Drug

Use Awareness among Students in Kenya” with an objective to

measure the mental health literacy (knowledge and attitude

about substance use) among medical college students in a Kenyan

medical college. The study used the convenience non-random

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sampling for data collection. Results of the study showed that,

among the medical students surveyed, majority of students

reported higher risk of substance use due to staying with such

individuals. Majority of students agreed that if they take

substance home, it will also be used by some family members.

Majority of individuals reported that there is someone in their

circle who is using substances. However, it can also be

concluded that medical students are aware of the negative

effects of substance use.

Ochoa et al (2019) conducted a study entitled “Sulong

Kabataan: Design, Pilot Implementation, and Evaluation of a

Youth Substance Abuse Prevention Program” with objective to

discuss the development, pilot implementation, and evaluation

of the program among Filipino youth in low-resource

communities, examining preliminary changes in outcomes such as

life skills, refusal confidence, and substance use. The study

made use of an intervention using qualitative approach with

multiple data sources was utilized to guide program

development. The study supports that the pilot implementation

demonstrates the feasibility of the program, especially with

close community partnerships. Preliminary evidence for positive

impact was shown in participants’ life skills and confidence to

refuse alcohol. The strengths of the program include the

interactive delivery and positive learning climate, as well as

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facilitators’ warmth and competence informed by knowledge of

18
adolescent development.

Candido et al (2019) conducted a study entitled “The Use

of Drugs and Medical Students: A Literature Review” with an

objective to carry out a systematic review of the literature on

the use of drugs, licit or not, in Brazilian medical students.

The study used a descriptive-exploratory study, in which the

SciELO and MEDLINE databases were used. A total of 99 articles

were found, of which 16 were selected for this review. Result

of the study showed that Alcohol and tobacco were the most

frequently used licit drugs among medical students. The most

consumed illicit drugs were marijuana, solvents, “lança-

perfume” (ether spray), and anxiolytics. The male genre

presented a tendency of consuming more significant amounts of

all kinds of drugs, with the exception of tranquilizers. It was

found an increasing prevalence of drug consumption in medical

students, as the program progressed, which may result from the

intrinsic stress from medical school activities. Students who

do not use psychoactive drugs are more likely to live with

their parents, to disapprove drugs consumption, to practice

religious beliefs and to be employed. It was concluded that the

prevalence of licit and illicit drug use among medical students

is high, even though they understand the injuries it may cause.

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As mentioned in the study of Sandhya et. al (2019)

entitled, “Awareness of Drug Abuse among Teenagers” drug abuse

has been defined as an extreme desire to obtain and use

increasing amounts of one or more substances. The risk factors

for developing drug abuse problems include poor relationships

with parents, inadequate supervision over adolescent

activities, poor achievement in schools and so on. Materials

and methods: An online survey comprising 17 questions was

administered to the participants of the age group of 14-19.

Then, the results were statistically analyzed. Results and

discussion: From the survey conducted, it was found that 67%of

the adolescents have attended many drug awareness programs, and

45%of them said that alcoholism and drug addiction are

genetically inherited. Conclusion: All around the world,

considerable amount of morbidity and mortality among

adolescents has been caused by the abuse of alcohol and drugs.

School-based health centers should be able to give

consultations to students who need treatment plans, and connect

students to available community resources.

Hechanova et al. (2019) conducted a study entitled “The

Development of a Community-Based Drug Intervention for Filipino

Drug Users” in which the paper documents the development of a

community-based drug intervention for low- to mild-risk drug

users who surrendered as part of the Philippine government’s

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anti-drug campaign. The study utilized a mixed-method design

using multiple data sources such as interviews with 48 drug

users and focused group discussions with community stakeholders

at Metro Manila. Result of the study showed that engaging and

obtaining the support of family members may be important in

encouraging the participation of drug users. More so, barriers

cited by community stakeholders, such as the lack of training,

resistance from clients, clients’ limited cognitive ability,

and the lack of resources are similar to that faced in other

developing countries. This highlights the importance of

investing in selecting and training of staff members to be more

culturally adept and develop effective skills in delivering

these interventions. Communities also need to provide resources

for food and transportation and consider offering incentives

for completion of the program.

Synthesis

One of the cited studies strongly support the present

study as it is focused on the awareness of drug use among

students. In the study of Ogutu (2019) entitled “A Study of

Drug Use Awareness among Students in Kenya” it measured the

mental health literacy, knowledge and attitude about substance

use among medical college students in a Kenyan medical college.

Results of the study showed that, among the medical students

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surveyed, majority of students reported higher risk of

substance use due to staying with such individuals using those

substance. Majority of students agreed that if they take

substance home, it will also be used by some family members.

Majority of individuals reported that there is someone in their

circle who is using substances.

Said study gave us an in-depth knowledge that led us to

better understand the surrounding circumstances on why young

people such as those students are indulged in the use of drugs

despite awareness on the negative effects of the same.

In sum, the studies presented in this study focused on

determine the level of awareness of the youth on the effects of

illegal drugs. All of the studies are similar to this study in

terms of their focus.

On the other hand, the differences that is obvious is the

research context, sample population or respondents, the tool

for gathering data and the statistical treatment used by the

researchers.