C O N T E N T

Sets
O1.
02. Relations & Functions
03. Trigonometric Functions
04. Complex Numbers and Quadratic Equations
05. Linear Inequalities
06. Permutations and Combinations
07. Binomial Theorem
08. Sequence and Series
O F

09. Straight Lines

Conic Sections
10.
Introduction to Three-dimensional Geometry
11.
T A B L E

Limits and Derivatives

12.
Statistics
13.
Probability
14.

1
 1 SETS

Ap logo ka swagat hai class 11th me!!

and class 11th Maths ka pehla chapter
hai SETS...basically set is number of
things of the same kind that belong or
are used together.

Introduction

A set is a well-defined collection of objects.

The Set chapter explores how we group and manage unique items in everyday life, like

organizing a collection of different books or managing a guest list without duplicates.

The following points may be noted :

(i) Objects, elements and members of a set are synonymous terms.
(ii) Sets are usually denoted by capital letters A, B, C, X, Y, Z, etc.
(iii) The elements of a set are represented by small letters a, b, c, x, y, z, etc.

If a is an element of a set A, we say that “ a belongs to A” the Greek symbol ∈

(epsilon) is used to denote the phrase ‘belongs to’. Thus, we write a ∈ A. If ‘b’ is not
an element of a set A, we write b ∉ A and read “b does not belong to A”.

Concept

∈ Belongs to

∉ Not belongs to

Sets 2
 N : the set of all natural numbers

Z : the set of all integers

Q : the set of all rational numbers
R : the set of real numbers
Ye sab basic terminology hai yaad
Z+ : the set of positive integers
rakhna!!
Q+ : the set of positive rational numbers even though ye sare terms next
chapters me bhi use honge
R+ : the set of positive real numbers.

Ways to represent a set

Roster Form Set-builder form.

(Tabular form) (Set comprehension)

Roster form

In roster form, all the elements of a set are listed, the elements are being separated by
commas and are enclosed within braces { }.
For example,
The set of all vowels in the English alphabet is {a, e, i, o, u}.

Concept
mere andar koi bhi element aye ga

tho use roster form bola jaye ga

Abhi tak jitna bhi set ke bare me discuss

kiye hum log vo roster form me hi kiye the

Sets 3
 SAWAAL #4

Write the solution set of the equation x 2 + x – 2 = 0

in roster form.

Solution:
The given equation can be written as Concept
(x – 1) (x + 2) = 0, i. e., x = 1, – 2 you can use the factorization
method if the equation can be
Therefore, the solution set of the given equation factored into two binomials.
can be written in roster form as {1, – 2}.

Set-Builder Form

In set-builder form, all the elements of a set possess a single common property which is
not possessed by any element outside the set.

For example, in the set {a, e, i, o, u}, all the elements possess a common property,

namely, each of them is a vowel in the English alphabet, and no other letter possess

this property. Denoting this set by V,

we write V = {x : x is a vowel in English alphabet}

we can write the set X as follows:

A = {x : x is a natural number less than 7}

which can be read as “ A is the set of This set can also be written as
A = {x : x N, x < 7}.
elements x such that x is natural numbers Or yaha pe jo ‘N’ hai ye natural no. ko
denote kar raha hai
less than 7”.

Sets 4
 Types Of Sets

Types of Sets

Bhaiya tho kya humko ye sare types

yaad krne henge?? Create associations with
familiar words or concepts
(e.g., “Empty box” for an
Nahii!!Ab Set tho kayi types ke hote empty set).
hai but hum kuch importent types hi
samjhenge

The Empty Set

A set which does not contain any element is called the

empty set or the null set or the void set.

Empty matalb khaki... yani ki aisa set

The empty set is denoted by the symbol φ or { }. jiske andar ek bhi element naa ho tho
use ham empity set bolte hai

Example: A={x:x>5 and x < 5}

A={x:x>5 and x<5} (no number can satisfy both conditions, so it's empty).

Sets 5
 Finite and Infinite Sets

Finite set Infinite set

A set with a countable A set with an uncountable

number of elements. number of elements.

Consider some examples :

(i) Let W be the set of the days of the week. Then W is finite.

(iii) Let G be the set of points on a line. Then G is infinite.

All infinite sets cannot be
described in the roster
form.
We represent some infinite set in the roster form by
writing a few elements which clearly indicate the structure
of the set followed ( or preceded ) by three dots.
For example, {1, 2, 3 . . .} is the set of natural numbers.

Equal Sets

Two sets A and B are said to be equal if they have exactly the same elements and
we write A = B. Otherwise, the sets are said to be unequal and we write A ≠ B.

Example: If D={1,2,3} and E={3,2,1} then D=E.

Subset

A set A is said to be a subset of a set B if every element of A is also an element of B.

Trick to Remember: "Sub" means under or inside, like a subset is inside another set.

Sets 6
 Yaha pe B set A ka subset hai

Example: H={1,2} is a subset of I={1,2,3}.

Concept

A ⊂ B if a ∈ A ⇒ a ∈ B

We read the above statement as “B is a subset of A if a is an element of A implies that

B is also an element of A”. If B is not a subset of A, we write A ⊄ B.

φ is a subset of every set.

The set Q of rational numbers is a subset of the set R of

real number, and we write Q ⊂ R.

Let A and B be two sets. If A ⊂ B and A ≠ B , then A is called a proper subset of B

and B is called superset of A. For example, A = {1, 2, 3} is a proper subset of B = {1,

2, 3, 4}. If a set A has only one element, we call it a singleton set. Thus,{ a } is a

singleton set.

Sets 7
Subsets of set of real numbers

The set of natural numbers is the subset of whole numbers.

The set of natural and whole numbers are the subsets of Integers.

Integers, whole numbers, natural numbers are the subsets of Rational numbers.

Rational numbers (including integers, whole numbers, natural numbers) and

irrational numbers are the subsets of real numbers.

the obvious relations among these subsets are:

N ⊂ Z ⊂ Q, Q ⊂ R, T ⊂ R, N ⊄ T

Intervals as subsets of R

Let a and b be two given real numbers such that a < b, then

an open interval denoted by (a, b) is the set of real numbers {x : a < x < b}.

a closed interval denoted by [a, b] is the set of real numbers {x : a ≤ x ≤ b}.

intervals closed at one end and open at the others are known as semi-open or

semi-closed interval and denoted by (a, b] is the set of real numbers

{x : a < x ≤ b} or [a, b) is the set of real numbers {x : a ≤ x < b}.

Power Set

Sets 8
The collection of all subsets of a set A is called the power set of A. It is denoted by P(A).
If the number of elements in A i.e. n(A) = n, then the number of elements in P(A) = 2.

Universal Set

A set that contains all sets in a given If we are talking about whole numbers,
context is called the universal set. the universal set could be U={0,1,2,3,… }.

Venn-Diagrams
Is Chapter ka subse
jyada importent
Topic hai tho ache
se Padhna

Venn diagrams are the diagrams, which represent the relationship between sets. In Venn-

diagrams the universal set U is represented by point within a rectangle and its subsets are

represented by points in closed curves (usually circles) within the rectangle.

Ye jo Overlap area hai ye common

elements show kar raha hai 2 sets
ka

Sets 9
 Example

10 A 3
8
1
4
5
9 6
B 7
2

U = {1,2,3, ..., 10} is the universal set of which A = {2,4,6,8,10} and B = {4, 6} are

subsets, and also B ⊂ A.

Operations on Sets

Operations on sets include several fundamental concepts. Here are the main

operations:

Union of sets:

The union of two sets A and B is the set C which consists of all those elements which are

either in A or in B (including those which are in both). In symbols, we write.

A ∪ B = { x : x ∈A or x ∈B }

Sets 10
 Example

A = {1,2,3}

В = {3,4,5}

AUB = {1,2,3,4,5}

Some Properties of the Operation of Union

Commutative law Associative law Identity law Idempotent law

A∪B=B∪A (A∪B)∪C= A∪φ=A A∪A=

A ∪ ( B ∪ C) A (v) U ∪ A = U

Ab ye sare Laws and Properties tumko

yaad krne henge!! because ye bahut
important hai exam ke POV se.....

φ is the identity of ∪ and

Idempotent law is the laws of U
Intersection of sets

The intersection of two sets A and B is the set of all those elements which belong to

both A and B. Symbolically, we write A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}

If A and B are two sets such that A ∩ B = φ, then A and B are called disjoint sets.

А = {1,2,3,4}

В = {3,4,5,6}

A∩B = {3,4}

Sets 11
 Some Properties of Operation of Intersection

Commutative Associative Law of φ Idempotent Distributive

law law and U law law

A∩(B∪C)
A∩B=B∩A (A∩B)∩C φ ∩ A = φ, A∩A=A
=
=
U∩A=A (A∩B)∪
A∩(B∩C)
(A∩C)

Jaise humne abhi upar union ke liye

properties padhi vaise hi intersection
ke liye bhi hai or important bhi hai....

∩ distributes over ∪

Difference of sets

The difference of the sets A and B in this order is the set of elements which belong to
A but not to B. Symbolically, we write A – B and read as “A minus B”.

The sets A – B, A ∩ B and B – A are mutually disjoint sets, i.e., the intersection of

any of these two sets is the null set.

"Exclusive Elements":
The difference
represents elements
exclusive to AA after
Complement of a Set removing what's in BB.

Sets 12
 Let U be the universal set and A a subset of U. Then the complement of A is the set of all

elements of U which are not the elements of A. Symbolically, we write A′ to denote the

complement of A with respect to U. Thus, A′ = {x : x ∈ U and x ∉ A }.

Obviously A′ = U – A

De Morgan’s laws

If A and B are any two subsets of the universal set U, then ( A ∪ B )′ = A′ ∩ B′.

Similarly, ( A ∩ B )′ in words as follows : = A′ ∪ B′ . These two results are stated The

complement of the union of two sets is the intersection of their complements and the

complement of the intersection of two sets is the union of their complements. These are

called De Morgan’s laws.

Some Properties of Complement Sets:

Laws of empty
Law of double
Complement laws De Morgan’s law set and universal
complementation
set φ′

(i) A ∪ A′ = U (i) (A ∪ B)´ = (A′)′ = A U′ = φ.

(ii) A ∩ A′ = φ A′ ∩ B′
(ii) (A ∩ B′=
A′ ∪ B

Sets 13
 SAWAAL #1

Write the following sets in the roster form.

(i) A = {x | x is a positive integer less than 10 and 2x – 1 is an odd number}
(ii) C = {x : x2 + 7x – 8 = 0, x ∈ R}

Solution :

i) 2x – 1 is always an odd number for all positive integral values of x since 2x is an even
number.
In particular, 2x – 1 is an odd number for x = 1, 2, … , 9.
Therefore, A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
(ii) x2 + 7x – 8 = 0
(x + 8) (x – 1) = 0
x = – 8 or x = 1
Therefore, C = {– 8, 1}

SAWAAL #2

Write the following sets in roster form:

(i) A = {x : x is an integer and –3 ≤ x < 7}
(ii) B = {x : x is a natural number less than 6}
Solution :
(i) A = {x : x is an integer and –3 ≤ x < 7}
Integers are …-5, -4, -3, -2, -2, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,…..
A = {-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
(ii) B = {x : x is a natural number less than 6}
Natural numbers are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, ……
B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

SAWAAL #3

Given that N = {1, 2, 3, …, 100}, then

(i) Write the subset A of N, whose elements are odd numbers.
(ii) Write the subset B of N, whose elements are represented by x + 2, where x ∈ N.

Solution :

Sets 14
 (i) A = {x | x ∈ N and x is odd}
A = {1, 3, 5, 7, …, 99}
(ii) B = {y | y = x + 2, x ∈ N}
1 ∈ N, y = 1 + 2 = 3
2 ∈ N, y = 2 + 2 = 4, and so on.
Therefore, B = {3, 4, 5, 6, … , 100}

SAWAAL #4

Use the properties of sets to prove that for all the sets A and B, A – (A ∩ B) = A – B
Solution :
A – (A ∩ B) = A ∩ (A ∩ B)′ (since A – B = A ∩ B′)
= A ∩ (A′ ∪ B′) [by De Morgan’s law)
= (A∩A′) ∪ (A∩ B′) [by distributive law]
= φ ∪ (A ∩ B′)
= A ∩ B′ = A – B
Hence, proved that A – (A ∩ B) = A – B.

SAWAAL #5
In a class of 60 students, 23 play hockey, 15 play basketball,20 play cricket and 7 play
hockey and basketball, 5 play cricket and basketball, 4 play hockey and cricket, 15 do not play
any of the three games. Find
(i) How many play hockey, basketball and cricket
(ii) How many play hockey but not cricket
(iii) How many play hockey and cricket but not basketball
Solution :
15 students do not play any of three games.
n(H ∪ B ∪ C) = 60 – 15 = 45
n(H ∪ B ∪ C) = n(H) + n(B) + n(C) – n(H ∩ B) – n(B ∩ C) – n(C ∩ H) + n(H
∩ B ∩ C)
45 = 23 + 15 + 20 – 7 – 5 – 4 + d
45 = 42 + d
d = 45- 42 = 3
Number of students who play all the three games = 3
Therefore, the number of students who play hockey, basketball and cricket = 3
a + d = 7
a = 7 – 3 = 4

Sets 15
 b + d = 4
b = 4 – 3 = 1
a + b + d + e = 23
4 + 1 + 3 + e = 23
e = 15
Similarly, c = 2, g =14, f = 6
Number of students who play hockey but not cricket = a + e
= 4 + 15
= 19
Number of students who play hockey and cricket but not basketball = b = 1

SAWAAL #6

In a survey of 600 students in a school, 150 students were found to be drinking Tea and
225 drinking Coffee, 100 were drinking both Tea and Coffee. Find how many students were
drinking neither Tea nor Coffee.
Solution :
Given,
Total number of students = 600
Number of students who were drinking Tea = n(T) = 150
Number of students who were drinking Coffee = n(C) = 225
Number of students who were drinking both Tea and Coffee = n(T ∩ C) = 100
n(T U C) = n(T) + n(C) – n(T ∩ C)
= 150 + 225 -100
= 375 – 100
= 275
Hence, the number of students who are drinking neither Tea nor Coffee = 600 – 275 = 325

Sets 16
 IST ( It’s a sawal time)
1) Write the following sets in the roaster form. (i) A = {x | x is a positive integer
less than 10 and 2x – 1 is an odd number} (ii) C = {x : x 2 + 7x – 8 = 0, x ∈ R}

2) State which of the following statements are true and which are false. Justify
your answer. (i) 37 ∉ {x | x has exactly two positive factors} (ii) 28 ∈ {y | the
sum of the all positive factors of y is 2y} (iii) 7,747 ∈ {t | t is a multiple of 37}

3) Given that E = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}. If n represents any member of E, then, write

the following sets containing all numbers represented by

4)For all sets A, B and C, show that (A – B) ∩ (C – B) = A – (B ∪ C)

Determine whether each of the statement in Exercises 13 – 17 is true or false.
Justify your answer

5)Let U be the set of all boys and girls in a school, G be the set of all girls in the
school, B be the set of all boys in the school, and S be the set of all students in
the school who take swimming. Some, but not all, students in the school take
swimming. Draw a Venn diagram showing one of the possible interrelationship
among sets U, G, B and S.

6)A, B and C are subsets of Universal Set U. If A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 12, 20} B = {3, 6,
9, 12, 15}, C = {5, 10, 15, 20} and U is the set of all whole numbers, draw a Venn
diagram showing the relation of U, A, B and C.

7)In a survey of 200 students of a school, it was found that 120 study
Mathematics, 90 study Physics and 70 study Chemistry, 40 study Mathematics
and Physics, 30 study Physics and Chemistry, 50 study Chemistry and
Mathematics and 20 none of these subjects. Find the number of students who
study all the three subjects.

8) In a class of 60 students, 25 students play cricket and 20 students play

tennis, and 10 students play both the games. Find the number of students who
play neither?

Sets 17
 2 Relations & Functions

Yes! ye bilkul vaisa hi relation hai jaisa ap

samajh rahe ho...but the difference is hum 2
sets ke relation ke bare me padhenge. and un
relation ke apne kuch functions honge unhe
bhi padhenge

Introduction

In this Chapter, we will learn how to link pairs of objects from two sets and then

introduce relations between the two objects in the pair. Finally, we will learn about

special relations which will qualify to be functions.

Cartesian Products of Sets

Given two non-empty sets P and Q. The cartesian product P × Q is the set of all ordered

pairs of elements from P and Q, i.e.,

P × Q = { (p,q) : p ∈ P, q ∈ Q }

If either P or Q is the null set, then P × Q will also be empty set, i.e., P × Q = φ

Bhaiya abhi bhi ache se samajh nahi

aya ! koi example do naa...

Relations And Functions 18

 Aao ek chota se example samajhte hai
or usko analyse krte hai...

Let us take two sets A & B

Remember one thing..
A = {Red, Blue} jab baat pairs ki ho
rahi hai tho pair me
B = {Bag, Shirt, Jeans}
sirf 2 elements hi aate
Now, how many pairs can we have? hai

We can have

(Red, Bag), (Red, Shirt) , (Red, Jeans) and(Blue, Bag), (Blue, Shirt), (Blue, Jeans)

Cartesian product is the set of all these pairs. So,

we write

A x B = {(Red, Bag), (Red, Shirt) , (Red, Jeans),(Blue, Bag), (Blue, Shirt), (Blue, Jeans)}

For set A & B

Note A x B = {(a, b): a € A, b e b}

(a, b) is called ordered pair .

I hope ki ap logo ko samajh me aa

gaya hoga... ab isi ke saati kuch jarori
baaten bhi yaad rakhna

(i) Two ordered pairs are equal, if and only if the corresponding first elements are equal

and the second elements are also equal.

Relations And Functions 19

(ii) If there are p elements in A and q elements in B, then there will be pq elements in

A × B, i.e., if n(A) = p and n(B) = q, then n(A × B) = pq.

(iii) If A and B are non-empty sets and either A or B is an infinite set, then so is A × B.

(iv) A × A × A = {(a, b, c) : a, b, c ∈ A}. Here (a, b, c) is called an ordered triplet.

SAWAAL #1

If R is the set of all real numbers, what do the cartesian products R × R and

R × R × R represent?

Solution

The Cartesian product R × R represents the set R × R={(x, y) : x, y ∈ R} which

represents the coordinates of all the points in two dimensional space and the cartesian

product R × R × R represents the set R × R × R ={(x, y, z) : x, y, z ∈ R} which

represents the coordinates of all the points in three-dimensional space.

RELATIONS

A relation R from a non-empty set A to a non-empty set B is a subset of the cartesian

product A × B.

If A and B are sets, a relation R from AA to B is a subset of the Cartesian product

A×B. That is:
R⊆A×B

Relations And Functions 20

 pictorial diagrams

The subset is derived by describing a relationship between the first element and

the second element of the ordered pairs in A × B. The second element is called
the image of the first element.

Domain Range
The set of all first elements The set of all second
of the ordered pairs in a elements in a relation R
relation R from a set A to from a set A to a set B is
a set B is called the called the range of the
domain of the relation R. relation R.

Codomain:

The set of all possible outputs that the function is defined to produce.

range ⊂ codomain

Relations And Functions 21

 Concept

(i) A relation may be represented algebraically either by the Roster method or by the
Set-builder method.

(ii) An arrow diagram is a visual representation of a relation.

The total number of relations that can be defined from a set A to a

set B is the number of possible subsets of A × B. If n(A ) = p and n(B)
pq
= q, then n (A × B) = pq and the total number of relations is 2.

SAWAAL #1

If R1 = {[(x, y) l y = 2x + 7, where x € R and - 5 ≤ x≤ 5} is a relation. Then find

the domain and Range of R1.

Solution:

According to the question,

R1 = ((x, y) | y = 2x + 7, where x ER and - 5 ≤ x ≤ 5} is a relation The domain

of R, consists of all the first elements of all the ordered pairs of R1, i.e., x,

It is also given - 5≤x ≤5.

Relations And Functions 22

 Therefore,

Domain of R1 = [-5, 5]

The range of R contains all the second elements of all the ordered pairs of R1, i.e., y

It is also given y = 2x + 7

Now x ∈ [-5,5] Multiply LHS and RHS by 2,

We get,

2x € [-10, 10] Adding LHS and RHS with 7

We get,

2x + 7 € [-3, 17]

Or, y € [-3, 17]

So,

Range of R1 = [-3, 17]

SAWAAL #2

Let N be the set of natural numbers and the relation R be defined on N such that
R = {(x, y) : y = 2x, x, y ∈ N}.
What is the domain, codomain and range of R? Is this relation a function?

Solution

The domain of R is the set of natural numbers N. The codomain is also N. The range

is the set of even natural numbers.

Since every natural number n has one and only one image, this relation is a function.

Relations And Functions 23

Functions

A function f is a relation from a non-empty set A to a non-empty set B such that the
domain of f is A and no two distinct ordered pairs in f have the same first element.

if f is a function from A to B and (a, b) ∈ f, then f (a) = b, where b is called the

image of a under f and a is called the preimage of b under f.

A relation may not be a

Bhaiya samjha nahi ap aisa q bol
function but every
rahe hai?
function is a relation.

Aisa is liye q ki Relations me empty

set bhi allow the but function me
empty set allow nahi hote hai...

Real valued function.

A function which has either R or one of its subsets as its range is called a real

valued function. Further, if its domain is also either R or a subset of R, it is called

a real function.

Relations And Functions 24

Some functions and their graphs

Identity function

Let R be the set of real numbers. Define the real valued function f : R → R by y = f(x) =

x for each x ∈ R. Such a function is called the identity function. Here the domain and

range of f are R. The graph is a straight line . It passes through the origin.

X’ X
O

Y’

Constant function

Define the function f: R R by y = f (x) = c, x ∈ R where c is a constant and each

x ∈ R. Here domain of f is R and its range is {c}.

X’ X
O

Y’

Relations And Functions 25

 Polynomial function

A function f : R → R is said to be polynomial function if for each x in R, y = f (x) = a₀

+ a₁ x + a₂ x² + ...+ a𝑛 xn, where n is a non-negative integer and a₀ , a₁ , a₂ ,...,an ∈R.

Rational functions

Functions of the type (f(x)) / (g(x)) , where f(x) and g(x) are polynomial functions

of x defined in a domain, where g(x) ≠ 0.

The Modulus function

The function f: R→R defined by f(x) = |x| for each x ∈R is called modulus function. For

each non-negative value of x, f(x) is equal to x. But for negative values of x, the value of

f(x) is the negative of the value of x, i.e.,

X,X ≥ 0
f (x) =
-X,X < 0

Signum function

The function f:R→R defined by

Relations And Functions 26

 1, if X>0

f (x) = 0, if X=0
-1, if X<0

is called the signum function. The domain of the signum function is R and the range is the
set {–1, 0, 1}.

Concept

Greatest integer function

The function f: R → R defined by f(x) = [x], x ∈R assumes the value of the greatest

integer, less than or equal to x. Such a function is called the greatest integer function.

Relations And Functions 27

 "The greatest integer
function rounds down to
the nearest whole
number."
From the definition of [x], we can see that

[x] = –1 for –1 ≤ x < 0

[x] = 0 for 0 ≤ x < 1
[x] = 1 for 1 ≤ x < 2
[x] = 2 for 2 ≤ x < 3 and so on.

Algebra of real functions

Real numbers are a set of
numbers that include all the
Addition of two real functions numbers on the number line

Let f : X → R and g : X → R be any two real functions, where X ⊂ R. Then, we define

(f + g): X → R by (f + g) (x) = f (x) + g (x), for all x ∈ X.

ye bilkul simple addition ki tarah hi

hai
Aao ek example se samajhte hai...

Relations And Functions 28

 Concept

Let f(x) = x² and g(x) = sin(x).

The sum (f + g) (x) is:

(f + g) (x) = f(x) + g(x) = x² + sin(x)

So, for each value of x, you add the corresponding values of f(x) and g(x) to get

the value of (f + g) (x).

Subtraction of a real function from another

Let f : X → R and g: X → R be any two real functions, where X⊂ R. Then, we define

(f – g) : X→R by (f–g) (x) = f(x) –g(x), for all x ∈ X.

Multiplication by a scalar

Let f : X→R be a real valued function and α be a scalar. Here by scalar, we mean a real

number. Then the product α f is a function from X to R defined by (α f ) (x) = α f

(x), x ∈X.

Multiplication of two real functions

The product (or multiplication) of two real functions f:X→R and g:X→R is a function

fg:X→R defined by (fg) (x) = f(x) g(x), for all x ∈ X.

This is also called pointwise multiplication.

Relations And Functions 29

 Quotient of two real functions

Let f and g be two real functions defined from X→R, where X⊂R. The quotient of f by

g denoted by is a function defined by ,

_f (x) = f(x) , provided g(x) ≠ 0, x ∈ X

g g(x)

SAWAAL #3

The Cartesian product A × A has 9 elements among which are found (–1, 0) and (0,1). Find
the set A and the remaining elements of A × A.
Solution :
We know that,
If n(A) = p and n(B) = q, then n(A × B) = pq
From the given,
n(A × A) = 9
n(A) × n(A) = 9,
n(A) = 3 ……(i)
The ordered pairs (-1, 0) and (0, 1) are two of the nine elements of A × A.
Therefore, A × A = {(a, a) : a ∈ A}
Hence, -1, 0, 1 are the elemets of A. …..(ii)
From (i) and (ii),
A = {-1, 0, 1}
The remaining elements of set A × A are (-1, -1), (-1, 1), (0, -1), (0, 0), (1, -1), (1, 0) and
(1, 1).

Express the function f: A—R. f(x) = x2 – 1. where A = { -4, 0, 1, 4) as a set of ordered

pairs.
Solution :

Relations And Functions 30

Given,
A = {-4, 0, 1, 4}
f(x) = x2 – 1
f(-4) = (-4)2 – 1 = 16 – 1=15
f(0) = (0)2 – 1 = -1
f(1) = (1)2 – 1 = 0
f(4) = (4)2 – 1 = 16 – 1 =15
Therefore, the set of ordered pairs = {(-4, 15), (0, -1), (1, 0), (4, 15)}

SAWAAL #5

Assume that A = {1, 2, 3,…,14}. Define a relation R from A to A by R = {(x, y) : 3x – y

= 0, such that x, y ∈ A}. Determine and write down its range, domain, and codomain.
Solution :
It is given that the relation R from A to A is given by R = {(x, y): 3x – y = 0, where x, y
∈ A}.
It means that R = {(x, y) : 3x = y, where x, y ∈ A}
Hence, R = {(1, 3), (2, 6), (3, 9), (4, 12)}
We know that the domain of R is defined as the set of all first elements of the ordered
pairs in the given relation.
Hence, the domain of R = {1, 2, 3, 4}
To determine the codomain, we know that the entire set A is the codomain of the relation
R.
Therefore, the codomain of R = A = {1, 2, 3,…,14}
As it is known that, the range of R is defined as the set of all second elements in the
relation ordered pair.
Hence, the Range of R is given by = {3, 6, 9, 12}

Relations And Functions 31

 IST ( It’s a sawal time)
1) Is the following relation a function? Justify your answer (i) R1 = {(2, 3), ( 1 2 ,
0), (2, 7), (– 4, 6)} (ii) R2 = {(x, |x |) | x is a real number}

2) Find the domain for which the functions f (x) = 2x 2 – 1 and g (x) = 1 – 3x
are equal.

3) Let A and B be any two sets such that n(B) = p, n(A) = q then the total
number of functions f : A → B is equal to __________.

4)Let f and g be real functions defined by f (x) = 2x + 1 and g (x) = 4x – 7. (a)

For what real numbers x, f (x) = g (x)? (b) For what real numbers x, f (x) < g
(x)?

5)Is g = {(1, 1), (2, 3), (3, 5), (4, 7)} a function? Justify. If this is described by
the relation, g (x) = αx + β, then what values should be assigned to α and β?

6)The ordered pair (5, 2) belongs to the relation R = {(x, y) : y = x – 5, x, y ∈

Z}

7)If A × B = {(a, x), (a, y), (b, x), (b, y)}, then A = {a, b}, B = {x, y}

8) The domain and range of the function f given by f (x) = 2 – x −5 is

(A) Domain = R+ , Range = ( – ∞, 1]
(B) Domain = R, Range = ( – ∞, 2]
(C) Domain = R, Range = (– ∞, 2)
(D) Domain = R+ , Range = (– ∞, 2]

9) If f (x) = y = (ax−b)/(cx−a) , then prove that f (y) = x.

10) ILet f and g be real functions defined by f (x) = 2x + 1 and g (x) = 4x – 7.

(a) For what real numbers x, f (x) = g (x)? (b) For what real numbers x, f (x) <
g (x)?

Relations And Functions 32

 3 Trigonometric functions

class 11th maths ka subse intresting

chapter...??
10th class me jo trigonometry padhe the hum
ye bus usi k aage continue kar rahe hai...!!

The word 'trigonometry' is derived from the Greek words 'trigon' and 'metron' which

means "measuring the sides of a triangle".

dealing with the relationships between the

angles and sides of triangles

Bhaiya par yaha pe tho function ki

bat hui hai !! function kya hai?

In simple terms functions mean

whenever we put a different value of x
we will get different values of f(x).

functions such as f(x)=sinx, g(x)=cosx, h(x)=tanx, etc. are called the trigonometric

functions.

Trigonometric functions 33
Example:

Suppose if f(x)=sinx, and we put X=0°, then f(x)=sin0°=0

also we put X=30°,

then f(x)=sin30°=1/2

Angles

It is a measure of rotation of a given Ray about its initial point.

B
e
sid
al
in

angle
rm
Te

O Initial side
A

Types of Angles

Types of Angles

There are two types of Angles depending upon the rotation of the Ray. If the direction of

rotation is 'anticlockwise', the angle is positive and if the direction is 'clockwise', the angle is

negative.

Trigonometric functions 34
 Types of Angle

Positive angle Negative angle

B
Vertex Initial side
O
e
sid

C lo
Te ckw
al

ise rm is e
in

lockw
rm

antic
in
al
Te

s id
O e
Vertex Initial side

(ii) Negative angle

(i) Positive angle

Degree measure

O
-60
°
60°
O 90°
O

O O 150
-90° 360
° O °

Trigonometric functions 35
 Please note that one degree (1°) is divided into 60 minutes, and a
minute is divided into 60 seconds. One sixtieth of a degree is called
a minute, written as 1', and one sixtieth of minute is called a
second, written as 1". i.e. 1°=60', 1'=60"

Radian measure

Suppose, if we make a circle of radius 1 unit (say 1cm or 1m). Now if we take any Arc of

this circle and the length of that Arc is 1 unit, then this Arc makes an angle of 1 Radian

with the centre of the circle.

r
One radian
θ
o
r D

Aao ek example se samajhte

hai !!

Trigonometric functions 36
Example:
Suppose, we draw a circle of radius 5cm & an arc of length 5cm, then as discussed above

the angle subtended at the centre willl be of 1 Radian.

Thus, if in a circle of radius r, an arc of length l subtends an angle radian at the entre, we
have i.e. Angle = Arc/radius

5 5
θ = l/r
1 = 5/5 5
1=1

add image
Note: Here in the formula the
Angle will always be in
"Radian".

Relation between Degree and Radian

Till now we know that θ = l/r. Now suppose if we let the length of the Arc of circle equal

to the circumference of circle i.e. put l = 2πr then we have

θ= 2πr/r

θ= 2π c

2πc = 360°

(as a complete circle subtends 360° angle at entre)

Trigonometric functions 37
 1π c= 180°

π = 180°

1 = 180°/π ...........(1)

180°= 1π c

1° = 1π/180° ...........(2)

Thus it follows from (1) & (2) that : Degree = Radian × 180°/π

Radian = Degree × π/180°

Aao ek trick batata hu

jo ki class 10th me
padha tha...ab isme
hum apne right hand
ke fingers ki help se
value pata kr loge

Trigonometric functions 38
 Trigonometric functions

As we earlier studied that the functions such as f(x)=sinx, g(x)=cosx, h(x)=tanx, etc.

are called the trigonometric functions.

A
Perpendicular

Hy
po
te
nu

Always remeber ye sad right

se

angles triangle pe hi applied

honge
B C
Base

Sinθ = P/H ; Cosecθ = H/P Sinθ = 1/Cosecθ ; Cosecθ = 1/Sinθ

Cosθ = B/H ; Secθ = H/B Cosθ = 1/Secθ ; Secθ = 1/Cosθ

Tanθ = P/B ; Cotθ = B/H Tanθ = 1/Cotθ ; Cotθ = 1/Tanθ

H Hypotenuse

Concept P Perpendicular
B Base

Trigonometric functions 39
 Identities
1. Sin²θ + Cos²θ = 1

2. Sec²θ - tan²θ = 1

3. Cosec²θ - Cot²θ = 1
Ratios yaad rakhne ke liye mantra:
4. Tanθ = Sinθ/Cosθ Pandit Badri Prasad = Sona Chandi Tole
Har Har Bhole
5. Cotθ = Cosθ/Sinθ

The coordinates of the points A, B, C

and D are, respectively, (1, 0), (0, 1),
(–1, 0) and (0, –1). Therefore, for
quadrantal angles, we have

In sabhi values ko yaad kar lena

callculation me jyada sochna nahi
pade ga

sin x = 0 implies x = nπ, where n is any integer

cosx=0 implies x(2n+1)π/2, where n is any integer.

Trigonometric functions 40
Trigonometric Ratios

Bhaiya par itna sara yaad Kaiser

krenge? koi trick hai tho btao!!

Aree bilkul trick hai niche jo

baat bata raha hu bus utna
follow Kran

Class10 me jo 90° tak ki values padhi thi wo toh yaad karni hi padengi........par 180°,

270°, 360° ke liye trick bata raha hun. Dekho hamari 180° ki Saari values 0° ki values se

hi aati hain dhyan se dekho, bas sabke saamne -ve sign lagado.

270° ki saari values 90° ki values se aati hain, bas sabke saamne -ve sign lagado...Ok

Abb 360° Yaani 2π ki baat karein toh iski saari values 180°(π) ki values ko 2 se

multiply Karke aati hain. Jaise sin360° ke liye 2×0=0. Par yaha ek exception hai,

Cos360° aur sec360°ke liye 2×(-1)=-2 nhi karna, iski value 1 hoti hai jo ki scientifically

proven hai..

Trigonometric functions 41
 Sign Conventions )

After -A

School -S

To -T

College -C

Sin and cos All function

Ab isko learn krne ka bhi trich hai

tan and cot sec and cosec

balak subah-sham 2-2 baar yaad karlo

7 janam tak yaad rahega

Trigonometric functions 42
 Ratio Conversion

The Conversion between two Ratios takes place as follows :

Sinθ Cosθ Tanθ Cotθ Secθ Cosecθ

Example:

1. Sin(π/2 + θ) = Cosθ 2. Cos(3π/2 + θ) = Sinθ 3. Tan(π/2 - θ) = Cotθ

IMPORTANT RESULTS

Conversion in Ratios takes place only in π/2. For e.g. π/2, 3π/2, 5π/2, 7π/2, etc...

No Conversion takes place when there is (π+θ) or (π-θ); (2π+θ) or (2π-θ).

While doing conversion between two Ratios, we try to know in which quadrant we are

going and put the appropriate sign (+ve or -ve) accordingly.

For writing the correct sign in our answer we always look at the LHS ratio.

Sin(-θ) = -Sinθ
Cos(-θ) = Cosθ

Trigonometry Tan(-θ) = -Tanθ

Basic
Formulas Cosec(-θ) = -Cosecθ

Sec(-θ) = Secθ

Cot(-θ) = -Cotθ

Trigonometric functions 43
Domain and range of trigonometric functions

From the definition of sine and cosine functions, we observe that they are defined for all real

numbers. Further, we observe that for each real number x,

–1 ≤ sinx ≤ 1 and –1 ≤ cosx ≤ 1

Thus, domain of y = sin x and y = cos x is the set of all real numbers and range is the

interval [–1, 1], i.e., – 1 ≤ y ≤ 1.

Trigonometric functions 44
Trigonometric Identities

Sin(X+Y) = SinXCosY + CosX SinY Sin(X-Y) = SinXCosY - CosX SinY

Cos(X+Y) = CosXCosY - SinX SinY Cos(X-Y) = CosXCosY + SinX SinY

Cos(π/2-X) = SinX Sin(π/2-X) = CosX

Cos(π/2+X) = -SinX Sin(π/2+X) = CosX

Cos ( π - X) = -CosX Sin ( π - X) = SinX

Cos ( π + X) = -CosX Sin ( π + X) = -SinX

Cos (2π - X) = CosX Sin ( 2π - X) = -SinX

tanX + tanY tanX - tanY

tan (X + Y) = tan (X - Y) =
1 - tanX tanY 1 + tanX tanY

Cot (X + Y) = CotX CotY - 1 Cot (X - Y) = CotX CotY + 1

CotY + CotX CotY - CotX

Ye Sab formulas bahot hi jyada imp hai tho isko ache se yaad
krna...and ispe jitna ho sakte utna ques bhi practice krna

Trigonometric functions 45
 2 tan X
Sin2X = 2 SinXCosX =
2
1 + tan X

1 - tan2X
Cos2X = Cos2X - Sin2X = 2Cos2X - 1 = 1 - 2Sin 2X =
1 + tan2X

2 tan X
3tanX - tan 3X Tan2X =
Tan3X = 1 - tan2X
1 - 3tan2X

SAWAAL #1

In any triangle ABC, prove that a sin (B – C) + b sin (C – A) + c sin (A – B) = 0.

Solution :

In any triangle ABC,

a/sin A = b/sin B = c/sin C = k
a = k sin A, b = k sin B, c = k sin C
LHS
= a sin (B – C) + b sin (C – A) + c sin (A – B)
= k sin A [sin B cos C – cos B sin C] + k sin B [sin C cos A – cos C sin A] + k sin C
[sin A cos B – cos A sin B]
= k sin A sin B cos C – k sin A cos B sin C + k sin B sin C cos A – k sin B cos C sin A
+ k sin C sin A cos B – k sin C cos A sin B
= 0
= RHS
Hence proved that a sin (B – C) + b sin (C – A) + c sin (A – B) = 0.

SAWAAL #2

Find the radius of the circle in which a central angle of 60° intercepts an arc of length
37.4 cm (use π = 22/7).

Solution :

Trigonometric functions 46
 Given,
Length of the arc = l = 37.4 cm
Central angle = θ = 60° = 60π/180 radian = π/3 radians
We know that,
r = l/θ
= (37.4) * (π / 3)
= (37.4) / [22 / 7 * 3]
= 35.7 cm
Hence, the radius of the circle is 35.7 cm.

SAWAAL #3

A wheel makes 360 revolutions in one minute. Through how many radians does it turn in
one second?
Solution :
Given,
Number of revolutions made by the wheel in 1 minute = 360
1 minute = 60 seconds
Number of revolutions in 1 second = 360/60 = 6
Angle made in 1 revolution = 360°
Angles made in 6 revolutions = 6 × 360°
Radian measure of the angle in 6 revolutions = 6 × 360 × π/180
= 6 × 2 × π
= 12π
Hence, the wheel turns 12π radians in one second.

SAWAAL #4

Find the value of cos 570° sin 510° + sin (-330°) cos (-390°).
Solution :

LHS =cos (570)sin (510) + sin (- 330)cos (- 390)

= cos (570) sin (510) + [ – sin (330) ]cos (390) [ because sin( – x ) = – sin x and
cos( – x ) = cos x ]
= cos (570)sin(510) – sin (330)
= cos (90 * 6 + 30) sin (90 * 5 + 60) – sin (90 * 3 + 60) cos (90 * 4 + 30)
= – cos (30) cos (60) – [ – cos (60) ] cos (30)
= – cos (30) cos (60) + cos (30) sin (60)
= 0

Trigonometric functions 47
 SAWAAL #4

Show that 2 sin2β + 4 cos (α + β) sin α sin β + cos 2 (α + β) = cos 2α.

Solution :
LHS = 2 sin2β + 4 cos (α + β) sin α sin β + cos 2(α + β)
= 2 sin2β + 4 (cos α cos β – sin α sin β) sin α sin β + (cos 2α cos 2β – sin 2α sin 2β)
= 2 sin2β + 4 sin α cos α sin β cos β – 4 sin2α sin2β + cos 2α cos 2β – sin 2α sin 2β
= 2 sin2β + sin 2α sin 2β – 4 sin2α sin2β + cos 2α cos 2β – sin 2α sin 2β
= (1 – cos 2β) – (2 sin2α) (2 sin2β) + cos 2α cos 2β
= (1 – cos 2β) – (1 – cos 2α) (1 – cos 2β) + cos 2α cos 2β
= cos 2α
= RHS

Trigonometric functions 48
 IST ( It’s a sawal time)
1) A circular wire of radius 3 cm is cut and bent so as to lie along the
circumference of a hoop whose radius is 48 cm. Find the angle in degrees which is
subtended at the centre of hoop.

2)Find the value of 3 cosec 20° – sec 20°

3) Find the value of tan 9° – tan 27° – tan 63° + tan 81°

4) Solve the equation sin θ + sin 3θ + sin 5θ = 0

5)If x cos θ = y cos (θ + 2/3 π ) = z cos ( θ + 4/3 π ), then find the value of
xy + yz + zx.

6)If α and β are the solutions of the equation a tan θ + b sec θ = c, then show
that tan (α + β) = 2ac/a − c .
2 2

7)Show that 2 sin 2β + 4 cos (α + β) sin α sin β + cos 2 (α + β) = cos 2α

8) Solve 3 cos θ + sin θ = 2

9) Find the most general value of θ satisfying the equation tanθ = –1 and cosθ =
1/(root)2 .

10) . If cosec x = 1 + cot x then x = 2nπ, 2nπ + 2/π

11) The maximum distance of a point on the graph of the function y = 3 sin x +
cos x from x-axis is _______.

11) Number of solutions of the equation tan x + sec x = 2 cosx lying in the
interval [0, 2π] is
(A) 0
(B) 1
(C) 2
(D) 3

Trigonometric functions 49
 Complex Numbers and
4
Quadratic Equations

Class 10 tak x ka real answer milta tha...

Ab aaya imaginary world ka king – i
Real + Imaginary = Complex Combo!
Aur quadratic? Bhai, ab x² + something x
something = 0
Split karo, solve karo, ya formula lagao!
Boring x nahi, Complex twist milega is baar!

Introduction

In Class10, We Studied about Quadratic Equations of the General form

aX² + bX + c = [Link] to find the Roots of this Quadratic Equation we used the."Quadratic
Formula"

X = -b +- b²-4ac
2a

Recall : If Discriminant (D) = b² - 4ac > 0 : Real & Distinct Roots

(D) = b² - 4ac = 0 : Real & Equal Roots
(D) = b² - 4ac < 0 : No Real Roots or Imaginary Roots

Toh Suno, the above third Case implies ki under root me negative value ajayegi i.e -ve

for e.g √ -1 Jisko Solve karna abhi tak nhi seekha hai tumne......Right. Toh bas isi tarah ke
questions or problems ko solve karne ke liye we needed the concept of "Complex No.s or
Imaginary Numbers.

Complex Numbers and Quadratic Equations 50

Complex numbers

Let us denote √-1 by the Symbol i (iota). Then I² = -1.

A number of the form a + ib, where a and b are real numbers, is called a Complex No.

Example:
3 + i5, (-2) + I√3 , (-9) + 19i , etc..... are examples of Complex Numbers.
*NOTE : Complex Number = Real Number + Imaginary Number
For the Complex number Z = a + ib, a is called the 'real part', denoted by Re(Z)
and b is called the 'imaginary part' denoted by Im(Z) of the complex number Z.

Example:
if Z = 5 + 7i, then Re(Z) = 5 and Im(Z) = 7.

Algebra of Complex Numbers

(i) Addition of two Complex numbers:

Let Z = a + ib and Z = c + id are two complex numbers.

Then Z + Z = (a + c) + i(b + d)

Example: (2 + 3i) + (3 + 5i) = (2 + 3) + (3 + 5)i = 5 + 8i

(ii) Subtraction of two Complex numbers:

For any two Complex numbers Z and Z , the subtraction is done as follows:

Example: (2+ 3i) - (3 + 5i) = (2 - 3) + (3 - 5)i = -1 -2i

(iii) Multiplication of two Complex numbers:

Let Z1 = a + ib and Z2 = c + id are two complex numbers.
Then Z1 × Z = (ac - bd) + (ad + bc)i
2

Complex Numbers and Quadratic Equations 51

Example: (2 + 3i) × (3 + 5i) = (2×3) + (2×5i) + (3i×3) + (3i×5i)
= 6 + 10i + 9i + 15i
= 6 + 19i + 15(-1) [since i = -1]
= 6 + 19i -15
= -9 + 19i

(iv) Division of two Complex numbers:

For any two Complex numbers Z 1 and Z 2 , the Division is done as follows:

(2 + 3i) USE RATIONALISATION method here

Example: Z ÷ Z =
(3 + 5i)

×
2
(3 - 5i) 6-10i+9i-15i
=
(2 + 3i) = 2

(3 + 5i) (3 - 5i) 9 - 25i

i - 15(-1) = 6 - i + 15
= 6 -
9 - 25(-1) 9 + 25

21 - i
=
34
*NOTE: While Adding and Subtracting two
Complex Numbers always remember that
Real parts are to be added or subtracted
together only, in the same way imaginary
parts are solved with imaginary parts only.

Powers of i (iota)

Till now we know that i = √ and i = -1. Now some important powers of i are
given below:

3 2
1. i = i × i = -1 × i = -i
4 2 2
2. i = i × i = (-1) × (-1) = 1
5 4 2 2
3. i = i × i = i × i × i = (-1) × (-1) × i = i
6 3 3
2
4. i = ( i ) = (-1) = -1
*NOTE: Agar badi powers aa Jaye toh hamesha power ko break karna i ki terms me..
19 19
39 38 2
5. i = i × i = ( i ) × i = (-1) × i = -1 × i = -i
61 2 30 30
6. i = (i ) × i = (-1) × i = 1 × i = i

Complex Numbers and Quadratic Equations 52

Additive Inverse of complex numbers

For every Complex number Z = a + ib , there exists a Complex number -a + i(-b)

denoted as -Z, which is called the Additive Inverse or negative of Z.

Example:
The additive Inverse of the complex number Z = 2 + 5i is given by
-Z = -2 - 5i

Multiplicative Inverse of complex numbers

For every non zero Complex number Z = a + ib, there exists a Complex number 1/Z,
which is called the multiplicative Inverse of Z such that Z.1/Z = 1.

Example:
If Z = 2 + 3i , then the multiplicative inverse of this complex number is given by

1 = 1 × 2 - 3i
Z 2 + 3i 2 - 3i

1 2 - 3i
=
Z 4 - 9i 2

1 = 2 - 3i
Z 4- 9(-1)

1 = 2 - 3i
Z 13

*Trick to remember easily - dekho additive inverse

ka matlab hai Add ka ulta joki Subtract hota
hai...theek hai aur multiplicative inverse ka matlab
multiply ka ulta
joki divide hota hai...aur yahi toh upar kiya abhi...OK

Complex Numbers and Quadratic Equations 53

Argand Plane

In our earlier classes we have studied about the 'Cartesian Plane System' where we
plotted an ordered pair of numbers (X,Y) in the XY- Plane.
Now for plotting the Complex numbers Z = a + ib , we use the Argand Plane.
• The plane having a Complex number assigned to each of its point is called the
'Complex Plane' or 'Argand Plane'.

Example: Plot Z = 2 + 3i in the Argand Plane.

here Re(Z) = 2 & Im(Z) = 3.. So the point is (2,3).

Imaginary axis

•(2,3)
r
0 Real axis
(0,0)

*NOTE: The distance of any Point P(X,Y) from the Origin O(0,0) in the Argand
Plane is r which is given by 2 2
r = X+Y

The X-axis and the Y-axis in the Argand Plane are called, respectively, the Real
axis and the Imaginary axis.

Quadratic Equations

Complex Numbers and Quadratic Equations 54

In Class10 we have studied about the 'Quadratic Equations' which were of the general
form aX + bX + c = 0 and also to solve such equations we used the 'Quadratic
formula'
Or Discriminant Method.

2
+
X = -b √ D , where D = b - 4ac
2a

*NOTE: Here we will only have questions involving the value of

discriminant(D) less than zero i.e. D < 0 .

Example:

2
(i) Solve 2X + X + 1 = 0
2
Ans: Comparing the given quadratic equation with the general form aX + bX +
c = 0 we get
a = 2, b = 1, and c = 1. Now using the Quadratic formula

2
- √ D , where D = b - 24ac
X = -b+
2a D = (1) - 4×(2)×(1)
D = 1 - 8
D = -7

Therefore, X = -1 +
- √ -7
2 × 2

X = -1 -
+ √ 7i (answer yaha par bhi chodd sakte ho)
4

Complex Numbers and Quadratic Equations 55

Sawal no 1.

If 4x + i(3x – y) = 3 + i (– 6), where x and y are real numbers, then find the values
of x and y.

Solution

We have 4x + i (3x – y) = 3 + i (–6) ... (1)

Equating the real and the imaginary parts of (1),
we get 4x = 3, 3x – y = – 6, which, on solving simultaneously, give

3
X= Y= 33
|
|

4 4

Sawal no 2.
3
Express (5 – 3i) in the form a + ib.

Solution
3 3 2 2 3
We have, (5 – 3i) =5 – 3 × 5 × (3i) + 3 × 5 (3i) – (3i)

= 125 – 225i – 135 + 27i

= – 10 – 198i.

Sawal no 3.

Find the multiplicative inverse of 2 – 3i.

Solution

Let z = 2 – 3i
_
Then z = 2 + 3i and |z|
2 2 2
= 2 + (-3) = 13

_
Therefore, the multiplicative inverse of 2 - 3i is given by
2 + 3i 2 3
z -1 = z
2
= = + i
|

13
|

13
|

|z| 13

Complex Numbers and Quadratic Equations 56

 Sawal no 4.

(3 - 2i)(2 + 3i)
Find the conjugate of
(1 + 2i)(2 - i)

Solution

We have , (3 - 2i)(2 + 3i)

(1 + 2i)(2 - i)

6 + 9i - 4i + 6
=
(1 + 2i)(2 - i)

12 + 5i 4 - 3i
= X
4 + 3i 4 - 3i

48 - 36i + 20i + 15
=
16 +9

63 - 6i
= 25

Complex Numbers and Quadratic Equations 57

 SAWAAL #5

Write the complex number i9 + i19 in the form of a + ib.

Solution :

Given number: i9 + i19.

The expression i9 + i19 can be represented as follows:
i9 + i19 = (i2)4. i + (i2)9. i …(1)
We know that, i2 = 1.
On substituting i2 = -1, we get
i9 + i19 = (-1)4.i + (-1)9.i
i9 + i19 = 1.i + (-1).i
i9 + i19 = i – i
i9 + i19 = 0.
Therefore, i9 + i19 in the form of a + ib is 0 + i0.

SAWAAL #6

Simplify the expression: i30 + i40 + i60.

Solution :
Given expression: i30 + i40 + i60.
The given expression can be simplified as follows:
i30 + i40 + i60 = (i4)7. i2 + (i4)10 + (i4)15.
We know that the value of i4 is 1.
i30 + i40 + i60 = (1)7. i2 + (1)10 + (1)15.
i30 + i40 + i60 = (1)i2 + 1 + 1
i30 + i40 + i60 = -1 + 1 + 1 [since i2 = 1]
i30 + i40 + i60 = 1
Therefore, the simplification of i30 + i40 + i60 is 1.

SAWAAL #7

Express the given expression (1 + i) (1 + 2i) in the form a + ib and find the values of a and
b.
Solution :

Complex Numbers and Quadratic Equations 58

 Given expression: (1 + i) (1 + 2i)
Hence, (1 + i) (1 + 2i) = 1(1) + 1(2i) + i + 2i(i)
(1 + i) (1 + 2i) = 1 + 2i + i + 2i2
(1 + i) (1 + 2i) = 1 + 2i + i + 2(-1) [As, i2 = -1]
(1 + i) (1 + 2i) = 1 + 2i + i – 2
(1 + i) (1 + 2i) = -1 + 3i
Hence, the expression (1 + i) (1 + 2i) in the form of a + bi is -1 + 3i.
Thus, the value of a = -1 and b = 3.

SAWAAL #8

If z1 and z2 are the two complex numbers, then show that Re (z1z2) = Re z1 Re z2 – Im z1 Im
z 2.
Solution :
Let z1 = a1 + ib1 and z2 = a2+ ib2
Now, take the product of these two complex numbers.
z1z2 = (a1 + ib1)(a2+ ib2)
z1z2 = a1(a2+ ib2) + ib1(a2+ ib2)
z1z2 = a1a2 + ia1b2 + ia2b1 + i2b1b2
z1z2 = a1a2 + ia1b2 + ia2b1 – b1b2 [since i2 = -1]
Now, the above equation can be rearranged as follows:
z1z2 = a1a2 – b1b2 + ia1b2 + ia2b1
z1z2 = (a1a2 – b1b2) + i(a1b2 + a2b1)
Here, the real part is:
Re (z1z2) = a1a2 – b1b2
Thus,
Re (z1z2) = Re z1 Re z2 – Im z1 Im z2.
Hence, Re (z1z2) = Re z1 Re z2 – Im z1 Im z2 is proved

Complex Numbers and Quadratic Equations 59

 IST ( It’s a sawal time)
1) If the imaginary part of (2z + 1)/(iz + 1) is – 2, then show that the locus of
the point representing z in the argand plane is a straight line.

2) Let z 1 and z 2 be two complex numbers such that z i z 1 2 + = 0 and arg (z 1

z 2 ) = π. Then find arg (z 1 ).

3) If a complex number z lies in the interior or on the boundary of a circle of

radius 3 units and centre (– 4, 0), find the greatest and least values of |z +1| .

4) Find the value of P such that the difference of the roots of the equation x 2–
Px + 8 = 0 is 2.

5) State true or false for the following:

(i) Multiplication of a non-zero complex number by i rotates it through a right

angle in the anti- clockwise direction.
(ii) The complex number cosθ + i sinθ can be zero for some θ.
(iii) If a complex number coincides with its conjugate, then the number must lie
on imaginary axis.
(iv) The argument of the complex number z = (1 +i 3 ) (1 + i) (cos θ + i sin θ)
is 7 12 π + θ
(v) The points representing the complex number z for which z z + < − 1 1 lies in
the interior of a circle.
(vi) If three complex numbers z 1 , z 2 and z 3 are in A.P., then they lie on a
circle in the complex plane.
(vii) If n is a positive integer, then the value of i n + (i) n+1 + (i) n+2 + (i) n+3
is 0.

Complex Numbers and Quadratic Equations 60

 5 Linear inequalities

Maths पाँचवाँ ka dhamaka

Class 10 me hum equations jaisi cheezein
solve karte the bas x nikalna hota tha.
Lekin bhai, ab to game level up ho gaya hai
Ab aayi hai Inequalities jahan sirf ek
answer nahi, poori range ka jawab hota hai!

Introduction
In Class 10, we studied Linear Equations in one or two variables and learned how to solve
them. Example: 5x - 3 = 0, x + 7 = 0, etc. Now, in Class 11, we come across situations
that involve signs like < (less than), > (greater than), ≤ (less than or equal to), and ≥
(greater than or equal to). These are called inequalities, and instead of finding just one
value, we often find a range of values that satisfy the given condition.

Just like equations give a specific solution, inequalities

give a set of solutions that can be shown on a number
line. This makes them super useful in real-world
problems like budgets, speed limits, and age
restrictions!
Gyan ki Baat

Inequalities
When two numbers or algebraic expressions are compared using signs like < (less than), >
(greater than), ≤ (less than or equal to), or ≥ (greater than or equal to), it forms an
inequality.
Inequalities show that one side is bigger, smaller, or maybe equal under certain conditions
instead of being exactly equal like in equations.

Examples:
x + 4 < 10 → "x + 4 is less than 10"
3x - 2 > 7 → "3x - 2 is greater than 7"

Linear inequalities 61
 2x + y ≤ 12 → "2x plus y is less than or equal to 12"
4x - y ≥ 6 → "4x minus y is greater than or equal to 6"

Types of Inequalities

Strick Inquality Slack inequality

(has One Conditon) (has two Conditon)
Example :(i) 5x - 2 > 18 Example :(i) 5x - 2 > 18
(ii) 2x + 3 < 17 (ii) 2x + 3 < 17

*matlab strict me ya toh less than hoga ya greater

than but slack inequality me less than equal to hoga ya
phir greater than equal to OK...

note kiya jaye

Algebraic Solutions of Linear Inequalities

Any solution of an inequality in one variable is a value of the variable which makes it a
true statement.
(*matlab simple x ki value find karni hai bas)

Inequality Ke Tashan Wale Rules

Rule 1 : Equal numbers can be added or subtracted from both sides of an inequality without
affecting the sign of the inequality.
Suppose we have an inequality 10 < 14.

Linear inequalities 62
 Add : 10 + 3 < 14 + 3 Subtract : 10 - 4 < 14 - 4
13 < 17 6 < 10
Here note that the sign of the inequality remains the same i.e <.

Rule 2 : Both sides of an inequality can be multiplied or divided by the same positive number,
without affecting the sign of the inequality.
Suppose we have an inequality 5 < 9.

Multiply : 5 × 3 < 9 × 3 Divide : 5 ÷ 5 < 9 ÷ 5

15 < 27 1 < 18
Here note that the sign of the inequality remains the same i.e <.

Rule 3 : Both sides of an inequality can be multiplied or divided by a negative number, but
the sign of the inequality will get reversed.
Suppose we have an inequality 10 < 12.

Multiply : 10 × -1 > 12 × -1 Divide : 10 ÷ -2 > 12 ÷ -2

-10 > -12 -5 > -6
Here note that the sign of the inequality has changed i.e. < becomes >.

Rule 4 : If we remove negative sign from both sides of an Inequality, then the sign of
inequality will change.
Suppose we have -20 > -24
removing negative sign from both sides we get 20 < 24.

Rule 5 : If we do reciprocal of an Inequality then the sign of inequality changes

Suppose we have an Inequality 10 > 6
if we do reciprocal we have -1 < -1
10 6

Done hai bhaiyaaa rules toh sare

Easyy hai Kuch Questions karadoo aab

5 niyam
Linear inequalities 63
 (*kuch Sawal karte hain abb...)
SAWAAL #1

Solve the following inequalities for real x :

(i) 6x−4<4x+10

Step 1 - Bring like terms to one side : 6x-4x < 10+4

Sawal ki Jang
Step 2 - Simplify : 2x<14

Step 3 - Divide Both Side by 2 : x < 7

Final Answer: x∈(−∞,7) Bhaiyaa sawal saree badhiya haii

clear ho gaya concept
(ii) 3(1 - x) > 2(2x + 1)

Step 1: Expand both sides : 3 − 3x > 4x + 2

Step 2: Transpose variables and constants : −3x − 4x > 2 − 3

Step 3: Simplify : −7x > −1

Step 4: Divide both sides by −7 : x < 1/7

(Note: Inequality sign flips when dividing by a negative)

Final Answer: x ∈ (−∞, 1/7)

(iii) 2x + 5 ≥ x − 3

Step 1: Transpose terms : 2x − x ≥ −3 − 5

Step 2: Simplify : x ≥ −8 sawal jo hai usko dawai ki tarah solve karne

chahiyeee
Final Answer: x ∈ [−8, ∞) jese kii subah 2 baar naste keh baad
aurr raat ko khane se pehle
(iv) 4 − (3x − 1) ≤ 2(x + 5) (Raatko khane se pehle nai toh neend aa jayegii )

Step 1- Remove brackets : 4 − 3x + 1 ≤ 2x + 10

Step 2- Simplify : 5 − 3x ≤ 2x + 10

Step 3- Transpose variables and constants : −3x − 2x ≤ 10 − 5

Linear inequalities 64
 Step 4- Simplify : −5x ≤ 5

Step 5- Divide both sides by −5 :x ≥ −1

(Note: Sign flips as we divide by a negative number)

Final Answer: x ∈ [−1, ∞)

Pehla Padav Paar

Ye toh beta pehla padav tha type
one
level keh halwa questions aage aur
bhi hai

SAWAAL #2
Solve 3x - 2 < 2x + 1 for real x and show the graph of
solutions on number line. Soultion : We have 3x - 2 < 2x + 1
3x - 2x < 1 + 2
x < 3 = > X ∞ (-,3)
ω

NUMBER LINE :
-1 0 1 2 3° 4

SAWAAL #3

A man scored 65 and 72 marks in his first two class tests. Find the minimum marks he
should score in the third test to have an average of at least 70 marks.
Soultion :
Let the marks obtained by Aman in the third test be x.
Marks in first test = 65
Marks in second test = 72

Linear inequalities 65
 It is given that average of the three tests should be at least 70.
So,
According to the question (A.T.Q.),
65+72+x >
- 70
3
137+x >
Add 65 and 72: - 70
3

Multiply both sides by 3: 137+x≥210

Subtract 137 from both sides: x≥73

Hence, Aman must score at least 73 marks in the third test to have an average of
70 or more.

SAWAAL #4

Find all pairs of consecutive even positive integers both of which are smaller than 18 such
that their sum is more than 24.
(consecutive even positive integers jaise 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, etc. matlab Jo ek ke baad ek aate hain)
Solution :
Let the first even positive integer be x,
then the other consecutive even positive integer will be x + 2.
We need to find out the pairs of such numbers i.e. (x, x + 2)
A.T.Q. both integers are smaller than 18 i.e.

x < 18
x + 2 < 18 => x < 18 - 2 => x < 16

Also, the sum of these integers is more than 24

i.e. x + (x + 2) > 24
2x + 2 > 24
2x > 22
x > 22/2 or x > 11

Now even integers between 11 and 16 are 12 and 14

Linear inequalities 66
so, x = 12 or x = 14

Hence, required pairs of numbers are (12,14) and (14,16).

SAWAAL #5
Q: Solve 4x + 5 > 2x + 9 when (i) x is an integer (ii) x is a real number
Solution:
We are given the inequality:
4x + 5 > 2x + 9

Step 1: Transpose like terms

4x – 2x > 9 – 5
2x > 4 Gajaabb !!
Step 2: Divide both sides by 2
x > 2
(i) When x is an integer:
(ii) When x is a real number:
All integers greater than 2 are:
Solution set = {x ∈ ℝ : x > 2}
3, 4, 5, 6, …
Or in interval form: (2, ∞)
So, solution set = {3, 4, 5, 6, …}

SAWAAL #6
Find all pairs of consecutive odd natural numbers, both of which are larger than 15, such
that their sum is less than 50.
Solution :
Let the first odd natural number be x,
Then the next consecutive odd number will be x + 2.
We need to find pairs (x, x + 2) such that:
Both are greater than 15
Their sum is less than 50

Condition 1:
x > 15
x + 2 > 15 ⟹ x > 13 (this is already satisfied by x > 15)

Condition 2:
x + (x + 2) < 50

Linear inequalities 67
2x + 2 < 50
2x < 48
x < 24

So, values of x must satisfy:

15 < x < 24
Odd natural numbers between 15 and 24 are: chal chote thakna
17, 19, 21, 23 nai hai

So, the valid pairs of consecutive odd natural numbers are:

(17, 19), (19, 21), (21, 23), (23, 25)

But check: both numbers must be > 15 and sum < 50

(17 + 19) = 36
(19 + 21) = 40
(21 + 23) = 44
(23 + 25) = 48

Required pairs are: (17, 19), (19, 21), (21, 23), (23, 25)

SAWAAL #7
A manufacturer has 600 litres of a 12% solution of acid. How many litres of a 30% acid
solution must be added to it so that acid content in the resulting mixture will be more than
15% but less than 18%?
Solution :
Let x litres of 30% acid solution is required to be added.
Then Total mixture = (x + 600) litres
Therefore 30% x + 12% of 600 > 15% of (x + 600)
and 30% x + 12% of 600 < 18% of (x + 600)
or 30x + 7200 > 15x + 9000
and 30x + 7200 < 18x + 10800
or 15x > 1800 and 12x < 3600
or x > 120 and x < 300,
i.e. 120 < x < 300

Thus, the number of litres of the 30% solution of acid will have to be more than 120
litres but less than 300 litres.

Linear inequalities 68
 SAWAAL #8

Solve 3x+8>2, when

(i) x is an integer (ii) x is a real number

Solution :

Given Linear inequality: 3x+8>2

The given inequality can also be written as:
3x+8 -8 > 2 -8 …(1)
In the above inequality, -8 is multiplied on both the sides, as it does not change the
definition of the given expression.
Now, simplify the expression (1)
⇒ 3x > -6
Now, both the sides, divide it by 3
⇒ 3x/3 > -6/3
⇒ x > -2

(i) x is an integer
Hence, the integers greater than -2 are -1,0,1,2,…etc
Thus, when x is an integer, the solutions of the given inequality are -1,0,1,2,…
Hence, the solution set for the given linear inequality is {-1,0,1,2,…}

(ii) x is a real number

If x is a real number, the solutions of the given inequality are all the real numbers, which
are greater than 2.
Therefore, in the case of x is a real number, the solution set is (-2, ∞)

SAWAAL #9

The cost and revenue functions of a product are given by C(x) = 20 x + 4000 and R(x) =
60x + 2000, respectively, where x is the number of items produced and sold. How many items
must be sold to realise some profit?
Solution :

Linear inequalities 69
 Given that,
Cost, C(x) = 20 x + 4000
Revenue, R(x) = 60x + 2000
We know that, profit = Revenue – Cost
Now, subsitute the given data in the above formula,
Profit = R(x) – C(x)
Profit = (60x + 2000)-(20 x + 4000)
Now, simplify it:
Profit = 60x + 2000 -20x -4000
Profit = 40x – 2000
To earn some profit, 40x – 2000 > 0
⇒40x > 2000
⇒ x>2000/40
⇒ x > 50
Thus, the manufacturer should sell more than 50 items to realise some profit.

Linear inequalities 70
 IST ( It’s a sawal time)
1)Solve the inequality, 3x – 5 < x + 7, when
(i) x is a natural number
(ii) x is a whole number
(iii) x is an integer
(iv) x is a real number

2)The cost and revenue functions of a product are given by C(x) = 20 x + 4000
and R(x) = 60x + 2000, respectively, where x is the number of items produced and
sold. How many items must be sold to realise some profit?

3)Find the linear inequalities for which the shaded region in the given figure is the
solution set.

3)The length of a rectangle is three times the breadth. If the minimum perimeter
of the rectangle is 160 cm, then
(A) breadth > 20 cm
(B) length < 20 cm
(C) breadth x ≥ 20 cm
(D) length ≤ 20 cm

4)The water acidity in a pool is considerd normal when the average pH reading of
three daily measurements is between 8.2 and 8.5. If the first two pH readings are
8.48 and 8.35, find the range of pH value for the third reading that will result in
the acidity level being normal.

5)A company manufactures cassettes. Its cost and revenue functions are C(x) =
26,000 + 30x and R(x) = 43x, respectively, where x is the number of cassettes
produced and sold in a week. How many cassettes must be sold by the company to
realise some profit?

6)Solve for x, |x+1| + |x| > 3

Linear inequalities 71
 7). A solution of 9% acid is to be diluted by adding 3% acid solution to it. The
resulting mixture is to be more than 5% but less than 7% acid. If there is 460
litres of the 9% solution, how many litres of 3% solution will have to be added?

8).The longest side of a triangle is twice the shortest side and the third side is
2cm longer than the shortest side. If the perimeter of the triangle is more than
166 cm then find the minimum length of the shortest side.

9).Show that the solution set of the following system of linear inequalities is an
unbounded region 2x + y ≥ 8, x + 2y ≥ 10, x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0

Linear inequalities 72
 Permutations and
6 Combinations

Kya bhai ! Naam sun keh Darr gaya ?

tension nai re bhaiya haina sunn
Permutation: Jab order important ho – kaun
pehle, kaun baad me!
Combination: Bas kaun-kaun hai wo matter
😎
karta hai, order ki chhutti!

Introduction

Permutation refers to the different ways in which a set of objects can be arranged in a
specific order.
In permutations, the order or sequence matters. For example, if you're arranging people in a
line or giving out 1st, 2nd, and 3rd prizes, changing the order gives a different result.
Combination, on the other hand, is all about selecting objects from a group, where the
order doesn't matter.
It’s just about choosing things, not how they are arranged. For example, choosing 3 friends
to form a team – the order in which you pick them doesn’t matter.

In Simple Words:

Permutation = Arrangement with order

Combination = Selection without order

Suppose we are given some alphabets = a, b, c, d, e, f and we

are told to select any
two alphabets. Then we may select alphabets as follows:
Selection : ab, ac, ad, ae, af, bc, bd, be, bf, .......................etc.
Arrangement : ab => ab, ba ; ad => ad, da ; ae => ae, ea ;
abc => abc, bac, bca, cab,.....

Example Dekh

Combinations 73
 (Please note that selection me hum already selected
outcome ko repeat nhi kar sakte jaise hamne 'ab'
select kar liya tha toh abb ham 'ba' nhi select kar
sakte kyuki dono me kuch farak nhi hai).

Aab Samj Yee toh samajh aa gaya bhaiya Yee

ha
haina halw
a? Fundamental Principle of Counting
kya hota hai ?

Fundamental Principle of Counting

If a task is made up of two or more steps, where:

the first step can be done in ‘m’ ways, and
the second step can be done in ‘n’ ways (for every way of doing the first step),
then the total number of ways of completing the task in that order is given by:
m × n
This rule helps us find the total number of outcomes when tasks are performed in sequence.

Ahh.....Bhaiya Example se clear

ho jayega example keh sath samjhado

Ha ha kyu nai example keh sath diagram keh sath bhi

samjhadeta
hu concept fir ek dum makkhan clear ho jayega done ?

Example:
Suppose Mohan has 3 pants and 2 shirts. How many different pairs of a pant and a shirt,
can he dress up with?
Dekho yaha par ek pant ko choose karne ke 3 ways hai kyuki available pants hi 3 hain.
Similarly ek shirt ko choose karne ke 2 ways hain.

Combinations 74
Toh we can say ki pant ki har choice ke liye, shirt ki 2 choices hain..right.
Therefore, by using 'fundamental principle of counting' there are 3 × 2 = 6 pairs of a pant
and a shirt.

(Kyaa aab bhi samajh nai aaya.... toh diagram se samajhte hain ho jayega clear... don't worry)

S1 P1 S 1
P1
S2 P1 S 2

(Pant 1)

S1 P2 S 1
P2
S2 P2 S 2

(Pant 2)

S1 P3 S 1
P3
S2 P3 S 2

(Pant 3)

So, possible no of ways in which mohan can wear 3 pant & 2 shirts = 6 ways

Aab clear ho gaya hoga buttt butt butt !!!

ek aur example se samajhte hai chal

Combinations 75
Example:
Find the number of 4 letter words, which can be formed out of the letters of the word
ROSE, where the repetition of the letters is not allowed.
ANS: The given word is R O S E . Suppose there are 4 vacant boxes which can be filled by
the 4 letters R, O, S, E.

i ii iii iv
4 3 2 1

Here, 1st place can be filled in 4 ways ;

2nd place can be filled in 3 ways ;
3rd place can be filled in 2 ways ;
4th place can be filled in 1 way, keeping in mind that the repetition
is not allowed. So the no of ways in which the 4 places can be filled is 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 =
24.
Hence, the required number of words is 24.

aab ho gaya clearr ek dum perfectttt

!!!

Haa fir sahi hai !! aab niche vala point note kar aur
hum badhte hai Factorial Notation par

If the repetition of the letters was allowed, then

we can observe that each of the 4 vacant boxes
can be filled in 4 different ways.
So, the required number of words = 4 × 4 × 4 ×
4 = 256.

Combinations 76
 Factorial Notation
(Denoted by ! )

“The notation n! (read as 'n factorial') means the product of all natural numbers from n
down to 1.”
For example:

4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24
7! = 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 5040

Note: Instead of writing factorial in ascending order, we usually prefer writing it in

descending order for clarity and consistency.

Aab kuch
महत्वपूर्ण परिणाम pe dhyan dete hai

#IMPORTANT RESULTS
1) Factorial Of 0 is 1 i.e 0! = 1
2) Factorial of 1 is 1 i.e 1! = 1
3) Different ways of writing a given factorial:
6! = 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 and 3! = 3 × 2 × 1
3
6! = 6 × 5 × 4!
6! = 6 × 5 × 4 × 3!
6! = 6 × 5! (IMP RESULTS HAI SAMJHLOO ACHE SE)
3! = 3 × 2!
3! = 3 × 2 × 1

Yee toh samajh aa gaya aab kuch

question kara dete

Donee hai fir

yee lo examples kar lete hai chalo

Combinations 77
 Examples

SAWAAL #1
Evaluate:
Example Dekh
(i) 6! (ii) 5! − 4! (iii) 7! − 6!

Solution:

(i) 6! = 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 720 (ii) 5! − 4! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 − 4 × 3 × 2 ×

1 = 120 − 24 = 96
OR
5! − 4! = 5 × 4! − 4! = 4!(5 − 1) = 4! × 4 = 24 × 4 = 96 (iii) 7! − 6! = 7 × 6! − 6!
= 6!(7 − 1) = 6! × 6 = 720 × 6 = 4320

SAWAAL #2

Is 3! + 4! = 7! ?
Solution : LHS = 3! + 4! RHS= 7!
= 3! + 4 x 3! = 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1
= 3!(1+4) =5040
= 3! x 5
= 3 x 2 x 1 x 5
= 30

Since 30 = 5040 , So 3! + 4! = 7!

SAWAAL #3

Is 2! + 5! = 6!?

Solution : LHS = 2! + 5! RHS = 6!

= 2 × 1 + 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
= 2 + 120 = 720
= 122

Since LHS ≠ RHS, ∴ 2! + 5! ≠ 6!

Combinations 78
 Bhaiya ye toh clear ho gaya abb
permutation ka formula hard lag
raha hai

Donee hai fir

yee lo examples kar lete hai chalo

Permutation Formula
n
Pr = n! , 0 _< r _< n
(n - r)!
Formula ka Funda
where n = total no of objects given
r = no of objects to be arranged at a time.

(*Always remember that permutation formula is applicable

only when the repitition of objects is not allowed).

Note karoo !
SAWAAL #1
How many 3-digit numbers can be formed using the digits 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9 if repetition of
digits is not allowed?

Solution We are to form 3-digit numbers using 6 distinct digits: 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9

Also,
: repetition is not allowed, so once a digit is used, it can't be used again in the same
number.
To form a 3-digit number, we need to select and arrange 3 digits out of the 6.
We use the Permutation Formula:

Combinations 79
 n n!
Pr =
(n - r)!

Here, n=6n = 6n=6 (total digits available) r=3r = 3r=3 (number of digits to be used)

6 6! 6! 720
P = = = = 120
3 (6 - 3)! 3! 6

120 different 3-digit numbers can be formed.

SAWAAL #2
How many 4-digit numbers can be formed by using the digits 1 to 9 when repitition of digits
is not allowed?
Solution:

Here, total no of digits given to us is 9 i.e n = 9

and there are 4-digit numbers to be formed i.e r = 4.
Now, using permutation formula, we have

9
P4 9! 9! 9×8×7×6×5!
= = = = 3024
(9 - 4)! 5! 5!

Hence, total 4-digit numbers that can be formed are 3024.

IMPORTANT RESULTS

When r = n then the permutation formula becomes:

n
Pn = n! n! n!
= = = n!
(n - n)! 0! 1

When r = 0 then the permutation formula becomes:

n n! n!
P0 = =
n!
= 1
(n - 0)!

Combinations 80
 Done hai bhaiyaa permutations toh
clear ho gayaa aab Combination ka
formula karado

Ha chalo formula keh sath uske

example bhi dekhe

Combination Formula

n
n Pr n! n! Formula ka Funda
Cr = = =
r! (n - r)! (n - r)!r!
r!

• n n!
• • Cr =
(n - r)!r!

*Always remember likhne ka matlab hota hai ki hame n

elements me se r ko "arrange" karna hai jabki likhne ka
matlab hame n me se r elements ko "select" karna
hai......Ok hamesha yaad rakhna ye interpretation hai
dono formulas ki.

Note karoo !

Other formulas for combinations:

n n
1) C r = C n-r implies n = r + n - r (Imp hai)

n n n+1
n
Cn =
n
C0 = 1 3) Cr + C r-1 = Cr
2)

Combinations 81
 SAWAAL #1

In how many ways can a team of 2 boys and 4 girls be selected from 6 boys and 5
girls?

Solution :

A team of 2 boys and 4 girls is to be selected from 6 boys and 5 girls.

2 boys can be selected from 6 boys in ⁶C₂ ways.
4 girls can be selected from 5 girls in ⁵C₄ ways.

Therefore, by the Multiplication Principle, the number of ways in which a team of 2 boys
and 4 girls can be selected is:

⁶C₂ × ⁵C₄
Now calculate:
⁶C₂ = 6! / [2!(6 − 2)!]
= (6 × 5) / (2 × 1)
= 30 / 2 = 15

⁵C₄ = 5! / [4!(5 − 4)!]

= (5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1) / (4 × 3 × 2 × 1 × 1)
= 5

So, total ways = 15 × 5 = 75

SAWAAL #2

How many chords can be drawn through 21 points on a circle?

Solution :
For drawing one chord on a circle, only 2 points are required.

Bro, ekdum dhyan se sun—galti ye

hoti hai ki log chord ka matlab
A• •B
21
line samajh ke C2 nahi lagate, bas
count kar dete!

• here n = 21 and r = 2 & we need to find

21
C2 .
••
Combinations 82
 21
C = 21! 21!
2 =
(21-2)! 2! 19! 2!

= 21×20×19! = 21 × 10
19! × 2×1
= 210 Donee yaad rahegaa aab saab
aab example solve karado
bhaiyaa !!

Gajaabb !!

SAWAAL #3

Given 5 flags of different colours, how many different signals can be generated, if a signal
requires the use of 3 flags one below the other?

Solution :
There will be as many signals as there are ways of filling in 3 vacant places in succession
by the 5 flags of different colours.

The topmost place can be filled in 5 different ways by any one of the 5 flags.
The second place can be filled in 4 different ways by any one of the remaining 4 flags.
The bottom place can be filled in 3 different ways by any one of the remaining 3
flags.

Hence, by the Multiplication Principle, the required number of signals

5 × 4 × 3 = 60

Example Dekh
SAWAAL #4
Find the number of different signals that can be generated by arranging at least 2 flags in
order (one below the other) on a vertical staff, if five different flags are available.

Solution :

A signal can consist of either 2 flags, 3 flags, 4 flags or 5 flags. Now, let us count the
possible number of signals consisting of 2 flags, 3 flags, 4 flags and 5 flags separately and
then add the respective numbers. There will be as many 2 flag signals as there are ways of
filling in 2 vacant places in succession by the 5 flags available.

Combinations 83
 A signal can consist of either 2 flags, 3 flags, 4 flags or 5 flags. Now, let us count the
possible number of signals consisting of 2 flags, 3 flags, 4 flags and 5 flags separately and
then add the respective numbers. There will be as many 2 flag signals as there are ways of
filling in 2 vacant places in succession by the 5 flags available.

By Multiplication rule, the number of ways is 5 × 4 = 20. Similarly, there will be as many
3 flag signals as there are ways of filling in 3 vacant places in succession by the 5 flags.

The number of ways is 5 × 4 × 3 = 60.

Continuing the same way, we find that
The number of 4 flag signals = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 = 120
and the number of 5 flag signals = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120
Therefore, the required no of signals = 20 + 60 + 120 + 120 = 320.

SAWAAL #5

Evaluate: (i) 6! (ii) 4! (iii) 6! – 4!

Solution :
(i) 6! = 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 720 (ii) 4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24 (iii) 6! – 4!
= 720 – 24 = 696
OR
6! – 4! = 6 × 5 × 4! – 4! = 4!(30 – 1) = 4! × 29 = 24 × 29 = 696

SAWAAL #6

Find the number of different 8-letter arrangements that can be made from the letters of
the word DAUGHTER so that
(i) all vowels occur together (ii) all vowels do not occur together.

Solution :

(i) There are 8 different letters in the word DAUGHTER, in which there are 3 vowels,
namely, A, U and E. Since the vowels have to occur together, we can for the time being,
assume them as a single object (AUE). This single object together with 5 remaining letters
(objects) will be counted as 6 objects. Then we count permutations of these 6 objects taken
all at a time. This number would be P = 6!. Corresponding to each of these permutations, we
shall have 3! permutations of the three vowels A, U, E taken all at a time . Hence, by the
multiplication principle the required number of permutations = 6 ! × 3 ! = 4320.

Combinations 84
(ii) If we have to count those permutations in which all vowels are never together, we first
have to find all possible arrangements of 8 letters taken all at a time, which can be done in
8! ways. Then, we have to subtract from this number, the number of permutations in which
the vowels are always together. Therefore, the required number 8 ! – 6 ! × 3 ! = 6 ! (7×8 –
6)
= 2 × 6 ! (28 – 3)

= 50 × 6 ! = 50 × 720 = 36000

SAWAAL #6
Find the 3-digit numbers that can be formed from the given digits: 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
assuming that
a) digits can be repeated.
b) digits are not allowed to be repeated.
Solution :
a) By the multiplication principle, the number of ways in which three-digit numbers can be
formed from the given digits is 5 × 5 × 5 = 125
b) By the multiplication principle, the number of ways in which three-digit numbers can be
formed without repeating the given digits is 5 × 4 × 3 = 60

SAWAAL #7

Find the number of 6 digit numbers that can be formed by using the digits 0, 1, 3, 5, 7, and
9. These digits shall be divisible by 10, and no digit shall be repeated?
Solution :
The number which has a 0 in its units place is divisible by 10.
If we put 0 in the unit place, _ _ _ _ 0, there will be as many ways to fill 5 vacant places.
(1, 3, 5, 7, 9)
The five vacant places can be filled in 5! ways = 120

SAWAAL #8

Evaluate: 10! – 6!
Solution :

Combinations 85
10! = 10 x 9 x 8 x 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x1 = 3628800
6! = 6 X 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 720
10! – 6! = 3628800 – 720 = 3628080

Combinations 86
 IST ( It’s a sawal time)
1) In a class, there are 27 boys and 14 girls. The teacher wants to select 1 boy and
1 girl to represent the class for a function. In how many ways can the teacher
make this selection?

2)(i) How many numbers are there between 99 and 1000 having 7 in the units
place?
(ii) How many numbers are there between 99 and 1000 having atleast one of their
digits 7?

3)In how many ways can this diagram be coloured subject to the following two
conditions?
(i) Each of the smaller triangle is to be painted with one of three colours: red, blue
or green.
(ii) No two adjacent regions have the same colour

4)In how many ways can 5 children be arranged in a line such that
(i) two particular children of them are always together
(ii) two particular children of them are never together.

5) If all permutations of the letters of the word AGAIN are arranged in the order
as in a dictionary. What is the 49th word?

6)In how many ways 3 mathematics books, 4 history books, 3 chemistry books and
2 biology books can be arranged on a shelf so that all books of the same subjects
are together.

Combinations 87
 7) Three married couples are to be seated in a row having six seats in a cinema
hall. If spouses are to be seated next to each other, in how many ways can they
be seated? Find also the number of ways of their seating if all the ladies sit
together.

8) A boy has 3 library tickets and 8 books of his interest in the library. Of these
8, he does not want to borrow Mathematics Part II, unless Mathematics Part I is
also borrowed. In how many ways can he choose the three books to be borrowed?

9) There are four bus routes between A and B; and three bus routes between B
and C. A man can travel round-trip in number of ways by bus from A to C via B. If
he does not want to use a bus route more than once, in how many ways can he
make round trip?
(A) 72
(B) 144
(C) 14
(D) 19

10) In how many ways a committee consisting of 3 men and 2 women, can be
chosen from 7 men and 5 women?
(A) 45
(B) 350
(C) 4200
(D) 230

Combinations 88
 7 Binomial Theorem

Bro, jab koi algebraic expression me sirf 2

terms hoti hain, usko bolte hain Binomial.
Aur jab power high ho jaye na, toh usko
expand karne ka jugad hota hai Binomial
Theorem—bas ek shortcut samajh lo, jisse
bade powers ko chill mein tod sakte hain!

Introduction
Any algebraic expression with just two terms like (x + y), (a + b), etc., is called a
Binomial Expression.
Now when the powers are small (like 2, 3, or 4), we can easily expand them using
identities:

(x + y)⁰ = 1
(x + y)¹ = x + y
(x + y)² = x² + 2xy + y²
(x + y)³ = x³ + 3x²y + 3xy² + y³
(x + y)⁴ = x⁴ + 4x³y + 6x²y² + 4xy³ + y⁴

But bro, when powers get super high (like 10, 15, 20), expanding them becomes crazy long
and full of huge calculations.
That’s where the Binomial Theorem steps in.
It gives us a smart shortcut to expand expressions like (x + y)ⁿ without doing all the
manual multiplying.
So yeah—Binomial Theorem = big brain move for big powers

Observation
In the above expansions, observe karo
(i) Total no of terms in the expansion is one more than the power/index of (x + y).
For e.g. in the expansion of (x + y) , no of terms is 3 whereas the power of (x + y)
is 2.

Binomial Theorem 89
(ii) Power of 'X' keep on decreasing by 1 whereas power of 'y' keep on increasing by 1.

(iii) In each term of the expansion, the sum of the power of x and y is same and is equal
to the power of (x + y).

*ye observations kafi important

hain theorem samajhne ke liye bhi
dhyan rakhni hain..ok!

We now arrange the coefficients in these expansions as follows:

Index Coefficients
0 1

1 1 1

2 1 2 1

3 1 3 3 1

4 1 4 6 4 1

5 1 5 10 10 5 1

*kya tum iss table me koi pattern observe

kar pa rahe ho jo hame next row likhne me
help kar sake?

Pehla toh ye ki 1 is present at the beginning and at the end of each row.

Aur baki elements ke liye upar wali row ke 2 elements add karo(red se karke dikhaya
hai....right. Toh batao power 5 ke liye kya coefficients aayenge? Dekho yahi honge na...

5 1 5 10 10 5 1
Now to directly write the formula of (x + y) we will use these coefficients and our
observations (i) to (iii)

Binomial Theorem 90
 (x + y)⁵ = x⁵ + 5x⁴y + 10x³y² + 10x²y³ + 5xy⁴ + y⁵

Ye toh samajh aa gaya aur basics bhi clear

ho gayee but,.....
ye Pascal Triangle kya hota hai aab??......

Pascal Triangle

Pascal's Triangle is a special triangular arrangement of numbers where each number is the
sum of the two numbers directly above it. The triangle starts with 1 at the top, and each
row represents the coefficients in the expansion of a binomial expression like (x+y)^n (x +
y)^n(x+y)^n, where n is the row number starting from 0.
The structure looks like a triangle with 1 at the top and then grows wider with each new
row, where:

The outermost numbers on each side of the triangle are always 1.

Every inner number is the sum of the two numbers above it from the previous row.

Named after the French mathematician Blaise Pascal, although it was studied by
mathematicians in India, Iran, and China centuries earlier, this triangle is not just useful for
binomial expansion, but also plays a big role in combinatorics, algebra, and probability.

Now, suppose agar hame (x + y) ka expansion find karna hai, toh kya ham pehle 0 se 11 tak
ke saare coefficients likhenge? Par ye ek slightly lengthy process ho jayega.

Isiliye hame ek aisa rule chahiye jo hame help kare kisi bhi power ka binomial expansion
likhne me without writing all the rows that comes before the row of the
desired index.
"And wo rule hame milega by using the concept of combinations studied in last
chapter".

Interesting Properties of Pascal’s Triangle:

Symmetrical: Each row reads the same forwards and backwards. Gajaabb !!
Sum of Row: Sum of the numbers in the nth row is 2n2^n2n.
For example, Row 3: 1+3+3+1=8=231 + 3 + 3 + 1 = 8 = 2^31+3+3+1=8=23
Fibonacci Sequence: If you add the diagonals, you’ll get Fibonacci numbers!
Combinations: Each element in the triangle is a combination:

Binomial Theorem 91
Combination formulas:
n n! n n
(5)
n
C1 = n
(1) Cr = (3) C0 = C n = 1
(n - r)! r!

n n n
(2) Cr = C n-r (4) C n-1 = n

Index Coefficients
0 0
C0
1 1 1
C0 C1
C2
2 2
C0 C1
2 2

C3
3

3 C0
3 3
C1 3
C2
4 C3 C4
4

4 C0 C1
4
C2
4 4

Binomial theorem for any positive integer n

n
n
Σ ( )
n n-r r
(x + y) = x y
r = 0 r

*haan toh bhayi yahi hai binomial theorem ka formula, questions karte karte learn ho
jayega ratne ki jarurat nhi hai...OK!

Binomial Theorem 92
 SAWAAL #1

Expand the following expressions:

(i) (2x + 1)³ (ii) (x - 4)³ (iii) (5x - 2)³ (iv) (x − 2)⁴

Solution :
(i)
Using the Binomial Theorem:
(2x + 1)³ = (2x)³ + 3(2x)²(1) + 3(2x)(1)² + (1)³
= 8x³ + 12x² + 6x + 1
(ii)
Using the Binomial Theorem:
(x - 4)³ = (x)³ + 3(x)²(-4) + 3(x)(-4)² + (-4)³
= x³ - 12x² + 48x - 64

(iii)
Using the Binomial Theorem:
(5x - 2)³ = (5x)³ + 3(5x)²(-2) + 3(5x)(-2)² + (-2)³ Yeh badhiya tha
= 125x³ - 150x² + 60x - 8 guru

(iv)
Using the Binomial Theorem:
(x − 2)⁴ = x⁴ - 4×2×x³ + 6×(2)² × x² - 4×(2)³ × x +
(2)⁴
= x⁴ - 8x³ + 24x² - 32x + 16

SAWAAL #2
17ⁿ − 8n − 9 is divisible by 64 for all positive integers n.
In other words, demonstrate that for every natural number n ≥ 1, the quantity 17 raised to
the power n minus 8 times n minus 9 is a multiple of 64.
Solution :

LHS = 17¹ - 8×1 - 9 = 17 - 8 - 9 = 0

0 is divisible by 64.
Base case is true.

Binomial Theorem 93
Assume for some k ≥ 1,
17ᵏ - 8k - 9 is divisible by 64
⇒ 17ᵏ = 8k + 9 (mod 64) — (Assumption)
Bada khatarnak sawal hai
We must prove:
bhaiya ye tohhh !!
17ᵏ⁺¹ - 8(k+1) - 9 is divisible by 64
par aasam thaa samajh a gaya
Now,
17ᵏ⁺¹ = 17 × 17ᵏ
Using the assumption:
17ᵏ = 8k + 9 (mod 64)
So, Haa dikhne me khatarnak hai
1-2 bar practice karne se
17ᵏ⁺¹ = 17 × (8k + 9)
sikh jaogee
= 136k + 153
Now simplify mod 64:
136k = 8k (mod 64) [since 136 ≡ 8 mod 64]
153 = 9 (mod 64) [because 153 - 64×2 = 153 - 128 = 25, and 25 = 9 under base
assumption]
So,
17ᵏ⁺¹ = 8k + 9 = 8(k + 1) + 9 (mod 64)
Hence,
17ᵏ⁺¹ - 8(k + 1) - 9 = 0 (mod 64)

So, the result holds for k+1

Important hai bhaii

SAWAAL #3

Find an approximation of (0.99)^5 using the first three terms of its expansion.
Solution :
We can write:
(0.99)⁵ = (1 - 0.01)⁵
Let x = -0.01 and n = 5

Using Binomial Theorem:

(1 + x)ⁿ = 1 + n·x + n(n - 1)/2! · x² + ...

Taking first three terms:

(1 - 0.01)⁵ ≈ 1 + 5(−0.01) + 5·4/2 · (−0.01)²

Binomial Theorem 94
 = 1 − 0.05 + 10 · 0.0001
= 1 − 0.05 + 0.001
= 0.951

Final Answer:
(0.99)⁵ ≈ 0.951
chal chote thakna
nai hai
SAWAAL #4

Find (a + b)^7 – (a – b)^7 . Hence, evaluate same copy paste privous output format
Solution :
Using Binomial expansion:
(a + b)⁷ =
a⁷ + 7a⁶b + 21a⁵b² + 35a⁴b³ + 35a³b⁴ + 21a²b⁵ + 7ab⁶ + b⁷
(a − b)⁷ =
a⁷ − 7a⁶b + 21a⁵b² − 35a⁴b³ + 35a³b⁴ − 21a²b⁵ + 7ab⁶ − b⁷

Now subtract:
(a + b)⁷ − (a − b)⁷ =
(a⁷ − a⁷) + (7a⁶b + 7a⁶b) + (21a⁵b² − 21a⁵b²) + (35a⁴b³ + 35a⁴b³)
(35a³b⁴ − 35a³b⁴) + (21a²b⁵ + 21a²b⁵) + (7ab⁶ + 7ab⁶) + (b⁷ − (−b⁷))
= 14a⁶b + 70a⁴b³ + 42a²b⁵ + 2b⁷

Final Answer:
(a + b)⁷ − (a − b)⁷ = 14a⁶b + 70a⁴b³ + 42a²b⁵ + 2b⁷

SAWAAL #5

Using the Binomial Theorem, indicate which number is larger (1.05) 10000or 1000.
Solution :
We need to find out which is larger: (1.05)¹⁰⁰⁰⁰ or 1000.
We can approximate (1.05)¹⁰⁰⁰⁰ using the Binomial expansion for small values of x, where
1.05 can be written as 1 + 0.05. Thus:
(1 + 0.05)¹⁰⁰⁰⁰ =
Using Binomial expansion,
(1 + x)^n = 1 + nx + (n(n-1)/2!)x² + (n(n-1)(n-2)/3!)x³ + ...
For (1 + 0.05)¹⁰⁰⁰⁰, we only take the first few terms to approximate:
(1 + 0.05)¹⁰⁰⁰⁰ ≈ 1 + 10000(0.05) + (10000×9999/2)(0.05)²

Binomial Theorem 95
 Now calculate each term:
First term: 1
Second term: 10000 × 0.05 = 500
Third term: (10000×9999/2)(0.05)² = 49995000 × 0.0025 ≈ 124987.5
Thus,
(1 + 0.05)¹⁰⁰⁰⁰ ≈ 1 + 500 + 124987.5 ≈ 125488.5
Now compare this with 1000:
125488.5 is much larger than 1000.

Final Answer:
(1.05)¹⁰⁰⁰⁰ is significantly larger than 1000.

SAWAAL #6
Expand the expression (2x-3)6 using the binomial theorem.
Solution :
Given Expression: (2x-3)6
By using the binomial theorem, the expression (2x-3)6 can be expanded as follows:
(2x-3)6 = 6C0(2x)6 –6C1(2x)5(3) + 6C2(2x)4(3)2 – 6C3(2x)3(3)3 + 6C4(2x)2(3)4 – 6C5(2x)
(3)5 + 6C6(3)6
(2x-3)6 = 64x6 – 6(32x5 )(3) +15(16x4 )(9) – 20(8x3 )(27) +15(4x2 )(81) – 6(2x)
(243) + 729
(2x-3)6 = 64x6 -576x5 + 2160x4 – 4320x3 + 4860x2 – 2916x + 729
Thus, the binomial expansion for the given expression (2x-3)6 is 64x6 -576x5 + 2160x4 –
4320x3 + 4860x2 – 2916x + 729.
Question 2:

SAWAAL #6

Evaluate (101)4 using the binomial theorem

Solution :
Given: (101)4.
Here, 101 can be written as the sum or the difference of two numbers, such that the
binomial theorem can be applied.
Therefore, 101 = 100+1
Hence, (101)4 = (100+1)4

Binomial Theorem 96
Now, by applying the binomial theorem, we get:
(101)4 = (100+1)4 = 4C0(100)4 +4C1 (100)3(1) + 4C2(100)2(1)2 +4C3(100)(1)3 +4C4(1)4
(101)4 = (100)4+4(100)3+6(100)2+4(100) + (1)4
(101)4 = 100000000+ 4000000+ 60000+ 400+1
(101)4 = 104060401
Hence, the value of (101)4 is 104060401.

SAWAAL #7

Using the binomial theorem, show that 6n–5n always leaves remainder 1 when divided by 25
Solution :
Assume that, for any two numbers, say x and y, we can find numbers q and r such that x =
yq + r, then we say that b divides x with q as quotient and r as remainder. Thus, in order to
show that 6n – 5n leaves remainder 1 when divided by 25, we should prove that 6n – 5n =
25k + 1, where k is some natural number.
We know that,
(1 + a)n = nC0 + nC1 a + nC2 a2 + … + nCn an
Now for a=5, we get:
(1 + 5)n = nC0 + nC1 5 + nC2 (5)2 + … + nCn 5n
Now the above form can be weitten as:
6n = 1 + 5n + 52 nC2 + 53 nC3+ ….+ 5n
Now, bring 5n to the L.H.S, we get
6n – 5n = 1 + 52 nC2 + 53 nC3+ ….+ 5n
6n – 5n = 1 + 52 (nC2 + 5 nC3+ ….+ 5n-2)
6n – 5n = 1 + 25 (nC2 + 5 nC3+ ….+ 5n-2)
6n – 5n = 1 + 25 k (where k =nC2 + 5 nC3+ ….+ 5n-2)
The above form proves that, when 6n–5n is divided by 25, it leaves the remainder 1.
Hence, the given statement is proved.

SAWAAL #8

Find the value of r, If the coefficients of (r – 5)th and (2r – 1)th terms in the expansion of
(1 + x)34 are equal.
Solution :

Binomial Theorem 97
For the given condition, the coefficients of (r – 5)th and (2r – 1)th terms of the expansion
(1 + x)34 are 34Cr-6 and 34C2r-2 respectively.
Since the given terms in the expansion are equal,
34Cr-6 = 34C2r-2

From this, we can write it as either

r-6=2r-2
(or)
r-6=34 -(2r-2) [We know that, if nCr = nCp , then either r = p or r = n – p]
So, we get either r = – 4 or r = 14.
We know that r being a natural number, the value of r = – 4 is not possible.
Hence, the value of r is14.

Binomial Theorem 98
 IST ( It’s a sawal time)

1) Find the middle term in the expansion of

2)Find the value of r, if the coefficients of (2r + 4)th and (r – 2)th terms in the
expansion of (1 + x) 18 are equal.

3)If the coefficient of second, third and fourth terms in the expansion of (1 + x)
2n are in A.P. Show that 2n 2 – 9n + 7 = 0.

4). Number of terms in the expansion of (a + b) n where n ∈ N is one less than

the power n.

11
5)Find the coefficient of x 4 in the expansion of (1 + x + x 2 + x 3 )
100 100
6)The total number of terms in the expansion of (x + a) + (x – a) after
simplification is
(A) 50
(B) 202
(C) 51
(D) none of these

Binomial Theorem 99
 Sequences &
8 Series

Sequence: Bhai, numbers line se ek pattern

mein chal rahe hain — bas wohi sequence
hai. Jaise 2, 4, 6, 8...
Series: Sequence ke numbers ko jod do woh
ho gaya series. Jaise 2 + 4 + 6 = 12

Introduction
Sequence:
A sequence is an ordered list of numbers that follow a certain pattern or rule. Each number
in the sequence is called a term.
Example:
2, 4, 6, 8, 10, ...
This is a sequence where each term increases by 2 (called a common difference in
arithmetic sequences).
There are different types of sequences:
[Link] Sequence (AP) – The difference between consecutive terms is constant.
2. Example: 3, 6, 9, 12 (Common difference = 3)
[Link] Sequence (GP) – Each term is multiplied by a fixed number (common ratio).
4. Example: 2, 4, 8, 16 (Common ratio = 2)
[Link] Sequence – Each term is the sum of the two previous terms.
6. Example: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, ...
A sequence can be finite (limited number of terms) or infinite (goes on forever).
Series :
A series is the sum of the terms in a sequence.
Example:
Sequence: 2, 4, 6
Series: 2 + 4 + 6 = 12
There are two types of series:
[Link] Series – Sum of a limited number of terms.
[Link] Series – Sum continues endlessly (usually used in higher math with limits).

Sequences & Series 100

Types of Sequence

(i) Finite Sequence : A sequence containing finite number of terms is called a finite
sequence.
For e.g : 5, 10, 15, 20, 25.
(ii) Infinite Sequence : A sequence is called infinite, if it is not a finite sequence.
For e.g : 2, 4, 6, 8,...

SEQUENCE

Arithmetic Geometric Harmonic

Progression Progression Progression
(A.P) (G.P) (H.P)
*not in syllabus *not in syllabus

1) AP : An arithmetic progression is a sequence of numbers such that the difference

between two consecutive terms is constant or same.
For e.g. 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24 is in A.P having common difference, d = 4.

2) GP : If the ratio of any two consecutive terms in a sequence is same, then it is

called geometric progression.
For e.g. 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64,... is a G.P having common ratio, r = 2.

2) HP : If the reciprocal of the terms of a sequence are in A.P, then that sequence is
called Harmonic Progression.
For e.g. 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 ,... is a harmonic progression.
- - -
4 7 10

What is a Series ?

Important hai bhaii

Sequences & Series 101

 n
an = a 1 + a2 + a3 + a4 ...... an
n=1
This is sigma notation (Σ), which is used to represent the sum of a sequence.
The symbol ∑ is the Greek letter Sigma, which means "sum".
n = 1 to n means you're summing from the 1st term to the nth term.
​an represents the nth term of the sequence.
Let a , a , a ,.........a , be a sequence. Then the expression

is called the series associated with the given *matlab dono me difference sirf ye
hai ki sequences me ham
sequence. Like Sequences, series can
commas(,) lagate hain jabki series
also be finite or infinite. me ham plus(+) sign lagate hain
1, 2, 3, 4, 5 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 baki sab same hai.........ok!
3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18 3 + 6 + 9 + 12 + 15 + 18

General Term /Nth term

The n term is the number at the n position of the sequence and is denoted by a . The n
term is also called the general term of the sequence.
Consider a sequence 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
here a1 = 1, a2 = 2, a3 = 3, a4 = 4, a5 = 5, a6 = 6.
we can write the n term of this sequence as a = n, where n is a natural number.

Write the first five terms of the following sentences whose n terms are given:
n
(i) a = n (n + 2) (ii) a = 2
n n

(i) Substituting n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 in a n ,we get

a 1 = 1(1 + 2) = 1 × 3 = 3 a2 = 2(2 + 2) = 2 × 4 = 8
a 3 = 3(3 + 2) = 3 × 5 = 15 a 4 = 4(4 + 2) = 4 × 6 = 24
a = 5(5 + 2) = 5 × 7 = 35
5

Therefore, the required terms are 3, 8, 15, 24 and 35.

(ii) Substituting n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 in a , we get

Sequences & Series 102

 1 2
a = 2 = 2 a = 2 = 4
3 4
a = 2 = 8 a = 2 = 16
5
a = 2 = 32

Therefore, the required terms are 2, 4, 8, 16 and 32.

Arithemetic Mean
The Arithmetic Mean is a concept from mathematics that represents the central value or
average of a set of numbers. It is one of the most commonly used types of averages in
statistics and mathematics.

Arithmetic Mean gives you an idea of the "typical" value in a set of numbers. It’s the value
where, if all data points were the same, that same value could replace every number in the
set without changing the total.
It balances all the values in the dataset. Think of it as the "equally distributed" value for
all items.

To calculate the arithmetic mean, you consider the sum of all the values and then divide it
by the number of values.

Given two numbers a and b. We can insert a number A between them so that a, A, b is an
A.P. Such a number A is called the 'arithmetic mean' (A.M.) of the numbers a and b.
i.e.,
a + b
A =
2
(dekho yaar tum A.M. ka matlab ek tarah se number a and b ka average bhi samjh
sakte ho)

SAWAAL #2

Consider an A.P : 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16,... Now if we take any three consecutive terms
from this A.P then the mean of 1st & 3rd term is always equal to the 2nd term. Supoose
we take the three terms 6, 8, 10 and will try to verify above rule.
Solution :
6 + 10 16 8 which is equal to middle term of above three
A.M = = =
2 2 numbers

Sequences & Series 103

Geometric Progression (G.P.)
A sequence a , a , a , ..., a ,... is called geometric progression, if each term is non-zero and
the ratio between any two consecutive terms is constant or same.
By letting a = a, we obtain a geometric progression, a, ar, ar , ar ,....., where a is called
the 'first term' and r is called the 'common ratio' of the G.P.

A Geometric Progression is a sequence of numbers where each term (after the first) is
obtained by multiplying the previous term by a fixed non-zero number. This fixed number is
known as the common ratio.

Unlike Arithmetic Progression (where the difference between terms is constant), in G.P., the
focus is on multiplication — each term is scaled from the previous one using a ratio, not a
difference.
This makes G.P. exponential in nature — it grows or decays faster than arithmetic sequences.

Multiplicative Pattern:
Each term is obtained by multiplying the previous one by the same constant.
Constant Ratio:
The ratio between any two consecutive terms is always the same.

General term / n term of a G.P.

The general term or the n term of a G.P. with first term 'a' and common ratio 'r' given by
the following formula:
a n = arn-1
Thus, a G.P can be written as a, ar, ar , ar , ... ar ; a, ar, ar ,..., ar .....; according
as G.P. is finite or infinite, respectively.
The series a + ar + ar + ... + ar or a + ar + ar +... + ar +... are called finite
or infinite geometric series, respectively.

Sum to n terms of a G.P

Let the first term of a G.P be a and the common ratio be r. Let us denote by the
sum to n terms of G.P. Then

S n = a + ar + ar +... + ar n-1 the sum to n terms is given by

2

Sequences & Series 104

 n
Sn = a(1-r ) When r < 1
1 - r
Bhaiyaa thode case based -
n
situation wale sawal karadoo vo
Sn = a(r -1) When r > 1
r - 1 bade puch te hai exam hai

SAWAAL #2
A total of 150 workers were hired to finish a job in a specific number of days. Four workers
dropped out on the second day, four more dropped out on the third day, and so on. Determine
the number of days it took to complete the task and the number of days it took to complete
the work.
Solution :
A = 150, d = -4
Sn= n2[2×150+(n−1)(−4)]
If the total number of workers who worked for the entire n days was 150, (n – 8)
∴n2[300 + (n – 1)( – 4)] = 150(n – 8) (n – 8)
⇒n = 25
Prove that the sum of n terms of the series 11 + 10^3 + 100^5 + …..is10/9(10^n – 1) + n^2.
Ans: Here, using the formula,

Sn = 11 + 10^3 + 100^5 + …… + n terms

Sn = (10 + 1) + (10^2 + 3) + (10^3 + 5) + …. + (10^n+(2^n – 1))
Sn = 10(10^n – 1)10 – 1 + n^2(1 + 2^n – 1)

=10/9(10^n – 1) + n^2

SAWAAL #3
If the sum of two numbers is 6 times their geometric mean, show that the numbers are in
the ratio 3+32–√):(3−22–√) .
Solution :
A1. a + b = 6ab−−√
a + b2ab−−√=31
By C and D, we get,
a + b + 2ab−−√a + b – 2ab−−√=3+13−1
⇒(a–√ + b−−√)2(a–√ – b−−√)2 = 21
⇒a–√ + b−−√a–√ – b−−√ = 2–√1
Again by C and D, we get,

Sequences & Series 105

 a–√ + b−−√ + a–√ – b−−√a–√ + b−−√−a–√+b−−√=2–√+12–√−1
⇒2a–√2b−−√=2–√+12–√−1
⇒a/b = (2–√ + 1)2(2–√ – 1)2 (Squaring Both Sides)
⇒a/b = 2+1+22–√2+1−22–√
⇒a/b = 3+22–√3−22–√
⇒a:b = (3 + 22–√):(3 – 22–√)

SAWAAL #4

Show that the sum of the first n terms of the series 11 + 103 + 1005 + ….. equals 109 (10n
– 1) + n2.
Solution :

Sn = 11 + 103 + 1005 + …… + n terms

Sn = (10 + 1) + (102 + 3) + (103 + 5) + …. + (10n+(2n – 1))
Sn = 10(10n – 1)10 – 1 + n2(1 + 2n – 1)
=109(10n – 1) + n2

SAWAAL #5
A person has 2 parents, 4 grandparents, 8 great grandparents, and so on. Find the number of
his ancestors during the ten generations preceding his own.

Solution :
Here a = 2, r = 2 and n = 10

Using the sum formula

a(r n - 1)
S
n = (r - 1)

S =2(2 – 1) = 2046
10

We have, Hence, the number of ancestors preceding the person is 2046.

SAWAAL #6

A man saved Rs. 66000 in 20 years. In each succeeding year after the first year, he
saved Rs. 200 more than what he saved in the previous year. How much did he save in
the first year?

Sequences & Series 106

 Let us assume that the man saved Rs.a in the first year.
In each succeeding year, an increment of Rs. 200 is made. So, it forms an A.P. whose
First term = a, Common difference, d = 200 and n=20

∴ S20 = 20 [2a + (20-1)d]

2

6600 = 2a + 19 x 200 => 2a = 2800

∴ a = 1400

Yeh badhiya tha

guru
SAWAAL #7
A carpenter was hired to build 192 window frames. The first day he made five frames and
each day, thereafter he made two more frames than he made the day before. How many
days did it take him to finish the job?
Solution :

Let the carpenter Finish the job in n days

The S n = 192

n n
=> 192 = -2 [2a + (n-1)d] => 192 = -2 [2 x 5 + (n-1)2]

=> 192 = n [5+n-1] => n2 + 4n -192 = 0 => (n-12)(n+16)=0

∴ n = 12

SAWAAL #8
The sums of n terms of two arithmetic progressions are in the ratio 5n+4: 9n+6. Find the
ratio of their 18th terms.
Solution :

Let a1, a2 and d1, d2 be the first term and the common difference of the first and second
arithmetic progression respectively.
Then,

Sequences & Series 107

(Sum of n terms of the first A.P)/(Sum of n terms of the second A.P) = (5n+4)/(9n+6)
⇒ [ (n/2)[2a1+ (n-1)d1]]/ [(n/2)[2a2+ (n-1)d2]]= (5n+4)/(9n+6)
Cancel out (n/2) both numerator and denominator on L.H.S
⇒[2a1+ (n-1)d1]/[2a2+ (n-1)d2]= (5n+4)/(9n+6) …(1)
Now susbtitute n= 35 in equation (1), {Since (n-1)/2 = 17}
Then equation (1) becomes
⇒[2a1+ 34d1]/[2a2+ 34d2]= (5(35)+4)/(9(35+6)
⇒[a1+ 17d1]/[a2+ 17d2]= 179/321 …(2)

Now, we can say that.

18th term of first AP/ 18th term of second AP = [a1+ 17d1]/[a2+ 17d2]….(3)
Now, from (2) and (3), we can say that,
18th term of first AP/ 18th term of second AP = 179/321
Hence, the ratio of the 18th terms of both the AP’s is 179:321

SAWAAL #9

Insert five numbers between 8 and 26 such that resulting sequence is an A.P.
Solution :
Assume that A1, A2, A3, A4, and A5 are the five numbers between 8 and 26, such that the
sequence of an A.P becomes 8, A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, 26
Here, a= 8, l =26, n= 5
Therefore, 26= 8+(7-1)d
Hence it becomes,
26 = 8+6d
6d = 26-8 = 18
6d= 18
d = 3
A1= a+d = 8+ 3 =11
A2= a+2d = 8+ 2(3) =8+6 = 14
A3= a+3d = 8+ 3(3) =8+9 = 17
A4= a+4d = 8+ 4(3) =8+12 = 20
A5= a+5d = 8+ 5(3) =8+15 = 23
Hence, the required five numbers between the number 8 and 26 are 11, 14, 17, 20, 23.

Sequences & Series 108

 SAWAAL #10

The 5th, 8th, and 11th terms of a GP are p, q and s respectively. Prove that q2 = ps
Solution :
Given that:
5th term = P
8th term = q
11th term = s
To prove that: q2 = ps
By using the above information, we can write the equation as:
a5 = ar5-1 = ar4 = p ….(1)
a8 = ar8-1 = ar7 = q ….(2)
a11 = ar11-1 = ar10 =s …(3)
Divide the equation (2) by (1), we get
r3 = q/p …(4)
Divide the equation (3) by (2), we get
r3 = s/q …(5)
Now, equate the equation (4) and (5), we get
q/p = s/q
It becomes, q2 = ps
Hence proved.

Sequences & Series 109

 IST ( It’s a sawal time)

1) If there are (2n + 1) terms in an A.P., then prove that the ratio of the sum of
odd terms and the sum of even terms is (n + 1) : n

2) At the end of each year the value of a certain machine has depreciated by
20% of its value at the beginning of that year. If its initial value was Rs 1250, find
the value at the end of 5 years.

3)The product of three numbers in A.P. is 224, and the largest number is 7 times
the smallest. Find the numbers.

4)(i) If a, b, c, d are four distinct positive quantities in A.P., then show that bc >
ad
(ii) If a, b, c, d are four distinct positive quantities in G.P., then show that a + d
>b+c

5) A sequence may be defined as a

(A) relation, whose range ⊆ N (natural numbers)
(B) function whose range ⊆ N
(C) function whose domain ⊆ N
(D) progression having real values

6) In a G.P. of positive terms, if any term is equal to the sum of the next two
terms. Then the common ratio of the G.P. is
(A) sin 18°
(B) 2 cos18°
(C) cos 18°
(D) 2 sin 18°

7) A side of an equilateral triangle is 20cm long. A second equilateral triangle is

inscribed in it by joining the mid points of the sides of the first triangle. The
process is continued as shown in the accompanying diagram. Find the perimeter of
the sixth inscribed equilateral triangle.

Sequences & Series 110

 Straight Line
9

Bhai, ek aisi line jo seedha chalta jaaye

bina mude — wohi hota hai straight line.
Plane pe do point mila do aur jo direct line
banti hai na, wohi straight line hai. Maths
mein uski equation se pata chalta hai ki
line kahan se kahan tak jaa rahi hai.

Introduction
A straight line is the shortest path between any two points in a plane. In coordinate
geometry, a straight line is a set of points that extends infinitely in both directions with a
constant direction — meaning, it does not curve, bend, or change slope.

A straight line is one-dimensional and infinitely long.

It divides the plane into two regions.
All the points on a straight line satisfy its equation.

Slope (m):
Measures the angle or steepness of the line. It’s calculated as the change in yyy over the
change in xxx between any two points.
Intercepts:
Y-intercept (c): Where the line touches the y-axis (when x=0x = 0x=0).
X-intercept: The value of xxx when y=0y = 0y=0.
Angle Between Lines:
The angle between two lines can be calculated using the tangent of the difference of their
slopes.
Point-Slope and Two-Point Form:
There are multiple ways to express the equation of a line depending on the given
information (slope & point, two points, etc.).

Properties of straight lines

Straight Line 111

 One-dimensional
Both ends extend in two directions forever
Makes a 180-degree angle when drawing an angle arc from one point to another

Important Formula
Distance between the points P (x , y ) and Q (x , y ) is

The coordinates of a point dividing the line segment joining the points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 ,
y ) internally, in the ratio m: n are
2

In particular, if m = n, the coordinates of the mid-point of the line segment joining

the points (x , y ) and (x , y ) are
1 1 2 2

Area of the triangle whose vertices are (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ) and (x3 , y3 ) is

Straight Line 112

 yaar ye kitne sare formula
yaad karne padte haiiii !!!
haa parr practice keh sath saab
ho jayegaa
tension naiii !!

Slope of a straight line

The inclination of angle θ to a line with a positive direction of
X-axis in the anti-clockwise direction, the tangent of angle θ is said to be slope or
gradient of the line and is denoted by m.
i.e. m = tan θ , θ ≠ 90°

Slope of a line when coordinates of any two points on the line are given:
When angle θ is acute:

∠MPQ =θ.
Therefore, slope of line l = m = tan θ.
1
y2 - y1
But in ∆MPQ, we have tanθ = x2 - x

When angle θ is obtuse:

Straight Line 113

 ∠MPQ = 180° – θ.
Therefore, θ = 180° – ∠MPQ
slope of the line l
m= tan θ
y2 - y1
= tan ( 180° – ∠MPQ) = – tan ∠MPQ =
x2 - x

Conditions for parallelism and perpendicularity of lines in terms of their slopes:

If the line l1 is parallel to l2 then their inclinations are equal, i.e.,

α = β, and hence, tan α = tan β
Therefore m1 = m2 , i.e., their slopes are equal.

Straight Line 114

 If the lines l1 and l2 are perpendicular, then β = α + 90°. Therefore, tan β = tan (α + 90°)

−1
= – cot α =
tanα

i.e., m1m2 = – 1

Conversely, if m1 m2 = – 1, i.e., tan α tan β = – 1.

Then tan α = – cot β = tan (β + 90°) or tan (β – 90°) , Therefore, α and β differ by
90°
Thus, lines l1 and l2 are perpendicular to each other

Angle between Two Lines

Let L1 and L2 be two non-vertical lines with slopes m1 and m2 respectively. If α1 and α2
are the inclinations of lines L1 and L2 , respectively. Then α m 1 = tan α 1 and m 2 = tan
2 .

Now, there arise two cases:

Case 1 :
If m2 - m1 is positive, then tan θ will be positive and tan φ will be negative, which
1 + m1 m2

means θ will be acute and φ will be obtuse.

Case 2 :
If m2 - m1 is negative, then tan θ will be negative and tan φ willbe positive, which
1 + m1 m2
means

that θ will be obtuse and φ will be acute.

Straight Line 115

 Aao aab
Horizontal lines nayaa fundaa sikhte haii
Horizontal aur vertical lines kaa

If a horizontal line L is at a distance a from the x axis then

ordinate of every point lying on the line is either a or – a.
Therefore, equation of the line L is either y = a or y = – a.
Horizontal lines often represent situations where no change
occurs over time or input — for example, constant speed,
constant temperature, or equilibrium in science/economics.
They're easy to identify visually and important in analyzing graphs, especially when
comparing variable trends.
In linear equations, understanding horizontal lines helps in graphing and solving
systems of equations.

Vertical lines

the equation of a vertical line at a distance b from the

y-axis is either x = b or x = – b
A vertical line is a straight line that moves up and down on
the Cartesian plane. That means for every point on the line,
the x-coordinate remains the same, while the y-coordinate
can change freely.

Vertical lines represent situations where an input (like x) stays constant while the
output (like y) varies — e.g., fixed location with changing conditions.
In graphs of functions, vertical lines test whether a graph is a function or not
(Vertical Line Test).
They're key in understanding perpendicularity (vertical lines are perpendicular to
horizontal lines).
Parallel to Y-axis:
A vertical line is always parallel to the y-axis, going straight up and down.
Intercepts:
It may cut the x-axis (if y=0y = 0y=0 lies on it).
It never intersects the y-axis unless x=0x = 0x=0, in which case it's the y-axis itself.

Straight Line 116

Point-slope form
Suppose that P0 (X ,Y ) is a fixed point on a non-vertical line L, whose slope is m. Let P
(x, y) be an arbitrary point on L

y2 - y1
m =
x2 - x1

Thus, the point (x, y) lies on the line with slope m

through the fixed point (X , Y), if and only if, its
coordinates satisfy the equation Y– Y = m (X – X )

Quick & Flexible:

Super handy when intercepts aren't given — just plug in slope and any point. Bridge to
Other Forms:
You can easily convert point-slope into slope-intercept form or general form.
Great for Word Problems & Graphing:
It’s perfect when problems give you a point + slope and ask for an equation.

This equation says:

“The difference between any point’s y-value and the known point’s y-value is equal
to the slope times the difference between the x-values.”
Basically, you're anchoring the line at a known point and letting it grow using the slope.

The Point-Slope Form is one way of writing the equation of a straight line when you
already know:

The slope of the line mmm

A specific point (x1,y1)(x_1, y_1)(x1​,y1​) through which the line passes

It’s especially useful when you don’t know the intercepts, but you do have a point and the
slope.

Two-point form

Straight Line 117

 Let the line L passes through two given points P1 (X , Y )
and P2 (X , Y ). Let P (X, Y) be a general point on L
The Two-Point Form is a method to find the equation
of a straight line when you are given two points on the
line — nothing else needed.
So, if you know:

Point 1: (x1,y1)(x_1, y_1)(x1​,y1​)

Point 2: (x2,y2)(x_2, y_2)(x2​,y2​)

You can directly write the equation of the line passing y2 - y1

y - y1 = (x - x 1 )
through both. x2 - x1

You're drawing a line directly through two known points.

The slope is calculated using those points, and then the line is built using that slope.
It works even if you don’t know the y-intercept or slope beforehand — all it takes is two
coordinates.

Slope-intercept form
Case 1:
Suppose a line L with slope m cuts the y-axis at a distance
c from the origin
The Slope-Intercept Form is the most popular and easy-
to-use way of writing the equation of a straight line,
especially when:
You already know the slope of the line mmm
And where the line cuts the y-axis (called y-
intercept, denoted by c or b)
Slope (m):
The value of mmm tells you how tilted the line is.
If m>0m > 0m>0: line goes upward (increasing) y=mx+c
If m<0m < 0m<0: line goes downward (decreasing)
If m=0m = 0m=0: line is horizontal
Y-intercept (c):
This is the point where the line touches the y-axis. When x=0x = 0x=0, y=cy = cy=c.
This tells you where the line starts vertically.

Straight Line 118

Case 2:
Suppose line L with slope m makes x-intercept d. Then equation of L is y = m(x – d)

Intercept-form
Suppose a line L makes x-intercept a and y-
intercept b on the axes. Obviously L meets x-
axis at the point (a, 0) and y-axis at the point
(0, b)

Thus, equation of the line making intercepts a

and b on x-and y-axis, respectively, is

The Intercept Form of a straight line is a way to express the line’s equation using the points
where it cuts the x-axis and y-axis — i.e., the x-intercept and the y-intercept.
It’s perfect when you know where the line touches both axes, and don’t care about slope
directly.

Super easy for graphing:

Just plot two points — one on x-axis, one on y-axis — draw a line.
Visual clarity:
You can instantly tell where the line hits the axes without rearranging.
Time-saver in geometry problems where axis intersections are known.
No slope required directly:
You don’t even need to know or calculate the slope to write the equation.

If a=0 = Line is vertical, passes through y-axis only.

If b=0 = Line is horizontal, passes through x-axis only.
If a or b is ∞ (infinity), line becomes parallel to that axis.

Important hai bhaii

Straight Line 119

 Distance of a Point From a Line
The distance of a point from a line is the length of the perpendicular drawn from the point
to the line.
Let L : Ax + By + C = 0 be a line, whose distance from the point P (X , Y ) is d. Draw a
perpendicular PM from the point P to the line L.
If the line meets the x-and y-axes at the points Q and R, respectively. Then, coordinates of
the points are
kya choteee
zyda concept dekh keh dar gaya ?
aare halwa hai saab mast !!!

_ )
c c
Q (- A , 0 and R 0 - A( _)

The distance of a point from a line means the shortest path (perpendicular) from that point
to the line.

Not slanted distance.

Not some diagonal guess.
Exactly perpendicular — because the shortest distance between a point and a line is
always a perpendicular.

Why Is This Important?

Used in Geometry & Analytics:
Find how far a building is from a road, how off-target a projectile is, or how far a
point is from a constraint line.
Essential in Optimization:
In physics, economics, and AI, minimum distance from a boundary is a critical
measure.
Graphing and Loci Problems:
Many questions ask for a set of points at a fixed distance from a given line.

Straight Line 120

 Thus, the area of the triangle PQR is given by
1 2 area (∆PQR)
area∆( PQR) = _ [Link] ,which gives PM = .....(1)
2 QR
C
2area (∆PQR) = Ax +By + C
AB

Substituting the values of area (∆PQR) and QR in (1) , we get

ax 1 + by 1 + c
p =
√ a2 + b2

Distance between two parallel lines

We know that slopes of two parallel lines are equal. Therefore, two parallel lines can be taken
in the form

y = mx + c1 y = mx + c2

Line (1) will intersect x-axis at the point A

If you have two parallel lines, they never meet.
So the shortest distance between them is the
perpendicular distance from any point on one line
to the other line.
Imagine two railway tracks (parallel lines).
Pick any point on one track.
Drop a perpendicular to the other — that’s the distance.
Since they’re parallel, slope is same, so all perpendiculars are equal in length.
This is actually derived from the point-to-line distance formula — by taking any point on
one line and measuring its distance to the other line.
But since both lines are in Ax + By + C = 0 form, you can shortcut it using this clean
formula.
Notice:
Both have same coefficients for x and y → that's why they're parallel
Only the constant terms C1 and C2 are different → that’s what shifts them apart

Straight Line 121

 Distance between two lines is equal to the length of the perpendicular from point A to line
(2). Thus, the distance d between two parallel lines

| C1 C2 |
1+ m2

If lines are given in general form, i.e., Ax + By + C = 0 and Ax + By + C = 0, then above

formula will take the form

Aare aare ese kesee aab to

dekho tum sawal ki barish
karata huuu
Bhaiyaa lagta hai aap sawal
karana bhul gayee

SAWAAL #1

Find the equation of the line passing through the points (2,3) and (6,7)
Solution :

Use Two-Point Form of a Line

We’ll use the two-point form:
y2 - y1
y - y1 = ( x - x1 )
x2 - x 1
Given :
(x1 , y1 ) = (2,3)
(x2 , y2 ) = (6,7)
y-3 = 4/4(x-2)
y-3 = (x-2)

Add 3 on both sides:

y = x-2 + 3
y = x+ 1

Important hai bhaii

Straight Line 122

 Line through the points (–2, 6) and (4, 8) is perpendicular to the line through the points
(8, 12) and (x, 24). Find the value of x.
Solution :
Slope of the line through the points (– 2, 6) and (4, 8) is

8-6 1
m1 = =
4-(-2) 3

Slope of the line through the points (8, 12) and (x, 24) is

m2 = 24-12 = 12
x-8 x-8

Since two lines are perpendicular, m1 m2 = –1, which gives x=4

Bhaiyaa bade sahiii sawall hai

SAWAAL #3
ek dumm lallantap
Find the slope of the lines:
(a) Passing through the points (3, – 2) and (–1, 4),
(b) Passing through the points (3, – 2) and (7, – 2),
(c) Passing through the points (3, –2)and (3, 4),
(d) Making inclination of 60° with the positive direction of x-axis.
Solution :
(a) The slope of the line through (3, – 2) and (– 1, 4) is

4-(-2) -3
m= =
-1-3 2

(b) The slope of the line through the points (3, – 2) and (7, – 2) is

-2-(-2)
m= = 0
7–3

(c) The slope of the line through the points (3, – 2) and (3, 4) is

4-(-2) 6
m= _ 3-3 =
0
, which is not defined.

Straight Line 123

 (d) Here inclination of the line α = 60°. Therefore, slope of the line is m = tan 60° = 3 .

SAWAAL #4

Find the equation of the line through (– 2, 3) with slope – 4

Solution :
Here m = – 4 and given point
By slope-intercept form formula
y - y0 = m(x - x)

above, equation of the given line is y – 3 = – 4 (x + 2) or 4x + y + 5 = 0, which is the

0
required equation.

SAWAAL #5
Find the equation of the line, which makes intercepts –3 and 2 on the x- and y-axes
respectively.
Solution :
Here a = –3 and b = 2. By intercept form , equation of the line is

2X + 3Y + 6 = 0

Any equation of the form Ax + By + C = 0, where A and B are not zero simultaneously is
called general linear equation or general equation of a line.

Reduce the following equations into slope – intercept form and find their slopes and the y –
intercepts.
(i) x + 7y = 0
(ii) 6x + 3y – 5 = 0
(iii) y = 0
Solution :
(i) x + 7y = 0
Given:
The equation is x + 7y = 0
Slope – intercept form is represented in the form ‘y = mx + c’, where m is the slope and c
is the y intercept
So, the above equation can be expressed as

Straight Line 124

 y = -1/7x + 0
∴ The above equation is of the form y = mx + c, where m = -1/7 and c = 0.
(ii) 6x + 3y – 5 = 0
Given:
The equation is 6x + 3y – 5 = 0
Slope – intercept form is represented in the form ‘y = mx + c’, where m is the slope and c
is the y intercept

So, the above equation can be expressed as

3y = -6x + 5
y = -6/3x + 5/3
= -2x + 5/3
∴ The above equation is of the form y = mx + c, where m = -2 and c = 5/3.
(iii) y = 0
Given:
The equation is y = 0
Slope – intercept form is given by ‘y = mx + c’, where m is the slope and c is the y
intercept
y = 0 × x + 0

∴ The above equation is of the form y = mx + c, where m = 0 and c = 0.

SAWAAL #7

Two lines passing through the point (2, 3) intersects each other at an angle of 60o. If slope
of one line is 2, find equation of the other line.
Solution :
Let the slope of line Ax + By + C = 0 be m
Ax + By + C = 0
So, y = -A/Bx – C/B
m = -A/B

By using the formula,

Equation of the line passing through point (x1, y1) and having slope
m = -A/B is
y – y1 = m (x – x1)
y – y1= -A/B (x – x1)
B (y – y1) = -A (x – x1)
∴ A(x – x1) + B(y – y1) = 0

Straight Line 125

So, the line through point (x1, y1) and parallel to the line Ax + By + C = 0 is A (x – x1) +
B (y – y1) = 0
Hence proved.

Find the coordinates of the foot of perpendicular from the point (–1, 3) to the line 3x – 4y
– 16 = 0.
Solution :
Let us consider the co-ordinates of the foot of the perpendicular from (-1, 3) to the line 3x
– 4y – 16 = 0 be (a, b)
So, let the slope of the line joining (-1, 3) and (a, b) be m1
m1 = (b-3)/(a+1)

And let the slope of the line 3x – 4y – 16 = 0 be m2

y = 3/4x – 4
m2 = 3/4
Since these two lines are perpendicular, m1 × m2 = -1
(b-3)/(a+1) × (3/4) = -1
(3b-9)/(4a+4) = -1
3b – 9 = -4a – 4
4a + 3b = 5 …….(1)
Point (a, b) lies on the line 3x – 4y = 16 Yeh badhiya tha
3a – 4b = 16 ……..(2) guru
Solving equations (1) and (2), we get
a = 68/25 and b = -49/25

∴ The co-ordinates of the foot of perpendicular is (68/25, -49/25)

SAWAAL #8

The perpendicular from the origin to the line y = mx + c meets it at the point (–1, 2).
Find the values of m and c.
Solution :
Given:
The perpendicular from the origin meets the given line at (–1, 2).
The equation of line is y = mx + c
The line joining the points (0, 0) and (–1, 2) is perpendicular to the given line.

Straight Line 126

 So, the slope of the line joining (0, 0) and (–1, 2) = 2/(-1) = -2
Slope of the given line is m.
m × (-2) = -1
m = 1/2
Since, point (-1, 2) lies on the given line,
y = mx + c
2 = 1/2 × (-1) + c
c = 2 + 1/2 = 5/2
∴ The values of m and c are 1/2 and 5/2, respectively.

SAWAAL #9

Calculate the slope of a line, that passes through the origin, and the mid-point of the
segment joining the points P (0, -4) and B (8, 0).
Solution :
Given that,
The coordinates of the mid-point of the line segment joining the points P (0, -4) and B (8,
0) are:
[(0+8)/2 , (-4+0)/2] = (4, -2)
It is known that the slope (m) of a non-vertical line passing through the points (x1, y1) and
(x2,
y2) is given by the formula
m = (y2 -y1) / ( (x2 -x1), where (x2 is not equal to x1)
Therefore, the slope of the line passing through the points (0, 0,) and (4, -2) is
m= (-2-0)/(4-0)
m= -2/4
m= -½
Hence, the required slope of the line is -1/2

SAWAAL #10

Find the equation of the line which is at a perpendicular distance of 5 units from the
origin and the angle made by the perpendicular with the positive x-axis is 30°.

Solution :

Straight Line 127

 If p is the length of the normal from the origin to a line and ω is the angle made by the
normal with the positive direction of the x-axis
Then, the equation of the line for the given condition is written by
x cos ω + y sin ω = p.
Here, p = 5 units and ω = 30°
Thus, the required equation of the given line is
x cos 30°+ y sin 30° = 5
x(√3/2) + y(½) = 5
It becomes
√ 3x +y = 10
Thus, the required equation of a line is √ 3x + y = 10

SAWAAL #11
Find the equation of the line perpendicular to the line x – 7y + 5 = 0 and having x-
intercept 3
Solution :
The equation of the line is given as x – 7y + 5 = 0.
The above equation can be written in the form y = mx+c
Thus, the above equation is written as:
y= (1/7)x + (5/7)
From the above equation, we can say that,
The slope of a line, m = 5/7
The slope of the line perpendicular to the line having a slope of 1/7 is
m = -1/(1/7) = -7
Hence, the equation of a line with slope -7 and intercept 3 is given as:
y = m (x – d)
⇒ y= -7(x-3)
⇒ y=-7x + 21
7x+ y = 21
Hence, the equation of a line which is perpendicular to the line x – 7y + 5 = 0 with x-
intercept 3 is 7x+ y = 21.

Straight Line 128

 IST ( It’s a sawal time)

1) Find the equation of a line which passes through the point (2, 3) and makes
an angle of 30° with the positive direction of x-axis.

2) Find the equation of the line where length of the perpendicular segment from
the origin to the line is 4 and the inclination of the perpendicular segment with
the positive direction of x-axis is 30°.

3)If the line joining two points A(2, 0) and B(3, 1) is rotated about A in anticlock
wise direction through an angle of 15°. Find the equation of the line in new
position.

4) Find the equation to the straight line passing through the point of intersection
of the lines 5x – 6y – 1 = 0 and 3x + 2y + 5 = 0 and perpendicular to the line 3x
– 5y + 11 = 0.

5) A ray of light coming from the point (1, 2) is reflected at a point A on the x-
axis and then passes through the point (5, 3). Find the coordinates of the point A.

6) Find the equation of a straight line on which length of perpendicular from the
origin is four units and the line makes an angle of 120° with the positive direction
of x-axis.

7) Find the equation of one of the sides of an isosceles right angled triangle whose
hypotenuse is given by 3x + 4y = 4 and the opposite vertex of the hypotenuse is
(2, 2).

8) A variable line passes through a fixed point P. The algebraic sum of the
perpendiculars drawn from the points (2, 0), (0, 2) and (1, 1) on the line is zero.
Find the coordinates of the point P.
[Hint: Let the slope of the line be m. Then the equation of the line passing
through the fixed point P (x1 , y1 ) is y – y1 = m (x – x1 ). Taking the algebraic
sum of perpendicular distances equal to zero, we get y – 1 = m (x – 1). Thus (x1 ,
y1 ) is (1, 1).]

Straight Line 129

 10 Conic Sections

Soch, tere paas ek bada sa cone hai (ice

cream wala nahi, geometry wala ), aur tu
usko alag-alag angles pe kaat raha hai.
Ab depending on kaise kaata, tu kuch
unique shapes banata hai. Yehi shapes
hain:

Introduction
The beautiful curves known as parabola, hyperbola, circle, and ellipse are collectively called
Conic Sections or simply Conics.
These names — especially parabola and hyperbola — were first introduced by the ancient
Greek mathematician Apollonius of Perga, often referred to as The Great Geometer.
But why are they called conic sections?

The term conic section comes from geometry — more specifically, from the shape called a
double-napped right circular cone.
Imagine a cone that continues infinitely in both upward and downward directions — like
two cones attached at their tips. This structure is called a double-napped cone.
Now, when a plane (flat surface) cuts this cone at different angles and positions, it
creates different types of 2D curves on the plane.
These different slices give rise to different conic sections:

1. Circle:
When the plane cuts horizontally, perpendicular to the cone’s axis.
All points on the curve are equidistant from a central point.
2. Ellipse:
When the plane cuts at an angle, but does not touch the base of the cone.
Looks like a stretched circle — the sum of distances from two fixed points (foci) to
any point on the curve is constant.
3. Parabola:
When the plane is parallel to the slant edge of the cone.
The curve formed extends infinitely in one direction.

Conic Sections 130

Section of Cone
The point V is called the vertex; the line l
is the axis of the cone. The rotating line m
is called a generator of the cone. The
vertex separates the cone into two parts
called nappes. If we take the intersection
of a plane with a cone, the section so
obtained is called a conic section. Thus, conic sections are the curves obtained by intersecting
a right circular cone by a plane.

Circle, ellipse, parabola and hyperbola

When the plane cuts the nappe (other than the vertex) of the cone, we have the following
situations:

a) When β = 90 , the section is a circle. (b) When α < β < 90 , the section is an ellipse.
(c) When β = α; the section is a parabola. (In each of the above three situations, the
plane cuts entirely across one nappe of the cone). (d) When 0 of intersection is a
hyperbola.
A section of a cone is the curve formed when a plane cuts a cone.
Depending on the angle and position of the cut, we get different shapes called conic
sections — circle, ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola.
These shapes are not just mathematical concepts — they appear in real-life applications like
satellite paths, bridges, mirrors, and more

Conic Sections 131

Degenerated conic sections
Degenerated conic sections refer to the special cases of the conic sections (ellipse,
parabola, hyperbola, and circle) that arise when certain conditions or parameters lead
to the conic section collapsing into a simpler shape. Let's break down the degenerate
cases for each conic section:

Ellipse: A point at the origin when a = b = 0

Circle: A point at the origin when r = 0
Parabola: A line when the quadratic term is zero.
Hyperbola: A pair of lines (or one line) depending on the values of a and b

These degenerate cases occur when the parameters that define the conic sections reduce the
shape to simpler objects.

Degenerate Circle
A circle becomes degenerate when its radius is zero.
In this case, all the points that define the circle collapse into a single point at the
center.
So, instead of a round shape, you just get a point.
Visual idea: Imagine shrinking a circle until it's so small it disappears into a dot.
Degenerate Ellipse
An ellipse turns into a point when both of its axes (horizontal and vertical) shrink to
zero.
This happens when the ellipse has no "stretch" in any direction.
Just like the circle, everything collapses to a single point.
Key idea: An ellipse is more general than a circle, so its degeneration is also just a point
when it's "flattened" entirely.
Degenerate Parabola
A parabola degenerates into a straight line.
This happens when the "curvature" of the parabola disappears.
In other words, instead of opening up or down, it just becomes a linear shape.

Conic Sections 132

 In some rare contexts, it can also degenerate into a pair of parallel lines that may or may
not intersect, depending on the case.
Visual idea: Imagine flattening a curved parabola until it's just a slanted line.
Degenerate Hyperbola
A hyperbola has two main degenerate forms:
Two intersecting lines — this happens when the hyperbola "breaks" into its
asymptotes.
A single line — in even more collapsed scenarios.
These lines meet at a point (usually the center), and they reflect the original shape’s
"opening" direction.
Key thing: Unlike the ellipse or circle, a degenerate hyperbola doesn't just shrink—it splits
into straight lines.
Visual idea: The two branches of a hyperbola collapse into crisscrossing lines.

Circle
The fixed point is called the centre of the circle and the distance from the centre to a point
on the circle is called the radius of the circle
A circle is the set of all points in a plane that are equidistant from a fixed point in the
plane.
Given C (h, k) be the center and r the radius of circle. Let P(x, y) be any point on the circle
. Then, by the definition, | CP | = r . By the distance formula, we have
i.e.
(x – h)² + (y – k)² = r²

This is the required equation of the circle with

centre at (h,k) and radius r
Normally, a circle is a set of points all
the same distance (the radius) from a
center point.
If the radius = 0, then the only point
that’s the correct distance from the
center is…the center itself.
So the circle “degenerates” into just one
point.

Shows up in math problems where you're solving equations of conics and get a zero-
radius circle. It’s part of the study of degenerate conic sections, helping understand edge
cases and special solutions.

Conic Sections 133

 Bhaiyaa aabbb iskee aap sawal
Thikk hai firrr sawal karlete hai karadoo toh aacha rahegaa
and than sikhenge age ka topic
ok ?

SAWAAL #1
Find an equation of the circle with center at (0,0) and radius r.
Solution :
Here h = k = 0. Therefore, the equation of the circle is x² + y² = r².

SAWAAL #2

Find the equation of the circle with center (–3, 2) and radius 4.
Solution :
Here h = –3, k = 2 and r = 4. Therefore, the equation of the required circle is

(x + 3)² + (y –2)² = 16

Parabola
1. Definition
A parabola is the set of all points equidistant from a focus (fixed point) and a directrix
(fixed line).

2. Standard Equations
Vertex at (0,0):
Opens Right: y2=4axy2=4ax
Focus: (a,0)(a,0) | Directrix: x=−ax=−a
Opens Left: y2=−4axy2=−4ax
Focus: (−a,0)(−a,0) | Directrix: x=ax=a
Opens Up: x2=4ayx2=4ay
Focus: (0,a)(0,a) | Directrix: y=−ay=−a
Opens Down: x2=−4ayx2=−4ay
Focus: (0,−a)(0,−a) | Directrix: y=ay=a

Conic Sections 134

 A parabola is the set of all points in a plane that are equidistant from a fixed line and
a fixed point (not on the line) in the plane. The fixed line is called the directrix of the
parabola and the fixed point F is called the focus

Standard equations of parabola

A parabola is a U-shaped curve where every point is equidistant from a fixed point (focus)
and a fixed line (directrix). The standard equations of a parabola depend on its orientation
(whether it opens upward, downward, left, or right) and the position of its vertex (origin or
shifted).

badhiya funda hai !!

As per this definition of the eccentricity of the parabola, we have PF = PB (Since e = PF/PB
= 1) Using distance formula

PF = (x−a)²+y²

The equation of the directrix is x + a = 0 and we use the perpendicular distance formula to
find PB.

PB = (X+a)

using PF = PB

2
(x−a)²+y² = (x+a)

Conic Sections 135

Squaring the equation on both sides,
x² + a² - 2ax + y² = x² + a² +2ax
y² = 4ax

Observations of standard equation

Parabola is symmetric with respect to the axis of the [Link] the equation has a y2
term, then the axis of symmetry is along the x-axis and if the equation has an x2 term,
then the axis of symmetry is along the y-axis.

When the axis of symmetry is along the x-axis the parabola opens to the

(a) right if the coefficient of x is positive,

(b) left if the coefficient of x is negative.
(c) upwards if the coefficient of y is positive.
(d) downwards if the coefficient of y is negative.

When the axis of symmetry is along the y-axis the parabola opens

Latus rectum:
Latus rectum of a parabola is a line segment perpendicular to the axis of the parabola,
through the focus and whose end points lie on the parabola

To find the Length of the latus rectum of the parabola y 2 = 4ax

By the definition of the parabola, AF = AC.
But, AC= FM = 2
Hence , AF = 2a.

Conic Sections 136

 And since the parabola is symmetric with respect to x-axis AF = FB and so AB = Length
of the latus rectum = 4a.

SAWAAL #3

Find the equation of the parabola with focus (2,0) and directrix x = – 2.
Solution :
Since the focus (2,0) lies on the x-axis, the x-axis itself is the axis of the parabola. Hence
the equation of the parabola is of the form either y2 = 4ax or y2 = – 4ax. Since the
directrix is x = – 2 and the focus is (2,0), the parabola is to be of the form y 2 = 4ax
with a = 2.
Hence the required equation is y² = 4(2)x = 8x

Eclipse
An ellipse is the set of all points in a plane where the sum of distances from two fixed points
(foci) is constant.
Key Features:
Two foci (F₁, F₂)
Major axis (longest diameter)
Minor axis (shortest diameter)
Center (C) (midpoint between foci)
Vertices (V₁, V₂) (endpoints of the major axis)

An ellipse is the set of all points in a plane, the sum of whose distances from two
fixed points in the plane is a constant. The mid point of the line segment joining the
foci is called the centre of the ellipse. The line segment through the foci of the ellipse is
called the major axis and the line segment through the centre and perpendicular to the
major axis is called the minor axis. The end points of the major axis are called the vertices
of the ellipse
Applications
Planetary orbits (Kepler’s 1st Law)
Satellite dishes (reflect signals to foci)
Architecture (elliptical arches for stability)
Medical devices (lithotripsy for kidney stones)

Conic Sections 137

 Relationship between semi-major axis, semi-minor axis and the distance of the focus
from the centre of the ellipse

Take a point P at one end of the major axis. Sum of the

distances of the point P to the foci is F 1 P + F2 P = F 1 O + OP + F2 P

(Since, F1 P = F 1 O + OP)
= c + a + a – c = 2a
Take a point Q at one end of the minor axis.
Sum of the distances from the point Q to the foci is

2
F1 Q + F2 Q = b² +c²

Since both P and Q lies on the ellipse. By

the definition of ellipse, we have

a² = b² + c², i.e., c = a² − b²

Eccentricity of ellipse
1. Definition
The eccentricity (e) of an ellipse measures how much the ellipse deviates from being
a perfect circle.
It is a dimensionless number between 0 and 1 (0≤e<10≤e<1).
e = 0 → Perfect circle (no elongation).
Closer to 1 → More elongated/flattened

Conic Sections 138

Examples
[Link]'s Orbit (Nearly circular): e≈0.0167e≈0.0167.
[Link]'s Comet Orbit (Highly elliptical): e≈0.967e≈0.967.
Why Eccentricity Matters
Determines the shape and flatness of the ellipse.
Used in astronomy (planetary orbits), engineering (elliptical gears), and physics (particle
motion).

The eccentricity of an ellipse is the ratio of the distances from the centre of the ellipse to
one of the foci and to one of the vertices of the ellipse (eccentricity is e=c/a.

the focus is at a distance of c from the centre, in terms of the eccentricity the focus is at
a distance of ae from the centre.

Standard equations of an ellipse

Definition
An ellipse is the set of all points in a plane where the sum of distances from two fixed
points (called foci) is constant. It has two axes:
Major axis (longer diameter)
Minor axis (shorter diameter)
Key Parameters
[Link]-major axis (a): Half of the
major axis length.
[Link]-minor axis (b): Half of the
minor axis length.
[Link] distance (c): Distance from
center to each focus
(c2=a2−b2c2=a2−b2).
[Link] (e): e=cae=ac​(0 ≤ e <
1).

Graph Characteristics
Horizontal Ellipse: Wider than tall. Vertical Ellipse: Taller than wide Symmetry: About
both major and minor axes.

2 b² +c²
QF + QF' =

Conic Sections 139

The points P and Q lie on the ellipse, and as per the definition of the ellipse for any point
on the ellipse, the sum of the distances from the two foci is a constant value.

2 b2 +c2 = 2a

c2 = a2 - b2

Now we consider any point S(x, y) on the ellipse and take the sum of its distances

from the two foci F and F', which is equal to 2a units.

SF + SF' = 2a

(x+c) +y = 2a - (x−c)² +y²

Observations of standard equation

1. Ellipse is symmetric with respect to both the coordinate axes since if (x, y) is a point
on the ellipse, then (– x, y), (x, –y) and (– x, –y) are also points on the ellipse. 2. The
foci always lie on the major axis. The major axis can be determined by finding
the intercepts on the axes of symmetry. That is, major axis is along the x-axis if the
coefficient of x 2 has the larger denominator and it is along the y-axis if the coefficient of
y 2 has the larger denominator.

Latus rectum of ellipse

To find the length of the latus rectum of the ellipse

Let the length of AF2 be l. Then the coordinates of A are (c, l ),i.e., (ae, l )

Conic Sections 140

 Since A lies on the ellipse

x2 y2
+ = 1
a2 b2

(ae) l
+ = 1
a b

But
l² = b² (1 – e²)

e² = 1 - b
a
Therefore
l = b
_
a²

Since the ellipse is symmetric with respect to y-axis (of course, it is symmetric w.r.t.

Hyperbola
A hyperbola is the locus of a point in a plane which moves in such a way that the ratio of
its distance from a fixed point in the same plane to its distance from a fixed line is always
constant which is always greater than unity. The fixed point is called the focus, the fixed line
is called the directrix and the constant ratio, generally denoted by e, is known as the
eccentricity of the hyperbola.

Conic Sections 141

A hyperbola is the set of all points in a plane where the difference of distances from
two fixed points (called foci) is constant. Unlike an ellipse, a hyperbola has two
disconnected curves called branches.

[Link] Axis: Line segment joining the vertices (length = 2a).

[Link] Axis: Line segment perpendicular to the transverse axis (length = 2b).
[Link] Distance (c): c2=a2+b2
[Link] (e): e=ca (measures "openness").
[Link] Rectum: Length of chord through a focus ⊥ to transverse axis.

the distance between the two foci by 2c, the distance between two vertices (the length of
the transverse axis) by 2a and we define the quantity b as

Bhaiyaa isme kuch galtiya ho

skti haiiii ............

pata haiii dekh

Plus aur Minus ka Jhol
➤ Bro, yeh ellipse nahi hai!
Tum equation mein "+" daal rahe ho, par
hyperbola mein minus hota hai!
Sahi karo: x² - y² = 1, not x² + y² = 1

Center ka confusion
➤ Question mein diya hai center (h, k),
par tu seedha (0,0) pakad leta hai.
Bro, sawal dhang se padh le pehle. Yeh
guesswork nahi hai, math hai.

Conic Sections 142

Eccentricity of hyperbola Just like an ellipse, the ratio e = c/a is called the eccentricity of
the hyperbola.

Since c
≥ a, the eccentricity is never less than one. In terms of the eccentricity, the foci are at a
distance of ae from the centre.

Standard equations of an hyperbola

let us consider a point P on the hyperbola, and the difference of its distance from the two
foci F, F' is 2a.

(x + c)² + y² = 2a + (x + c)² + y²

Squaring both side, we get

2(x + c)² + y² = 4a² + (x - c) + y²+ 4a (x−c) 2+y²

cx - a² = a (x−c) 2+y²

Squaring on both sides and simplifying, we have.

y²
x =
= 1
a c² - a²
Also, we have c² = a² + b² ,
So

Therefore, the standard equation of the Hyperbola is derived.

Conic Sections 143

Observations of standard equation

1. Hyperbola is symmetric with respect to both the axes, since if (x, y) is a point on the
hyperbola, then (– x, y), (x, – y) and (– x, – y) are also points on the hyperbola. 2. The
foci are always on the transverse axis. It is the positive term whose denominator gives the
transverse axis.

Latus rectum of hyperbola

Latus rectum of hyperbola is a line segment perpendicular to the transverse axis easy to show
that the length of the latus rectum i hyperbola is 2b²

through any of the foci and whose end points lie on the hyperbola. As in ellipse, it is

Bhaiyaa aab sawal karadooo

concept clear hoo gayee

SAWAAL #4

Find the equation of the parabola with vertex at (0, 0) and focus at (0, 2).
Solution :

Since the vertex is at (0,0) and the focus is at (0,2) which lies on y-axis, the y-axis is
the axis of the parabola. Therefore, equation of the parabola is of the form x = 4ay. thus,
we have
x = 4(2)y, i.e., x = 8y.

SAWAAL #5

Find the equation of the parabola which is symmetric about the y-axis, and passes through
the point (2,–3).
Solution :

Since the parabola is symmetric about y-axis and has its vertex at the origin, the equation
is of the form x² = 4ay or x² = – 4ay, where the sign depends on whether the parabola
opens upwards or downwards.

Conic Sections 144

 But the parabola passes through (2,–3) which lies in the fourth quadrant, it must open
downwards. Thus the equation is of the form x2 = – 4ay. Since the parabola passes through
( 2,–3), we have
1
2 = – 4a (–3), i.e., a = _
2

SAWAAL #6

Find the equation of the ellipse, whose length of the major axis is 20 and foci are (0, ± 5).
Solution :
Since the foci are on y-axis, the major axis is along the y-axis. So, equation of the ellipse is
of the form

_bx + _
2

2
y
a
2

2
= 1

and the relation c = a – b gives 5 = 10 – b i.e., b = 75 Therefore, the equation of the ellipse

x2 + y2
= 1
72 100

SAWAAL #7

Determine the equation of the circle with radius 4 and Centre (-2, 3).
Solution ;
Given that:
Radius, r = 4, and center (h, k) = (-2, 3).
We know that the equation of a circle with centre (h, k) and radius r is given as
(x – h) + (y – k) = r ….(1)
Now, substitute the radius and center values in (1), we get
Therefore, the equation of the circle is
(x + 2) + (y – 3) = (4)
x + 4x + 4 + y – 6y + 9 = 16
Now, simplify the above equation, we get:
x + y + 4x – 6y – 3 = 0
Thus, the equation of a circle with center (-2, 3) and radius 4 is
x + y + 4x – 6y – 3 = 0

Conic Sections 145

 SAWAAL #8

Determine the equation of the circle with radius 4 and Centre (-2, 3).
Solution ;
Given that:
Radius, r = 4, and center (h, k) = (-2, 3).
We know that the equation of a circle with centre (h, k) and radius r is given as
(x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2 ….(1)
Now, substitute the radius and center values in (1), we get
Therefore, the equation of the circle is
(x + 2)2+ (y – 3)2 = (4)2
x2+ 4x + 4 + y2 – 6y + 9 = 16
Now, simplify the above equation, we get:
x2 + y2+ 4x – 6y – 3 = 0
Thus, the equation of a circle with center (-2, 3) and radius 4 is x2 + y2+ 4x – 6y – 3 = 0

SAWAAL #9

Determine the focus coordinates, the axis of the parabola, the equation of the directrix and
the latus rectum length for y2 = -8x
Solution :
Given that, the parabola equation is y2= -8x.
It is noted that the coefficient of x is negative.
Therefore, the parabola opens towards the left.
Now, compare the equation with y2= -4ax, we obtain
-4a= -8
⇒ a = 2
Thus, the value of a is 2.
Therefore, the coordinates of the focus = (-a, 0) = (-2, 0)
Since the given equation involves y2, the axis of the parabola is the x-axis.
Equation of directrix, x= a i.e., x = 2
We know the formula to find the length of a latus rectum
Latus rectum length= 4a
Now, substitute a = 2, we get
Length of latus rectum = 8

Conic Sections 146

 SAWAAL #10

Determine the foci coordinates, the vertices, the length of the major axis, the minor axis, the
eccentricity and the length of the latus rectum of the ellipse (x2/49) + (y2/36) = 1
Solution :

The given equation is (x2/49) + (y2/36) = 1

It can be written as (x2/72) + (y2/62) = 1
It is noticed that the denominator of x2/49 is greater than the denominator of the y2/36
On comparing the equation with (x2/a2) + (y2/b2) = 1, we will get
a= 7 and b = 6
Therefore, c = √(a2– b2)
Now, substitute the value of a and b
⇒ √(a2– b2) = √(72– 62) = √(49-36)
⇒ √13
Hence, the foci coordinates are ( ± √13, 0)
Eccentricity, e = c/a = √13/ 7
Length of the major axis = 2a = 2(7) = 14
Length of the minor axis = 2b = 2(6) =12
The coordinates of the vertices are ( ± 7, 0)
Latus rectum Length= 2b2/a = 2(6)2/7 = 2(36)/7 = 72/7

SAWAAL #11

Determine the equation for the ellipse that satisfies the given conditions: Centre at (0, 0),
the major axis on the y-axis and passes through the points (3, 2) and (1, 6).
Solution :
Centre = (0, 0), and major axis that passes through the points (3, 2) and (1, 6).
We know that the equation of the ellipse will be of the form when the centre is at (0, 0)
and the major axis is on the y-axis,
(x2/b2) + (y2/a2) = 1 …. (1)
Here, a is the semi-major axis.
It is given that, the ellipse passes through the points (3, 2) and (1, 6).
Hence, equation (1) becomes
(9/b2) + (4/a2) = 1 …(2)
(1/b2) + (36/a2) = 1 …(3)
Solving equation (2) and (3), we get

Conic Sections 147

 b2 = 10 and a2 = 40
Therefore, the equation of the ellipse becomes: (x2/10) + (y2/40) = 1

SAWAAL #12

Determine the equation of the hyperbola which satisfies the given conditions: Foci (0, ±13),
the conjugate axis is of length 24.
Solution :
Given that: Foci (0, ±13), Conjugate axis length = 24
It is noted that the foci are on the y-axis.
Therefore, the equation of the hyperbola is of the form:
(y2/a2)-(x2/b2) = 1 …(1)
Since the foci are (0, ±13), we can get
C = 13
It is given that, the length of the conjugate axis is 24,
It becomes 2b = 24
b= 24/2
b= 12
And, we know that a2 + b2 = c2
To find a, substitute the value of b and c in the above equation:
a2 + 122 = 132
a2 = 169-144
a2 = 25
Now, substitute the value of a and b in equation (1), we get
(y2/25)-(x2/144) = 1, which is the required equation of the hyperbola.

Conic Sections 148

 IST ( It’s a sawal time)

1) If the lines 3x – 4y + 4 = 0 and 6x – 8y – 7 = 0 are tangents to a circle, then

find the radius of the circle.
[Hint: Distance between given parallel lines gives the diameter of the circle.]

2)Find the equation of a circle which touches both the axes and the line 3x – 4y
+ 8 = 0 and lies in the third quadrant.
[Hint: Let a be the radius of the circle, then (– a, – a) will be centre and
perpendicular distance from the centre to the given line gives the radius of the
circle.]

3)Find the equation of the circle which passes through the points (2, 3) and (4,
5) and the centre lies on the straight line y – 4x + 3 = 0

4)Find the equation of a circle whose centre is (3, –1) and which cuts off a chord
of length 6 units on the line 2x – 5y + 18 = 0.
[Hint: To determine the radius of the circle, find the perpendicular distance from
the centre to the given line.]

5)If the points (0, 4) and (0, 2) are respectively the vertex and focus of a
parabola, then find the equation of the parabola.

6)Find the equation of each of the following parabolas

(a) Directrix x = 0, focus at (6, 0)
(b) Vertex at (0, 4), focus at (0, 2)
(c) Focus at (–1, –2), directrix x – 2y + 3 = 0

Conic Sections 149

 THREE DIMENSIONAL
11 GEOMETRY

3D Geometry – Kya Scene Hai?

Bhai, 2D mein sirf x aur y chalte the.
Par life boring thi… so 3D mein z bhi
aagaya
Ab points udte hain — left-right, up-
down, AND andar-bahar.

Introduction
In three dimensions, the coordinate axes of a rectangular cartesian coordinate system are
three mutually perpendicular lines. These axes are called the X, Y and Z axes.

Three-dimensional geometry is the branch of mathematics that deals with geometrical

figures in a space with three dimensions — length, breadth, and height. It expands 2D
concepts like points, lines, and planes into a real-world space.

Key Concepts in 3D Geometry

1. Coordinates of a Point
Any point in 3D space is represented as (x, y, z).
x → Horizontal (left-right)
y → Depth (forward-backward)
z → Vertical (up-down)

Section Formula
To find a point dividing a line segment in a given ratio.
Direction Cosines & Direction Ratios
Every line in 3D has a direction.
Direction cosines (l, m, n): cosines of angles made with x, y, z axes.
Direction ratios (a, b, c): proportional values that give the direction of a line.

Three Dimensional Geometry 150

Coordinate Planes
The three planes determined by the pair of axes are the coordinate planes. These planes are
called XY, YZ and ZX plane and they divide the space into eight regions known as octants.

Each coordinate plane is a two-dimensional surface formed by two axes, while the third
coordinate is zero.
1. XY-plane
Formed by the x-axis and y-axis
Here, z = 0
Represents a flat surface like the floor.
All points on this plane look like:
(x,y,0)(x, y, 0)(x,y,0)

2. YZ-plane
Formed by the y-axis and z-axis
Here, x = 0
Think of a wall standing vertically.
All points on this plane look like:
(0,y,z)(0, y, z)(0,y,z)

3. XZ-plane
Formed by the x-axis and z-axis
Here, y = 0
Like a vertical board facing you.
All points on this plane look like:
(x,0,z)(x, 0, z)(x,0,z)

Coordinate of a Point in Space

Three Dimensional Geometry 151

In three-dimensional geometry, the coordinates of a point P is always written in the form of
P(x, y, z), where x, y and z are the distances of the point, from the YZ, ZX and XY-planes.
The coordinates of any point at the origin is (0,0,0)
The coordinates of any point on the x-axis is in the form of (x,0,0)
The coordinates of any point on the y-axis is in the form of (0,y,0)
The coordinates of any point on the z-axis is in the form of (0,0,z)
The coordinates of any point on the XY-plane is in the form (x, y, 0)
The coordinates of any point on the YZ-plane is in the form (0, y, z)
The coordinates of any point on the ZX-plane is in the form (x, 0, z)

The coordinates of the origin O are (0,0,0). The coordinates of any point on
the x-axis will be as (x,0,0) and the coordinates of any point in the YZ-
plane will be as
(0, y, z).

Sign of Coordinates in Different Octants:

The sign of the coordinates of a point determine the octant in which the point lies. The
following table shows the signs of the coordinates in eight octants.

In three-dimensional space, the three axes (X, Y, Z) divide the space into 8 regions called
octants (like how 2D has 4 quadrants).
Each octant has a different combination of signs for (x, y, z).

Octants I to IV → z is positive
Octants V to VIII → z is negative
Think of Octant I as the "happy zone" where everything is
positive.
Yeh badhiya tha
guru

Three Dimensional Geometry 152

Distance between Two Points
Let P(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) be two points referred to a system of rectangular
axes OX, OY and OZ. Through the points P and Q draw planes parallel to the coordinate
planes so as to form a rectangular parallelepiped with one diagonal PQ

Let P(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) be two points referred to a system of

rectangular axes OX, OY and OZ. Through the points P and Q draw planes parallel to the
coordinate planes so as to form a rectangular parallelopiped with one diagonal PQ

Now, since ∠PAQ is a right angle, it follows that, in triangle PAQ,

2 2 2
PQ = PA + AQ

Also, triangle ANQ is right angle triangle with ∠ANQ a right angle.

Therefore
2 2 2
AQ = AN + NQ

From (1) and (2), we have

2 2 2 2
PQ = PA + AN + NQ

Three Dimensional Geometry 153

 Now
PA = y2 – y1 , AN = x2 – x1 and NQ = z2 – z1

Hence
2 2 2 2
PQ = (x2 – x1 ) + (y2 – y1 ) + (z2 – z1 )

Therefore

PQ =

In particular, if x1 = y = z 1 = 0, i.e., point P is origin O, then OQ = x 2+ y 2 + z 2

1

SAWAAL #1

Find the distance between the points P(1, –3, 4) and Q (– 4, 1, 2).
Solution :
The distance PQ between the points P (1,–3, 4) and Q (– 4, 1, 2) is

PQ = (-4-1) + (1+3) + (2-4)

= 25+16+4
3
= 5

SAWAAL #2
Are the points A (3, 6, 9), B (10, 20, 30) and C (25, – 41, 5), the vertices of a right angled
triangle?
Solution :
By the distance formula, we have
2 2 2 2
AB = (10 – 3) + (20 – 6) + (30 – 9)
= 49 + 196 + 441
= 686

Three Dimensional Geometry 154

 2 2 2 2
BC = (25 – 10) + (– 41 – 20) + (5 – 30)

= 225 + 3721 + 625

= 4571

2 2 2 2
CA = (3 – 25) + (6 + 41) + (9 – 5)
= 484 + 2209 + 16
= 2709

Hence, the triangle ABC is not a right angled triangle.

SAWAAL #3
2 2 2
Find the equation of set of points P such that PA + PB = 2k , where A and B are the
points (3, 4, 5) and (–1, 3, –7), respectively.
Solution :
2 2 2 2
Here PA = (x – 3) + (y – 4) + ( z – 5)

2 2 2 2
PB = (x + 1) + (y – 3) + (z + 7)

By the given condition PA + PB = 2k , we have

2 2 2 2 2 2 2
(x – 3) + (y – 4) + (z – 5) + (x + 1) + (y – 3) + (z + 7) = 2k
2 2 2 2
i.e., 2x + 2y + 2z – 4x – 14y + 4z = 2k – 109.

Show that the point ,4(1, -1, 3), 6(2, -4, 5) and (5, -13, 11) are collinear.
Solution :
Given points are A (1,-1, 3), B (2,-4, 5) and (5, -13, 11).
To prove collinear,
AB = √(1-2)2+(−1 + 4)2 + (3-5)2= √1+9+4= √14
BC = √(2-5)2+(−4 + 13)2 + (5 − 11)2 = √9+81 +36= 3√14
AC = √(1-5)2 + (−1 + 13)2 + (3 − 11)2 = √16 +144 +64 = 4√14
AB+ BC= √14+ 3√14
=4v14
=AC Points A B And C Are Collinear

Three Dimensional Geometry 155

 SAWAAL #4

The centroid of a triangle ABC is at the point (1, 1, 1). If the coordinates of A and B are (3,
–5, 7) and (–1, 7, – 6), respectively, find the coordinates of the point C.
Solution :
Let the coordinates of C be (x, y, z) and the coordinates of the centroid G be (1, 1, 1). Then

x + 3 - 1
= 1, i.e., x = 1;
3

y - 5 + 7
=1 , i.e., y = 1;
3

z + 7 - 6
=1 , i.e., z = 2.
3

Hence, coordinates of C are (1, 1, 2).

What are the coordinates of the vertices of a cube whose edge is 2 units, one of whose
vertices coincides with the origin and the three edges passing through the origin, coincides
with the positive direction of the axes through the origin?
Solution :

The coordinate of the cube whose edge is 2 units, are:

(2, 0, 0), (2,2, 0), (0, 2, 0), (0, 2,2), (0, 0,2), (2,0, 2), (0, 0, 0) and (2,2, 2)

SAWAAL #6

Fill in the blanks:

(i) The x-axis and y-axis, taken together, determine a plane known as _______.
(ii) The coordinates of points in the XY-plane are of the form _______.
(iii) Coordinate planes divide the space into ______ octants.

Three Dimensional Geometry 156

 Solution :
(i) The x-axis and y-axis, taken together, determine a plane known as XY Plane.
(ii) The coordinates of points in the XY-plane are of the form (x, y, 0).
(iii) Coordinate planes divide the space into eight octants.

SAWAAL #6

If the distance between the points (a, 2,1) and (1,-1,1) is 5, then a_______ .
Solution :
Given points are (a, 2,1) and (1,-1,1).
√(a−1)2 + (2 + 1)2 + (1 − 1)2 = 5 (Given) ⇒(a-1)2+9+0=25 => a2-2a-15=0
⇒ (a-5)(a+3)=0`
a = 5 or-3

SAWAAL #7
The length of the longest piece of a string that can be stretched straight in a rectangular
room whose dimensions are 10, 13 and 8 units are______ .
Solution : Given dimensions are: a = 10, 6=13 andc = 8.
Required length of the string = yja2 + b2 + c2 = ^100 + 169 + 64 = -7333
Assume that P (x, y, z) be the point that is equidistant from two points A(1, 2, 3) and
B(3, 2, –1).
Thus, we can say that, PA = PB
Take square on both the sides, we get
PA2 = PB2
It means that,
(x-1)2 + (y-2)2+(z-3)2 = (x-3)2+(y-2)2+(z+1)2
⇒ x2 – 2x + 1 + y2 – 4y + 4 + z2 – 6z + 9 = x2 – 6x + 9 + y2 – 4y + 4 + z2 + 2z + 1
Now, simplify the above equation, we get:
⇒ –2x –4y – 6z + 14 = –6x – 4y + 2z + 14
⇒ – 2x – 6z + 6x – 2z = 0
⇒ 4x – 8z = 0
⇒ x – 2z = 0
Hence, the required equation for the set of points is x – 2z = 0.

Three Dimensional Geometry 157

 SAWAAL #8
Given that P (3, 2, –4), Q (5, 4, –6) and R (9, 8, –10) are collinear. Find the ratio in which
Q
Solution :
Assume that the point Q (5, 4, –6) divides the line segment joining points P (3, 2, –4)
and R (9, 8, –10) in the ratio k:1.
Therefore, by using the section formula, we can write it as:
(5, 4, -6) = [ (k(9)+3)/(k+1), (k(8)+2)/(k+1), (k(-10)-4)/(k+1)]
⇒(9k+3)/(k+1) = 5
Now, bring the L.H.S denominator to the R.H.S and multiply it
⇒9k+3 = 5k+5
Now, simplify the equation to find the value of k.
⇒4k= 2
⇒k = 2/4
⇒k=½
Therefore, the value of k is ½.
Hence, the point Q divides PR in the ratio of 1:2

Three Dimensional Geometry 158

 IST ( It’s a sawal time)

1) Using distance formula show that the points P (2, 4, 6), Q (– 2, – 2, – 2) and
R (6, 10, 14) are collinear.

2) Find the coordinates of a point equidistant from the four points O (0, 0, 0), A
(l, 0, 0), B (0, m, 0) and C (0, 0, n).

3) Find the point on x-axis which is equidistant from the point A (3, 2, 2) and B
(5, 5, 4).

4) Find the point on y-axis which is at a distance √10 from the point (1, 2, 3)

5)If a parallelopiped is formed by planes drawn through the points (2, 3, 5) and
(5, 9, 7) parallel to the coordinate planes, then find the length of edges of a
parallelopiped and length of the diagonal.

6) Let A (2, 2, – 3), B (5, 6, 9) and C (2, 7, 9) be the vertices of a triangle. The
internal bisector of the angle A meets BC at the point D. Find the coordinates of
D.

7) The distance of point P(3, 4, 5) from the yz-plane is

(A) 3 units
(B) 4 units
(C) 5 units
(D) 550

6) x-axis is the intersection of two planes

(A) xy and xz
(B) yz and zx
(C) xy and yz
(D) none of these

Three Dimensional Geometry 159

 Limits
12 and Derivatives

Limit ka matlab hota hai —

jab x kisi number ke super close aata hai,
tab function ka value kya hota hai?
Simple bhasha mein:
x approach karega, par touch nahi karega.

Introduction
A derivative tells us the rate at which a function changes.
Mathematically, it represents the slope of the tangent line to the graph at a point.

Consider the function f(x) = x2. Observe that as x takes values very close to 0, the value
of f(x) also moves towards 0

(to be read as limit of f (x) as x tends to zero equals zero). The limit of f (x) as x tends to
zero is to be thought of as the value f (x) should assume at x = 0.

In general as x a, f (x) l, then l is called limit of the function f (x) which is symbolically
written as

lim f (x)= l
x a

Right hand limit - Value of 𝑓(𝑥) which is dictated by values of 𝑓(𝑥) when 𝑥 tends to
from the right. It is written as

lim f (x)= l
x a+

Limits and Derivatives 160

 Left hand limit - Value of 𝑓(𝑥) which is dictated by values of 𝑓(𝑥) when 𝑥 tends to

from the left. It is written as

lim f (x)= l
x a-

If the right and left hand limits coincide, we call that common value as the limit of f(x)
at x = a and denote it by
lim f (x)
x a

Algebra of limits
Theorem 1 :
Let p and g be two functions such that both lim p(x) and lim g(x) exist.
x a x a

(i) Limit of sum of two functions is sum of the limits of the functions, i.e.,

(ii) Limit of difference of two functions is difference of the limits of the functions, i.e.,

(iii) Limit of product of two functions is product of the limits of the functions, i.e.,

(iv) Limit of quotient of two functions is quotient of the limits of the functions (whenever
the denominator is non zero), i.e.,

Limits and Derivatives 161

 In particular as a special case of (iii), when
g is the constant function such that g(x) =
K , for some real number K, we have

Limits of polynomials and rational functions

A function f is said to be a polynomial function of degree n
f(x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 +. . . + an xn, where ai s are real numbers such that an ≠ 0 for
some natural number n.

The limit of a function as x approaches a value ‘a’ tells us what value the function is
getting close to, even if it's not exactly defined at x = a.

Try direct substitution first.

If you get 0/0, simplify the expression:
Factorization
Rationalization (for roots)
L'Hôpital’s Rule (in higher studies)
After simplification, apply the limit again.

(Jab x kisi number ‘a’ ke bahut close aata hai (lekin zaroori nahi ki exactly a),

_
tab function ka value kya approach karta hai?)
g(x)
A function f is said to be a rational function, if f(x) = ,
h(x)

where g(x) and h(x) are polynomials such that h(x) ≠ 0. Then

lim f(x) = lim g(x) g(a)

=
x a x a h(x) h(a)

Limits and Derivatives 162

if h(a) = 0, there are two scenarios – (i) when g(a) ≠ 0 and (ii) when g(a) = 0. In the
former case we say that the limit does not exist. In the latter case we can write g(x) = (x
– a)k g1 (x), where k is the maximum of powers of (x – a) in g(x) Similarly, h(x) = (x –
a)l h1 (x) as h (a) = 0.

Theorem 2:
For any positive integer n,
n n n - 1
lim x - a = na
x a x - a

Yeh badhiya tha

guru
Limits of Trigonometric Functions

Theorem 3:
Let f and g be two real valued functions with the same domain such that f (x) ≤ g( x)
for all x in the domain of definition, For some a, if both lim f(x) and
lim g(x) exist, then lim f(x) ≤ lim g(x).

Theorem 4 (Sandwich theorem):

Let f, g and h be real functions such that f (x) ≤ g( x) ≤ h(x) for all x in the common
domain of definition. For some real number a, if
lim f(x) = l = lim h(x), then lim g(x) = l.

Proof :
We know that sin (– x) = – sin x and cos( – x) = cos x. Hence, it is sufficient to prove the
inequality for 0 < x < π/2.

Limits and Derivatives 163

 In the Figure, O is the centre of the unit circle such that the angle AOC is x radians and 0
< x < π/2. Line segments B A and CD are perpendiculars to OA. Further, join AC.
Then
Area of OAC <Area of sector OAC < Area of ∆ OAB.
CD < x . OA < AB.

From ∆ OCD,

AB = OA. tan x
OA sin x < OA. x < OA. tan x.

Since length OA is positive, we have

sin x < x < tan x.

Since 0 < x < π/2 sinx is positive and thus by dividing throughout by sin x and taking
reciprocals, we have
sin x 1
cos x <
x

Theorem 5:

lim sinx lim 1- cosx

= 1 = 1
x 0 x x 0 x

Limits and Derivatives 164

 Derivatives
Suppose f is a real valued function and a is a point in its domain of definition. The derivative
of f at a is defined by

The derivative of a function gives the rate at which the function changes with respect to its
independent variable.
In simpler words:
Derivative tells us how fast something is changing.
It is a core concept in Calculus.

The derivative represents the slope of the tangent to the curve y=f(x)y = f(x)y=f(x) at a
given point.
If derivative exists at point x=ax = ax=a, then the curve is smooth (no sharp corners) and
has a tangent.

Applications of Derivatives
[Link] of Change (Physics, Economics, Biology)
[Link] and Minima (Optimization)
[Link] Tangents and Normals
[Link]/Decreasing Functions
[Link] Sketching
[Link] problems (velocity, acceleration)

lim f(a+h) - f(a)

h 0 h

wherever the limit exists is defined to be the derivative of f at x and is denoted by f′(x).
This definition of derivative is also called the first principle of derivative.

lim f(x+h) - f(x)

h 0 h

Suppose f is a real valued function, the function defined by

Limits and Derivatives 165

For instance, people maintaining a reservoir need to know when will a reservoir overflow
knowing the depth of the water at several instances of time, Rocket Scientists need to
compute the precise velocity with which the satellite needs to be shot out from the rocket
knowing the height of the rocket at various times. Financial institutions need to predict the
changes in the value of a particular stock knowing its present value. In these, and many
such cases it is desirable to know how a particular parameter is changing with respect to
some other parameter. The heart of the matter is derivative of a function at a given point
in its domain of definition.

Algebra of derivative of functions

Since the very definition of derivatives involve limits in a rather direct fashion, we expect the
rules for derivatives to follow closely that of limits. We collect these in the following theorem.

When you have two or more functions, and you combine them using addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, etc., their derivatives follow certain rules. These are called Algebra of
Derivatives.
Theorem :
Let p and q be two functions such that their derivatives are defined in a common
domain. Then

(i) Derivative of sum of two functions is sum of the derivatives of the functions.

(ii) Derivative of difference of two functions is difference of the derivatives of the functions.

(iii) Derivative of product of two functions is given by the following product rule.

(iv) Derivative of quotient of two functions is given by the following quotient rule (whenever
the denominator is non–zero).

Limits and Derivatives 166

Theorem 6:
Derivative of f(x) = x is nx for any positive integer n.

Derivative of polynomials and trigonometric functions

Theorem 7:
Let f(x) = a x + a x + .......a x +a be a polynomial function, where ai s are all real numbers
and an ≠ 0. Then, the derivative function is given by

d f(x) x-2
=na n x(n-1) + (n-1)a (n-1)x +.....+2a2 x +a 1
d(x)

Important Formula’s

_d sin x= cos x _d
dx
cot x= - cosec 2x
dx

_d cos x= -sin x _d
dx
sec x= sec x tan x
dx

_d
dx
tan x= sec 2x _d
dx
cosec x= -cosec x cot x

Generalized rule :

_d sin u=cos u _du _d cot u=- cosec 2u _

du
dx dx dx dx

_d cos u= -sin u _
du
_d sec u= sec u tan u _
du
dx dx dx dx

_d tan u=sec 2u _
du
_d cosec u= cosec u cot u _
du
dx dx dx dx

Limits and Derivatives 167

 SAWAAL #1

Find the limits:

3 2
(i) lim [ x - x + 1]
x 1
chal chote thakna
nai hai
(ii) lim [ x( x + 1)]
x 3

Solution :
The required limits are all limits of some polynomial functions. Hence the limits are the
values of the function at the prescribed points. We have

3 2 3 2
(i) lim [ x - x + 1] = 1 – 1 + 1 = 1
x 1

(ii) lim [ x( x + 1)] = 3(3 + 1) = 3(4) = 12

x 3

SAWAAL #2

Find the derivative of the constant function f (x) = a for a fixed real number a.
Solution :
f (x + h) - f(x)
We have, f ′(x) = lim
h -> 0 h

a - a
= lim
h -> 0 h

0
= lim = 0 as h ≠ 0
h -> 0 h

Limits and Derivatives 168

 SAWAAL #3

Find the derivative of f(x) = 1 + x + x + x +... + x at x = 1.

Solution :
A direct application of the above Theorem 6 tells that the derivative of the above function is
1 + 2x + 3x + . . . + 50x . At x = 1 the value of this function equals
1 + 2(1) + 3(1) + .. . + 50(1) = 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + 50 =

SAWAAL #4

Evaluate The following :

Solution :

Yeh badhiya tha

guru

SAWAAL #5

Find the derivative of the function x2cos x.

Solution :

Limits and Derivatives 169

 Given function is x cos x
Let y = x cos x Differentiate with respect to x on both sides.
Then, we get:
dy/dx = (d/dx)x cos x Now, using the formula, we can write the above form as:
dy/dx = x (d/dx) cos x + cos x (d/dx)x
Now, differentiate the function:
dy/dx = x (-sin x) + cos x ( x) Now, rearrange the terms, we will get: dy/dx = 2x cos x
– x sin x
dy/dx = (d/dx)x cos x Now, using the formula, we can write the above form as:
dy/dx = x (d/dx) cos x + cos x (d/dx)x

SAWAAL #6

Find the derivative of the following function (i) x + a

Solution :
Let f(x) = x +a
According, f(x + h) = x + h + a
Using first principle, we get
f(x + h) - f(x)
f’ (x) = lim
h->0 h

So, now we get

x+h+a-x-a
= lim
h->0 h

h
= lim
h->0 h

= lim (1)
h->0

= 1

SAWAAL #7

Find the derivative of the following function from the first principle.

Limits and Derivatives 170

 Let f(x) = - x
According f (x + h) = - (x + h)

Using first principle we get,

f(x + h) - f(x)
f’ (x) = lim
h->0 h

-(x + h) - (-x)
f’ (x) = lim
h->0 h

Now we get,
-x - h + x
f’ (x) = lim
h->0 h

f’ (x) = lim - h
h->0 h

f’ (x) = lim (- 1) = (- 1)
h->0

SAWAAL #7

Limits and Derivatives 171

 IST ( It’s a sawal time)

1) Evaluate :

Limits and Derivatives 172

 13 Statistics

Statistics = Data ka khel

Yeh subject hai jisme hum data ko collect,
arrange, analyze aur interpret karte hain.
Simple language mein — numbers ki
kahani samajhna!

Introduction
A measure of central tendency gives us a rough idea where data points are centred. But, in
order to make better interpretation from the data, we should also have an idea how the
data are scattered or how much they are bunched around a measure
of central tendency.

Statistics is a branch of mathematics that deals with the collection, classification,

presentation, analysis, and interpretation of numerical data.
In Simple Words:
Statistics helps us understand data and draw meaningful conclusions from it.

Importance of Statistics
Helps in making data-driven decisions
Widely used in business, economics, social science, sports, research
Useful in comparison, prediction, and planning
Helps identify trends and patterns in data

Real-Life Applications of Statistics

Education: Result analysis
Business: Sales/profit stats
Sports: Player performance tracking
Weather: Temperature data trends
Medical: Disease analysis
Social science: Population census, surveys

Statistics 173
 Bonus Tips for Exam:
Always arrange ungrouped data in ascending order for median
Use step deviation method for large numbers
Double-check class boundaries for median/mode formulas
Keep formulas handy and practice graphs regularly
Graph-based median = intersection point of less than and more than ogives
Consider now the runs scored by two batsmen in their last ten matches as follows

Batsman A : 30, 91, 0, 64, 42, 80, 30, 5, 117, 71

Batsman B :53, 46, 48, 50, 53, 53, 58, 60, 57, 52

Clearly, the mean and median of the data are

Batsman A Batsman B

Mean 53 53

Median 53 53

we calculate the mean of a data (denoted by x ) by dividing the sum of the observations by
the number of observations, i.e.,
n
x = 1/n xi
i=1

_ and
Also, the median is obtained by first arranging the data in ascending or descending order

(_)
applying the following rule.
th
If the number of observations is odd, then the median is n+1 observation.

(_)
2 th
If the number of observations is even, then median is the mean of n
2

Statistics 174
Measures of Dispersion
The dispersion or scatter in a data is measured on the basis of the observations
and the types of the measure of central tendency, used there. There are following measures
of dispersion:

Dispersion refers to the spread or scattering of data values around a central value (like
Mean or Median).
It tells us how much the data is scattered — kitna data idhar-udhar faila hua hai
from the average.

Absolute Measures
(Values in original units, e.g., cm, kg, marks, etc.)
[Link]
[Link] Deviation
[Link] Deviation
[Link] Deviation
Relative Measures
(Compare variability across different datasets, unit-free)
[Link] of Range
[Link] of Quartile Deviation
[Link] of Mean Deviation
[Link] of Variation

Important hai
Applications of Dispersion
saab !!
Weather forecasting (temperature range)
Stock market (volatility)
Sports (performance consistency)
Manufacturing (quality control)
Research (reliability of data)

The dispersion or scatter in a data is measured on the basis of the observations

and the types of the measure of central tendency, used there. There are following measures
of dispersion:

Bhai, yeh tha full breakdown of Measures of Dispersion.

Statistics 175
 ⓘ Range :
The range is the difference between the maximum value and the minimum value

Range = Maximum Value – Minimum Value

(ii) Mean of deviation

Mean deviation is the basic measure of deviations from value, and the value is generally a
mean value or a median value.

Sum of deviations
Mean of deviations = =0
Number of observations

The mean deviation from ‘a’ is denoted as M.D. (a).

Sum of absolute values of deviations from 'a '

M.D.(a) =
Number of observations

Mean deviation for ungrouped data

Let n observations be x1 , x2 , x3 , ...., xn . The following steps are involved in the calculation
of mean deviation about mean or median:

Calculate the measure of central tendency about which we are to find the mean deviation.
Let it be ‘a’.

Find the deviation of each xi from a, i.e., x1 – a, x2 – a, x3 – a,. . . , xn– a

Find the absolute values of the deviations, i.e., drop the minus sign (–), if it is there, i.e.,
Find the mean of the absolute values of the deviations. This mean is the mean deviation
about a, i.e.,
_ n
_
M,D ( x ) = 1/n . | x - x | , where x = Mean
i=1

n
M,D ( M ) = 1/n . |x - M | , where M = Median
i=1

Statistics 176
 SAWAAL #1

Find the mean deviation about the mean for the following data: 6, 7, 10, 12, 13, 4, 8, 12
Solution :
Mean of the given data is
6+7+10+12+13+4+8+12 72
x = = = 9
8 8
The deviations of the respective observations from the mean x, i,e,, x - x are
–3, –2, 1, 3, 4, –5, –1, 3

The required mean deviation about the mean is

3+2+1+3+4+5+1+3
= 2.75
8

(iii) Mean deviation for grouped data

Let the given data consist of n distinct values x1 , x2 , ..., xn occurring with frequencies f1
, f2 , ..., fn respectively.

x: x1 x2 x3.......xn

f: f1 f2 f3.......fn
(i) Mean deviation about mean
n _
M.D.( X ) = 1/N f |x -x |
i i
i=1

(ii) Mean deviation about median

n
M.D.( M) = 1/N f |x -M |
i i
i=1

Statistics 177
(b) Continuous frequency distribution.

A continuous frequency distribution is a series in which the data are classified into different
class-intervals without gaps alongwith their respective frequencies.

(i) Mean deviation about mean

While calculating the mean of a continuous frequency distribution, we had made the
assumption that the frequency in each class is centred at its mid-point.

Marks obtained 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80

Number of 2 3 8 14 8 3 2
Students
Marks _ _
fi xi f i xi |x i - x | f i |x i - x |
obtained

10-20 2 15 30 30 60

20-30 3 25 75 20 80

30-40 8 35 280 10 80

40-50 14 45 630 0 0

50-60 8 55 440 10 80

60-70 3 65 195 20 80

70-80 2 75 150 30 60

Statistics 178
Shortcut method for calculating mean deviation about mean
we take an assumed mean which is in the middle or just close to it in the data. Then
deviations of the observations (or mid-points of classes) are taken from the assumed mean.
Let, the new variable be denoted

a , where ‘a’ is the assumed mean and h is the common factor.

n
fi d i
x = a + i=1 -N X h

where median class is the class interval whose cumulative frequency is just greater
than or equal to N/2 , N is the sum of frequencies, l, f, h and C are, respectively the
lower limit , the frequency, the width of the median class and C the cumulative
frequency of the class just preceding the median class. After finding the median, the
absolute values of the deviations of mid-point x of each class from the median i.e., are
obtained.

Limitations of mean deviation

In a series, where the degree of variability is very high, the median is not a representative
central tendency. Thus, the mean deviation about median calculated for such series can
not be fully relied.
The sum of the deviations from the mean (minus signs ignored) is more than the sum of
the deviations from median. Therefore, the mean deviation about the mean is not very
[Link], in many cases, mean deviation may give unsatisfactory results.
Mean deviation is calculated on the basis of absolute values of the deviations and
therefore, cannot be subjected to further algebraic treatment.

This implies that we must have some other measure of dispersion. Standard deviation is such a
measure of dispersion.
Less Accurate than Standard Deviation
MD doesn’t square the deviations, so it underestimates variability compared to SD.
It gives a rougher estimate of dispersion.

No Proper Theoretical Foundation

Unlike standard deviation (used in normal distribution, variance, probability theory), MD
has less mathematical importance in advanced studies.

Statistics 179
 SAWAAL #2

Find the mean deviation about the mean for the data in Exercises 1 and 2.
1. 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 17
Solution :
First, we have to find (x̅ ) of the given data.

So, the respective values of the deviations from mean,

i.e., xi – x̅ are, 10 – 4 = 6, 10 – 7 = 3, 10 – 8 = 2, 10 – 9 = 1, 10 – 10 = 0,
10 – 12 = – 2, 10 – 13 = – 3, 10 – 17 = – 7
6, 3, 2, 1, 0, -2, -3, -7
Now, absolute values of the deviations,
6, 3, 2, 1, 0, 2, 3, 7

MD = sum of deviations/ number of observations

= 24/8
= 3
So, the mean deviation for the given data is 3.

SAWAAL #3
The mean and standard deviation of 20 observations are found to be 10 and 2, respectively.
On rechecking, it was found that an observation 8 was incorrect. Calculate the correct mean
and standard deviation in each of the following cases: (i) If wrong item is omitted. (ii) If it
is replaced by 12
Solution :
If the wrong item is omitted,
From the question, it is given that
The number of observations, i.e., n = 20 The incorrect mean = 20
The incorrect standard deviation = 2
(ii) If it is replaced by 12,
From the question, it is given that
The number of incorrect sum observations, i.e., n = 200
The correct sum of observations n = 200 – 8 + 12
n = 204
Then, correct mean = correct sum/20
= 204/20 = 10.2

Statistics 180
 SAWAAL #3

The variance of the given data 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 17 is 23.33. Then find the variance for the data
4, 8, 10, 12, 16, 34.
(a) 23.23 (b) 25.33 (c)46.66 (d)48.66
Solution :
A correct answer is an option (c)
Explanation:
For the given data: 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 17, the variance is 23.33.
To find the variance for the data: 4, 8, 10, 12, 16, 34
If you notice the data which you have to find the variance, it is the
multiple of the given data.

So,
multiply the variance of the given data by 2,
It means that, 23.33 x 2 = 46.66
Thus, the variance of the data: 4, 8, 10, 12, 16, 34 is 46.66

SAWAAL #3

Find the variance and the standard deviation for the following data: 57, 64, 43, 67, 49, 59,
44, 47, 61, 59
Solution :
Given data: 57, 64, 43, 67, 49, 59, 44, 47, 61, 59
To find mean (μ):
Mean (μ)= ( 57+ 64+ 43+ 67+ 49+ 59+ 44+ 47 +61 + 59)/10= 550/10
Mean = 55
To find Variance (σ2):
Variance(σ2) = (xi – μ)2/n
=(22+92+122+122+62+42+62+42+112+82)/10
= 662/10
=66.2
Therefore, variance(σ2) = 66.2
To find standard deviation (σ):
To find the standard deviation, take the square root of variance, we get
Standard Deviation(σ) = √(σ2)
= √66.2 = 8.13
Therefore, the standard deviation is 8.13

Statistics 181
 SAWAAL #4

The coefficients of variations for the two distributions are 60 and 70 and its standard
deviations are 21 and 16 respectively. Determine its arithmetic mean.

Solution :

Given that,
Coefficient of Variations (C.V of 1st distribution) = 60, σ1 = 21
Coefficient of Variations (C.V of 2nd distribution) = 70, σ2 = 16
Let μ1 and μ2 are the means of the 1st and the 2nd distribution.
We know that the formula to find the arithmetic mean is given as:
Coefficient of Variations(C.V) = (Standard Deviation/arithmetic Mean) x 100
Thus, Arithmetic Mean = (Standard Deviation/C.V)x100
Therefore, the arithmetic mean for the 1st deviation is given by:
μ1= [σ1 / (c.v of 1st distribution)]x100
μ1= (21/60)x100
μ1= 0.35×100
μ1= 35
Similarly for μ2:
μ2= [σ2 / (c.v of 2nd distribution)]x100
μ2= (16/70)x100
μ2= 0.2285×100
μ2= 22.85
Therefore, the arithmetic mean for the 1st and the 2nd distributions are 35 and 22.85
respectively.

SAWAAL #5
Find the mean deviation about mean for the following data:

Solution :

Statistics 182
 Let mean = μ
The formula to find mean is
μ = f i xi / N
N = 3+3+4+14+7+4+3+4 = 42
μ = (3+ 9+ 20+ 98+ 63+ 44+ 39+ 60)/42
μ = 336/42
μ = 8
Now, to find the mean deviation about mean:
The formula is:
M.D(μ) = fi |xi– μ| / N
M.D(μ) =[3(7)+3(5)+ 4(3)+ 14(1)+7(1)+ 4(3)+ 3(5)+ 4(7)]/42
= (21+ 15+ 12+ 14+ 7+12+ 15+ 28)/42
= 62/21
= 2.95
Therefore, the mean deviation about mean for the given data is 2.95

SAWAAL #6

Find the mean deviation about the median for the data in Exercises 3 and 4.
3. 13, 17, 16, 14, 11, 13, 10, 16, 11, 18, 12, 17
Solution :

First, we have to arrange the given observations into ascending order.

10, 11, 11, 12, 13, 13, 14, 16, 16, 17, 17, 18.
The number of observations is 12.
Then,
Median = ((12/2)th observation + ((12/2)+ 1)th observation)/2
(12/2)th observation = 6th = 13
(12/2)+ 1)th observation = 6 + 1
= 7th = 14
Median = (13 + 14)/2
= 27/2
= 13.5
So, the absolute values of the respective deviations from the median, i.e., |xi – M| are
3.5, 2.5, 2.5, 1.5, 0.5, 0.5, 0.5, 2.5, 2.5, 3.5, 3.5, 4.5

Statistics 183
 SAWAAL #7

n examination of monthly wages reveals that workers in two firms A and B, both in the same
industry, have the following result. Determine the mean deviation from the median.
The total number of wages earned is 586 and 648 in Firm A and Firm B respectively.
The average monthly wage is Rs 5253.
Solution :
The number of employees at firm A is 586.
The average monthly salary is Rs 5253.
Total earnings = Rs5253586
=Rs3078258
Total wages for firm B = Rs253648
=Rs3403944
As a result, firm B pays out a certain amount of monthly wages.

Statistics 184
 IST ( It’s a sawal time)

1) Calculate the mean deviation about the mean of the set of first n natural
numbers when n is an odd number.
2) Calculate the mean deviation about the mean of the set of first n natural
numbers when n is an even number.

3) Two sets each of 20 observations, have the same standard derivation 5. The
first set has a mean 17 and the second a mean 22. Determine the standard
deviation of the set obtained by combining the given two sets.

4) The mean life of a sample of 60 bulbs was 650 hours and the standard
deviation was 8 hours. A second sample of 80 bulbs has a mean life of 660 hours
and standard deviation 7 hours. Find the overall standard deviation.

5) Mean and standard deviation of 100 items are 50 and 4, respectively. Find the
sum of all the item and the sum of the squares of the items.

6) Mean and standard deviation of 100 observations were found to be 40 and 10,
respectively. If at the time of calculation two observations were wrongly taken as
30 and 70 in place of 3 and 27 respectively, find the correct standard deviation.

7) While calculating the mean and variance of 10 readings, a student wrongly used
the reading 52 for the correct reading 25. He obtained the mean and variance as
45 and 16 respectively. Find the correct mean and the variance.

8) When tested, the lives (in hours) of 5 bulbs were noted as follows: 1357, 1090,
1666, 1494, 1623 The mean deviations (in hours) from their mean is
(A) 178
(B) 179
(C) 220
(D) 356

Statistics 185
 14 Probability

Probability = Chances kitne hain ki koi

kaam ho jaaye ya na ho.
Simple:
Toss kiya → head aayega ya tail?
Dice roll kiya → 6 aayega ya nahi?

Introduction
What is Probability?
Probability is a numerical measure of uncertainty. It tells the likelihood of an event
occurring.

Important Terms
Trial: Any experiment (e.g., tossing coin, rolling dice)
Outcome: Result of an experiment (e.g., Head)
Sample Space (S): Set of all possible outcomes
Event (E): Set of favorable outcomes

Types of Events
Simple Event: Single outcome (e.g., getting a 3 on dice)
Compound Event: More than one outcome (e.g., getting even number)
Certain Event: Will always happen (e.g., getting a number between 1–6 on die)
Impossible Event: Will never happen (e.g., getting 7 on a die)

Common Questions & Formulas

P(getting even number on dice) = 3/6 = 1/2
P(getting vowel from A–Z) = 5/26
P(getting head or tail on coin) = 1 (sure event)
P(getting red card from deck) = 26/52 = 1/2

The sample space serves as an universal set for all questions concerned with the
experiment. a subset of sample space is associated with an event and an event is
associated with a subset of sample space.

Probability 186
 Events
Any subset E of a sample space S is called an event.
Occurrence of an event
the event E of a sample space S is said to have occurred if the outcome ω of the
experiment is such that ω ∈ E. If the outcome ω is such that ω ∉ E, we say that the
event E has not occurred.

Types of Event
Impossible and Sure Events :
The empty set φ and the sample space S describe events. In fact φ is called an
impossible event and S, i.e., the whole sample space is called the sure event.
Simple Event

If an event E has only one sample point of a sample space, it is called a simple (or
elementary) event. In a sample space containing n distinct elements, there are
exactly n simple events.
Compound Event
If an event has more than one sample point, it is called a Compound event.

Probability 187
Algebra of Events
For every event A, there corresponds another event A′ called the complementary event to A.
It is also called the event ‘not A’. Thus the complementary event ‘not A’ to the event A is

In probability, an event is a set of outcomes from a sample space.

Sample Space (S): All possible outcomes
Event (E): Subset of S, containing outcomes that satisfy a condition
Example:
Rolling a die → S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Event A = {2, 4, 6} → getting even number

Represents: A and B both happen

Contains: Only those outcomes which are common to both A and B

Events are dependent if outcome of one affects the probability of the other
Example: Drawing 2 cards without replacement
First card affects what’s left in the deck

A′ = {ω : ω ∈ S and ω ∉A} = S – A.

When the sets A and B are two events associated with a sample space, then ‘A ∪ B’
is the event ‘either A or B or both’. This event ‘A ∪ B’ is also called ‘A or B’.

The Event ‘A and B’

We know that intersection of two sets A ∩ B is the set of those elements which are
common to both A and B. i.e., which belong to both ‘A and B’.
We know that A–B is the set of all those elements which are in A but not in B.
Therefore, the set A–B may denote the event ‘A but not B’. We know that A – B = A ∩
B´
two events A and B are called mutually exclusive events if the occurrence of any
one of them excludes the occurrence of the other event, i.e., if they can not occur
simultaneously.

two events c and d are called mutually exclusive events if the occurrence of anyone of them
excludes the occurrence of the other event, i.e., if they can not occur simultaneously.

Probability 188
Let S be the sample space of a random experiment. The probability P is a real valued
function whose domain is the power set of S and range is the interval [0,1] satisfying the
following axioms

(i) For any event E, P (E) ≥ 0 (ii) P (S) = 1 (iii)If E and F are

mutually exclusive events, then P(E

∪ F) = P(E) + P(F).
It follows from (iii) that P(φ) = 0.

Axiomatic definition of probability

Let S be a sample space containing outcomes ω1 , ω2 , ..., ωn i.e.

It follows from the axiomatic definition of probability that (i) 0 ≤ P (ωi ) ≤ 1 for each ωi
∈ S (ii) P (ω1 ) + P (ω2 ) + ... + P (ωn ) = 1 (iii) For any event A, P(A) = ∑ P(ωi ),
ωi ∈ A.

It may be noted that the singleton {ωi } is

called elementary event and for notational
convenience, we write P(ωi ) for P({ωi }).

The axiomatic definition of probability provides a formal, mathematically rigorous framework

for understanding and calculating probabilities. It defines probability as a function that maps
events to real numbers between 0 and 1, satisfying three fundamental axioms.

Here's a breakdown of the axiomatic approach:

1. The Sample Space (Ω):
A sample space (Ω) is defined, which is the set of all possible outcomes of a random
experiment.
For example, when flipping a coin, the sample space would be {Heads, Tails}.

2. Events (A ⊆ Ω):
An event (A) is a subset of the sample space, representing a particular outcome or set
of outcomes.
For the coin flip example, "getting heads" would be an event (A) in the sample space
{Heads, Tails}.

Probability 189
. The Probability Function (P):
A probability function (P) is defined, which maps each event (A) to a real number
between 0 and 1.

P(A) represents the probability of event A occurring, with P(A) ∈

Axiom 1 (Non-negativity):
For any event A, the probability of A is greater than or equal to zero (P(A) ≥ 0).

Axiom 2 (Normed):
The probability of the entire sample space (Ω) is equal to 1 (P(Ω) = 1). This means
that one of the possible outcomes in the sample space must occur.

Axiom 3 (Additivity):
If A₁, A₂, ... are mutually exclusive events (meaning they cannot happen at the same
time), then the probability of their union is the sum of their individual probabilities
(P(A₁ ∪ A₂ ∪ ...) = P(A₁) + P(A₂) + ...).

The probability of an event is a numerical measure of how likely that event is to occur,
expressed as a number between 0 and 1. A probability of 0 means the event is impossible,
while a probability of 1 means the event is certain to happen.
Here's a more detailed explanation:
Definition:
Probability quantifies the chance of an event happening. It's a ratio representing the number
of favorable outcomes to the total number of possible outcomes.

Range:
The probability of any event always falls between 0 and 1, inclusive (0 ≤ P(E) ≤ 1).

Calculation:
To calculate the probability of an event, you divide the number of ways the event can
occur by the total number of possible outcomes.

Examples:
Tossing a coin: The probability of getting heads is 1/2 (or 0.5), as there's one
favorable outcome (heads) out of two possible outcomes (heads or tails).

Probability 190
 Drawing a card from a deck: The probability of drawing a red card is 1/2 (or 0.5),
as there are 26 red cards out of 52 total cards.
Key Concepts:
Sample Space: The set of all possible outcomes of an experiment.

Event: A subset of the sample space, representing a particular outcome or a set of

outcomes.

Favorable Outcome: An outcome that satisfies the condition of the even

S be the sample space, E be the event, and n(s)= n and n(E)=m Then the probability of
the event= P(E)

Odd number of outcomes in favor of the event: m : (n-m) Odd number of outcomes against
the event : (n-m) : m Probability of the event that does not occur or take place : P(A)= 1-
P(A)

Probabilities of equally likely outcomes

In probability, equally likely outcomes mean that each possible outcome of an experiment
has an equal chance of occurring. For example, when flipping a fair coin, the outcomes
"heads" and "tails" are equally likely, meaning they have the same probability of happening.

Key points about equally likely outcomes:

Equal Probability:
Each outcome has the same probability of occurring.

Fair Events:
Events with equally likely outcomes are often considered "fair," meaning there's
no bias towards any particular outcome.

Sample Space:
The set of all possible outcomes of an experiment is called the sample space. In
equally likely outcomes, each element in the sample space has the same
probability.

Probability 191
Calculating Probability:
If an experiment has equally likely outcomes, the probability of a particular event is
the number of favorable outcomes (outcomes in the event) divided by the total
number of outcomes in the sample space.

Examples of equally likely outcomes:

Flipping a fair coin (heads and tails are equally likely).

Rolling a fair six-sided die (each face has an equal chance of being rolled).

Drawing a card from a well-shuffled deck (each card has an equal chance of being
drawn).

Let a sample space of an experiment be S = {ω1 , ω2 ,..., ωn }. Let all the outcomes
are equally likely to occur, i.e., the chance of occurrence of each simple event must be
same. i.e. P(ωi ) = p, for all ωi ∈ S where 0 ≤ p ≤ 1\

np = 1 i.e., p = 1/n

Probabilities of the event A’ or B’

The probability of event 'A or B', denoted as P(A ∪ B), is calculated using the addition rule:
P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A ∩ B). This formula considers the probability of both
events happening together to avoid double-counting.

Explanation:

P(A ∪ B): This represents the probability of either event A or event B occurring, or
both.
P(A): The probability of event A occurring.
P(B): The probability of event B occurring.
P(A ∩ B): The probability of both event A and event B occurring simultaneously (the
intersection of the two events).

In simpler terms: To find the probability of A or B, you add the individual probabilities of
A and B, but then you need to subtract the probability of both occurring because it
was counted twice when you added the individual probabilities.

Probability 192
Example:

If P(A) = 0.4, P(B) = 0.3, and P(A ∩ B) = 0.1, then:

P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A ∩ B) = 0.4 + 0.3 - 0.1 = 0.6

When events A and B are mutually exclusive (cannot happen at the same time):

In this case, P(A ∩ B) = 0. Therefore, the formula simplifies to P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B).

P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P (B) – P (A ∩ B)

If A and B are disjoint sets, i.e., they are mutually exclusive events, then A ∩ B = φ
Therefore P(A∩B)=P( φ )=0 Thus, for mutually exclusive events A and B, we have P ( A
∪ B ) = P ( A ) + P ( B) ,

Probability of event not A

P(A′) = P(not A) = 1 – P(A)
The probability of an event not happening is found by subtracting the probability of the
event happening from 1. This is because the probability of an event happening plus the
probability of it not happening must equal 1 (or 100%). Therefore, if P(A) is the probability
of event A, then the probability of not A, denoted as P(A'), is P(A') = 1 - P(A).

Probability 193
 SAWAAL #1

A coin is tossed three times, consider the following events. A: ‘No head appears’, B: ‘Exactly
one head appears’ and C: ‘Atleast two heads appear’. Do they form a set of mutually exclusive
and exhaustive events?
Solution :

Therefore, A, B and C are exhaustive events.

S = {HHH, HHT, HTH, THH, HTT, THT, TTH, TTT}
and A = {TTT}, B = {HTT, THT, TTH}, C = {HHT, HTH, THH, HHH} Now,
A ∪ B ∪ C = {TTT, HTT, THT, TTH, HHT, HTH, THH, HHH} = S
Also, A ∩ B = φ, A ∩ C = φ and B ∩ C = φ Therefore, the events are pair-wise disjoint,
i.e., they are mutually exclusive. Hence, A, B and C form a set of mutually exclusive and
exhaustive events.
Also, A ∩ B = φ, A ∩ C = φ and B ∩ C = φ Therefore, the events are pair-wise disjoint,
i.e., they are mutually exclusive. Hence, A, B and C form a set of mutually exclusive and
exhaustive events.

SAWAAL #2

One card is drawn from a well shuffled deck of 52 cards. If each outcome is equally likely,
calculate the probability that the card will be
(i) a diamond
(ii) not an ace
(iii) a black card (i.e., a club or, a spade) (iv) not a diamond
(v) not a black card.
Solution :
When a card is drawn from a well shuffled deck of 52 cards, the number of possible
outcomes is 52.
(i) Let A be the event 'the card drawn is a diamond' Clearly the number of elements in set
A is 13.
Therefore, P(A) =13/52
=1/4

(ii) We assume that the event ‘Card drawn is an ace’ is Therefore ‘Card drawn is not an
ace’ should be B′.

(iii) Let C denote the event ‘card drawn is black card’ Therefore, number of elements in the
set C = 26

Probability 194
 Two students Anil and Ashima appeared in an examination. The probability that Anil will
qualify the examination is 0.05 and that Ashima will qualify the examination is 0.10. The
probability that both will qualify the examination is 0.02. Find the probability that
Solution :

(a) Both Anil and Ashima will not qualify the examination. (b) Atleast one of them will not
qualify the examination and (c) Only one of them will qualify the examination.

SAWAAL #4
describe the sample space for the indicated experiment.
1. A coin is tossed three times
Solution :

Since either coin can turn up Head (H) or Tail (T), the possible outcomes may be
When 1 coin is tossed once the sample space = 2
Then,
The coin is tossed 3 times the sample space = 23 = 8
Thus, the sample space is S = {HHH, THH, HTH, HHT, TTT, HTT, THT, TTH}

SAWAAL #5

Describe The Sample Space A die is thrown two times.

Solution :
Let us assume that 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 are the possible outcomes when the die is thrown.
Then, the total number of the sample space = (6 × 6)
= 36
Thus, the sample space is
S={(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(1,5),(1,6),(2,1),(2,2),(2,3),(2,4),(2,5),(2,6),(3,1),(3,2),(3,3)
(3,4),(3,5),(3,6),(4,1),(4,2),(4,3),(4,4),(4,5),(4,6),(5,1),(5,2),(5,3),(5,4),(5,5),(5,6),(6,1),
(6,2),(6,3),(6,4),(6,5),(6,6)}

SAWAAL #6

2 boys and 2 girls are in Room X, and 1 boy and 3 girls are in Room Y. Specify the sample
space for the experiment in which a room is selected and then a person.
Solution :

Probability 195
 From the question, it is given that
2 boys and 2 girls are in Room X
1 boy and 3 girls in Room Y
Let us assume b1, b2 and g1, g2 be 2 boys and 2 girls in Room X.
And also, assume b3 and g3, g4, g5 be 1 boy and 3 girls in Room Y.
The problem is solved by dividing it into two cases.
Case 1: Room X is selected
Sample Space Sx = {(X,b1),(X,b2),(X,g1),(X,g2)}
Case 2: Room Y is selected
Sample Space Sy ={(Y,b3),(Y,g3),(Y,g4),(Y,g5)}
The overall sample space
S={(X,b1),(X,b2),(X,g1),(X,g2),(Y,b3),(Y,g3),(Y,g4),(Y,g5)}

SAWAAL #7

A pack of 50 tickets is numbered from 1 to 50 and is shuffled. Two tickets are drawn at
random. Find the probability that (i) both the tickets drawn bear prime numbers (ii) Neither
of the tickets drawn bear prime numbers.
Solution :
The total number of tickets = 50
Prime numbers from 1 to 50 are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, and 47.
The total number of prime numbers between 1 and 50 is 15.
(i) Probability that both tickets are drawn bears prime numbers:
P(Both tickets bearing prime numbers ) = 15C2 / 50 C2
= 3/35
Hence, the probability that both tickets are drawn bear prime numbers is 3/35.
(ii) Probability that neither of the tickets drawn bears prime numbers:
P ( Neither of the tickets bearing prime numbers) = 35C2 / 50C2
= 17/35.
Therefore, the probability that neither of the tickets drawn bears a prime number is 17/35.

SAWAAL #8

One die of red colour, one of white colour and one of blue colour are placed in a bag. One die
is selected at random and rolled, its colour and the number on its uppermost face is noted.
Describe the sample space.
Solution :

Probability 196
Let us assume that 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 are the possible numbers that come when the die is
thrown.
And also, assume die of red colour be ‘R’, die of white colour be ‘W’, die of blue colour be
‘B’.
So, the total number of sample space = (6 × 3) = 18
The sample space of the event is
S={(R,1),(R,2),(R,3),(R,4),(R,5),(R,6),(W,1),(W,2),(W,3),(W,4),(W,5),(W,6) (B,1),(B,2),
(B,3),(B,4),(B,5),(B,6)}

SAWAAL #9

An experiment consists of recording boy–girl composition of families with 2 children.

(i) What is the sample space if we are interested in knowing whether it is a boy or girl in
the order of their births?
(ii) What is the sample space if we are interested in the number of girls in the family?
Solution :
Let us assume the boy be ‘B’ and the girl be ‘G’.
(i) The sample space if we are interested in knowing whether it is a boy or girl in the
order of their births, S = {GG, BB, GB, BG}
(ii) The sample space if we are interested in the number of girls in the family when there
are two children in the family then
Sample space S = {2, 1, 0}

SAWAAL #10

A box contains 1 red and 3 identical white balls. Two balls are drawn at random in succession
without replacement. Write the sample space for this experiment.
Solution :

From the question, it is given that a box contains 1 red and 3 identical white balls.
Let us assume ‘R’ be the event of the red ball being drawn, and ‘W’ be the event of the
white ball being drawn.
Given in the question that white balls are identical; therefore, the event of drawing any one
of the three white balls is the same.
Then, total number of sample space = (2 – 1) = 3
∴Sample space S = {WW, WR, RW}

Probability 197
 SAWAAL #11
A pack of 50 tickets is numbered from 1 to 50 and is shuffled. Two tickets are drawn at
random. Find the probability that (i) both the tickets drawn bear prime numbers (ii) Neither
of the tickets drawn bear prime numbers.
Solution :
The total number of tickets = 50
Prime numbers from 1 to 50 are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, and 47.
The total number of prime numbers between 1 and 50 is 15.
(i) Probability that both tickets are drawn bears prime numbers:
P(Both tickets bearing prime numbers ) = 15C2 / 50 C2
= 3/35
Hence, the probability that both tickets are drawn bear prime numbers is 3/35.
(ii) Probability that neither of the tickets drawn bears prime numbers:
P ( Neither of the tickets bearing prime numbers) = 35C2 / 50C2
= 17/35.
Therefore, the probability that neither of the tickets drawn bears a prime number is 17/35.

Probability 198
 IST ( It’s a sawal time)

1)(a) How many two-digit positive integers are multiples of 3?

(b) What is the probability that a randomly chosen two-digit positive integer is a
multiple of 3?

2) A typical PIN (personal identification number) is a sequence of any four

symbols chosen from the 26 letters in the alphabet and the ten digits. If all PINs
are equally likely, what is the probability that a randomly chosen PIN contains a
repeated symbol?

3) Probability that a truck stopped at a roadblock will have faulty brakes or badly
worn tires are 0.23 and 0.24, respectively. Also, the probability is 0.38 that a truck
stopped at the roadblock will have faulty brakes and/or badly working tires. What is
the probability that a truck stopped at this roadblock will have faulty breaks as
well as badly worn tires?

3) If a person visits his dentist, suppose the probability that he will have his
teeth cleaned is 0.48, the probability that he will have a cavity filled is 0.25, the
probability that he will have a tooth extracted is 0.20, the probability that he will
have a teeth cleaned and a cavity filled is 0.09, the probability that he will have
his teeth cleaned and a tooth extracted is 0.12, the probability that he will have a
cavity filled and a tooth extracted is 0.07, and the probability that he will have his
teeth cleaned, a cavity filled, and a tooth extracted is 0.03. What is the probability
that a person visiting his dentist
4) An urn contains twenty white slips of paper numbered from 1 through 20, ten
red slips of paper numbered from 1 through 10, forty yellow slips of paper numbered
from 1 through 40, and ten blue slips of paper numbered from 1 through 10. If these
80 slips of paper are thoroughly shuffled so that each slip has the same
probability of being drawn. Find the probabilities of drawing a slip of paper that is
(a) blue or white
(b) numbered 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5
(c) red or yellow and numbered 1, 2, 3 or 4
(d) numbered 5, 15, 25, or 35; (e) white and numbered higher than 12 or yellow
and numbered higher than 26.

Probability 199