Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
CHE 101: Introduction to Chemistry
Lecturer: Muhammad Mahfuz Hasan
Lecture-02
Content: 1. Thomson Atomic Model
2. Rutherford’s atomic theory,
3. Bohr’s atomic theory,
4. Spectrum
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Discovery of the Electron
In 1897 the British physicist J. J. Thomson conducted a series of experiments that
showed the atoms were not indivisible particles.
In this experiment, two electrodes from a high-voltage source are sealed into a glass tube
from which the air has been evacuated(Low). The negative electrode is called cathode and
the positive one is anode. When high-voltage current is turned on, the glass tube emits a
greenish light. This greenish light is caused by interaction of the glass with cathode rays,
which are rays that originate from the cathode.
Electrically charged plates
Cathode (-)
Anode (+)
Fig: Formation of cathode rays
After the cathode rays leave the negative electrode, they move toward the anode where
some rays pass through a hole from a beam. This beam bends away from the negatively
charged plate and toward the positively charged plate. From such evidence Thomson
concluded that a cathode ray consists of a beam of negatively charged particles (electrons)
and that electrons are constituents of all matter.
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JJ Thomson E/M Experiment
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Thomson Atomic Model
Between 1903 and 1907 Thomson
tried to solve the mystery by
adapting an atomic model that had
been first proposed by Scottish
scientist William Thomson (Lord
Kelvin) in 1902. According to
the Thomson atomic model, often
referred to as the “plum-pudding”
model, the atom is a sphere of
uniformly distributed positive
charge about one angstrom in
diameter. Electrons are
embedded/join in a regular
pattern, like raisins in a plum
pudding, to neutralize the positive
charge.
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Thomson Atomic Model
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Idea of nucleus:
The gold foil experiment or α- scattering experiment
Rutherford in 1911 projected a beam of alpha (α) particles from a radioactive source
upon a very thin gold foil. The α- particles emitted from radioactive elements with great
velocities, on the average about 180,000 miles per second.
Observed results
1. most alpha particles were observed to pass straight
through the gold foil without deflection
2. a few were scattered at large angles
3. some even bounced back toward the source as if
the α-particles have met with some obstacles in
their onward journey
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Gold Foil Experiment Rutherford
or
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Alpha Particle Scattering Experiment
Rutherford’s Atomic Model
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Inferences/ Rutherford’s Atom Model
(1) Most of the space of an atom is empty.
(2)Most of the mass of an atom is concentrated at the centre
(99.95 % or more) – called the nucleus which is positively charged
and exceedingly small as compared to the total size of atom.
(3)Electrons move around the nucleus, almost like the solar system
in which the planets move around the sun.
(4) The number of electrons must be equal to the number of
positively charged particles in the nucleus so that the atom as a
whole is neutral.
(5) Due to rapid rotation of electron around the nucleus, the
inward force of electrostatic attraction (centripetal force) between Fig: Deflection of α- particles by
electron and nucleus is exactly counterbalanced by the outward nuclei in a metal foil
centrifugal force.
❖ The Rutherford atomicthe planetary model of the atom or Solar system model. model has been
alternatively called the nuclear atom, or
❖Although most of the mass of an atom is in its nucleus, the nucleus occupies only a very small
portion of the space of the atom. Nuclei have diameters of about 10-15 m whereas atomic diameter is
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about 10-10 m, a hundred thousand times larger.
Limitations of Rutherford Atom Model
1. This model is based upon Newton’s laws of motion and gravitation. But Newton’s laws of motion
and gravitation can only be applied to neutral bodies such as planets and not to charged bodies
such as tiny electrons moving round a positive nucleus. The analogy does not hold good since the
electrons in an atom repel one another, whereas planets attract each other because of
gravitational forces. Besides there is electrostatic attraction in a nuclear atom model.
2. According to Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory, any charged body such as electrons rotating in an
orbit must radiate energy continuously thereby losing kinetic energy. Thus rotating electron will
lose energy and its orbit will become smaller and smaller and it will ultimately fall into the nucleus
following a spiral path, annihilating the atom model.
3. If there is continuous emission of radiation, the spectra of an atom will be a band or continuous
spectra. But an atom gives discontinuous or line spectra.
4. Rutherford did not give any idea about the shape of the orbits.
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There was no explanation about the rotation of electrons in an atom with many electrons.
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Bohr’s Atom Model
1. Postulates of Energy Levels
▪ An atom has a number of stable orbits in which an electron can revolve
without the radiation of energy. These orbits are referred to as ‘Energy
Levels’(Stationary orbit).
▪ An electron moving in an orbit can have only certain amount of energy, not
an infinite number of values, i.e., its energy is quantized.
▪ While rotating in an orbit an electron does not absorb or emit energy.
Radiation is absorbed or emitted when an electron moves from one orbit to
another.
▪ The energy that an electron needs in order to move in a particular orbit depends
on the radius of the orbit. An electron in an orbit distant from the nucleus
requires higher energy than an electron in an orbit near the nucleus.(The
lowest energy is found in the smallest orbit)
▪ If the electrons moves in a circular orbit, its motion is subject to the ordinary laws
of electrical and centrifugal force. These orbits are decided by the condition that
the angular momentum of the electron in such orbit must be an integral multiple
of h/2π, that is,
mvr = nh/2π
where, m is the mass of the electron, v is its velocity, r is the radius of the orbit, h
is the Plank’s constant and n is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 etc.
2. Postulates of radiation of energy
When an electron jumps from one energy level to another there is absorption or
emission of energy. When an electron moves from a higher energy level to lower
energy level there is emission of radiation and when electron moves from a lower
level to a higher one there is absorption of radiation. The energy radiated is
electromagnetic.
If E1 and E2 are energies of electron in the initial and final levels respectively, the
difference of energy radiated when the electron passes from the higher to the lower
energy level is given by the relation: E2 – E1 = hʋ
where h is the Plank’s constant and ʋ is the frequency of radiation.
+Ze indicates the positive nuclear
charge where Z is an integer and
Z=1,2,3…….. And Z indicates the
atomic number or proton numbers
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Rydberg equation:
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H-atom spectrum
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Bohr’s Atomic Model
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ENERGY LEVELS
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Limitations of Bohr Theory
1. Bohr theory successfully explain spectrum of hydrogen, but can not explain
the spectral lines of atoms with more than one electron.
2. This theory is unrealistic in the sense that periodic motion around a central
body usually follows an elliptical path rather than a circular path (Fig)which
has been assumed in the case of Bohr theory. If electrons follow elliptical
path, the velocity along the path does not remain constant.
[Link] to Bohr’s model when an electron jumps from one energy level to
another, a single line is supposed to appear on the spectra. However, when a
spectrograph is developed with high resolving power there are two or more
lines very close together are observed. Bohr’s atom model gives no
explanation on this.
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Limitations of Bohr Theory
5. It violates the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. The Bohr atomic
model theory considers electrons to have both a known radius and
orbit i.e. known position and momentum at the same time, which is
impossible according to Heisenberg.
6. The Bohr atomic model theory made correct predictions for smaller
sized atoms like hydrogen, but poor spectral predictions are obtained
when larger atoms are considered.
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Spectrum and hydrogen spectrum
When white light is passed through a prism it is resolved into various color components of
different wave length, and what is obtained is called a spectrum.
In the seventeenth century Newton showed that sun light is composed of various color
components (which can be combined to produce white light as well).
Line Spectrum: A spectrum showing only certain colors or specific wavelengths of light.
Continuous spectrum: A spectrum containing light of all wavelengths.
Example: rainbow
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Nature and Origin of Radiation
There are various kind of radiation which can be classified in
electromagnetic radiation (EM) and particle radiation (p). The X-rays and -
rays are part of the electromagnetic spectrum; both have a wavelength
range between 10-4 and 101 nm, they differ only in their origin.
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Q: Is the spectrum for the incandescent light a continuous spectrum or a line
spectrum?
Ans: Incandescent bulb is equivalent to white light, i.e it has all the seven wavelengths of
light. Therefore when passed through a prism it is disperses into all the seven wavelengths
without any spaces or boundaries and is obtained on the screen as a continuous spectrum.
Emission spectrum: If atoms or molecules are heated to sufficiently high temperature, they
emit light of certain wavelengths. The pattern of frequencies emitted by the substance is
called emission spectrum. From the emission spectrum we get bright lines.
Q: How is a bright line spectrum produced?
When electrons jump from the excited state to the ground state, the electrons emit energy in
the form of light, producing a bright-line spectrum. Each element has its own unique bright-
line spectrum.
Absorption spectrum: When white light is passed through a substance, black lines appear in
the spectrum where light of some wavelengths have been absorbed by the substance. The
pattern of frequencies absorbed by the substance is called absorption spectrum.
From the absorption spectrum we get dark lines.
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Thank You All
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