States of matter

• The kinetic particle theory, or the particulate theory of matter is a five-part theory
dictating the nature of matter:
1) Matter is made up of individual particles
2) The particles of matter are always in random motion
3) The speed of the particles of matter is affected by temperature
4) There is empty space between particles
5) There are forces of attraction between particles which are different based on state of
matter
• The miniscule size of particles makes it very hard to observe their individual behaviours.
However, when a large number of particles are together, they exhibit behaviours that
prove the particulate theory of matter, such as diffusion and osmosis. These are both
examples of passive transport, that is, they occur without the need for external energy
input.

Diffusion
• This is the passive movement of particles from an area of high concentration to and area
of lower concentration until the particles are evenly distributed.
• Particles in liquids and gases (known as fluids) are able to diffuse because the particles
can easily move past each other.
• Denser gases will diffuse slower than less dense (lighter) gases.
• At a higher temperature, diffusion will occur faster because the particles have more
kinetic energy.
• Example:

Osmosis
• Osmosis is the passive movement of water molecules through a differentially permeable
membrane from a dilute solution (area of high water potential) to a concentrated
 solution (area of low water potential) until the concentration is equalized between the
two solutions.
• For example:
o Living cells are contained by a differentially permeable membrane known as the
cell membrane. Everything within the cell is suspended in a water-based solution
called the cytoplasm, which comprises 80% water.
o When living tissue, such as a strip of potato, is placed in pure water (higher water
potential), water molecules enter the strip (lower water potential), causing it to
swell and become rigid.
o However, if the strip is placed in a concentrated solution of table salt (sodium
chloride), water molecules will move out of the strip, causing it to decrease in size
and become softer.

Applications of Osmosis
• Pest Control- The skin of slugs and snails is differentially permeable and always
moist. To kill these pests, table salt is usually sprinkled on them. The salt dissolves in the
moisture on their skin forming a concentrated solution. The water inside their bodies then
moves out by osmosis and into the solution. They quickly die from dehydration due to
water loss.
• Food Preservation- Salt and sugar have been used since antiquity to preserve foods
made of living tissue like meat or fruits. They draw out moisture from these foods via
osmosis, preventing decaying by removing water in the cells necessary for chemical
processes that cause decay.
o These solutes will also pull water out of microorganisms through osmosis,
preventing the growth of bacteria and fungi that cause decay.

Characteristics of the States of Matter

• Matter exists in three states: solid, liquid and gas.
• The characteristics of the states of matter differ due to the strengths of attraction
between particles.
• Solids have the strongest forces of attraction between particles, which is why the particles
are so tightly packed. Liquids have weaker forces of attraction and gases have the
weakest forces of attraction, allowing the particles to be very widely spaced and present
very negligible resistance to compression.
Changes in State
• Substances undergo changes in state based on a change in temperature (heat added or
heat removed).

• The changes in temperature while a substance changes state can be shown a heating
curve when heat is being supplied and a cooling curve when heat is being removed:
• At parts where the graph rises, heat is supplied to the substance to raise its temperature.
• The graph becomes flat when the substance undergoes a change in state. The graph
remains flat (i.e. the overall temperature remains constant) as heat is taken in to overcome
the attractions between the particles.

• At parts where the graph falls, heat is given out from the substance to the surroundings
and its temperature decreases. The graph becomes flat when the substance undergoes a
change in state.
 • The graph remains flat as the particles form bonds. Bond forming produces heat which
is given out to the surroundings and keeps the temperature constant until the entire
substance has changed state.

Mixtures and separations

• An element is a substance which cannot be split up into two or more simpler substances
by chemical means, such as lithium or silicon. It contains atoms of only one type.
• A compound is a substance which consists of two or more elements chemically
combined together in a fixed ratio, e.g. copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4, contains copper,
sulphur, and oxygen. A compound has different properties than its constituent
elements, so aluminium the element can conduct electricity as a solid but aluminium
chloride the compound cannot.
• A compound can only be separated using chemical reactions.
• A mixture consists of two or more elements or compounds which have not been
chemically combined, e.g. water and ethanol, water and salt, aluminium and sulphur.
• A mixture has variable properties since the components keep their individual properties.
• A mixture can be separated by physical means.
• A pure substance is composed of only one type of material, such as one element or one
compound. Pure substances usually have definite sharp melting points and boiling
points and the addition of only a trace of' an impurity will alter these values. The
presence of dissolved solid impurities raises the boiling point of a liquid and lowers the
melting point of a solid, making it less sharp.

Mixtures
• Mixtures can either be homogenous or heterogenous.
• In a homogenous (uniform) mixture, the properties and composition remain constant
throughout the mixture. The components cannot be distinguished from each other.
Solutions are homogenous mixtures.
 • In a heterogenous (non-uniform) mixture, the components can be distinguished from
each other. Suspensions and colloids are heterogenous mixtures.
Solutions

• A solution is a homogenous mixture containing two or more substances, one of which is

usually a liquid.
• A solution is made up of a solvent and a solute.
• The solute is the substance that ‘dissolves’ the other substances, and is present in the
higher concentration. The solvent is usually liquid, but can be a gas (like in air) or a
solid (such as in metal alloys).
• The solute is the substance which is dissolved. It is present in a lower concentration.
Suspensions

• A suspension is a heterogenous mixture which contains tiny, visible particles of one

substance finely dispersed in another substance, usually a liquid.
• Suspensions tend to settle over time if undisturbed.

Colloids

• A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture in which minute particles of one substance are

dispersed in another substance (usually a liquid). The dispersed particles are larger than
those of a solution, but smaller than those of a suspension.

Separation Techniques
• Different separation techniques are suitable based on the nature of the mixture in
question.
To separate a solute from a solution, there are two options:

• Evaporation- A solution consists of a solute dissolved in a solvent, so if the solvent is

evaporated/boiled off, the solute can be separated. For example, sea water is a solution of
salt (the solute) in water (the solvent). If sea water is heated in the apparatus shown
below, the water evaporates and salt is left.

• Crystallization- The main disadvantage of evaporating all of the solvent from a solution
in order to obtain the solute is that if there are any dissolved impurities present, they
will be obtained with the solid at the end of the experiment. This problem is avoided if
crystallisation is carried out.
o The solution is evaporated to crystallisation point, i.e. the point of concentration
and temperature at which crystals of solute will form on cooling the solution to
room temperature. Drops of solution are removed at intervals and allowed to
cool; the formation of crystals in one of these drops indicates that the solution is
at crystallisation point. If the solution is allowed to cool, crystals form and can
then be filtered out, washed and dried.

To separate an insoluble solid from a liquid:

• Filtration- The suspension is poured through a filter paper. The solid is left on the filter
paper as the residue while the liquid passes through and is collected as the filtrate.
 • Decantation- The suspension can be allowed to settle (known as sedimentation), or
spun in a centrifuge, after which, the clear liquid is poured off (decantation).
To separate two solids:

• Sublimation- Sublimation is the direct conversion of a solid to a vapour on heating and

of a vapour to a solid on cooling, without going through the liquid state. If a solid which
sublimes (like ammonium chloride, iodine or naphthalene) is mixed with a solid which
does not, the mixture can be heated, allowing one solid to sublimate off, leaving the other
solid.

• Paper Chromatography- Paper chromatography is used to separate a mixture of similar

solids dissolved in a solvent, e.g. it can be used to separate the dyes in ink or pigments in
plants. A small drop of ink is placed in the centre of a piece of filter paper. Water passes
over the ink and the dyes separate into rings of different substances. The separation
depends on differences in (a) the solubilities of the dyes in water, and (b) the tendencies
of the dyes to stick to the surface of the paper. Chromatography can also be used to
separate colourless substances but in this case the paper must be developed by spraying it
with another chemical so that the position of the solids can be seen.
 To separate two (or more) immiscible liquids (liquids that do not mix together and form
distinct layers when undisturbed):

• Separating funnel- In a separating funnel, the liquids are separated based on their
differences in density. The liquid with lower density is found in the top layer while
the liquid with higher density is found in the bottom layer. The tap can be opened to
allow the denser liquid to run off while the less dense liquid remains in the funnel.
For example, oil is less dense than water, and so oil will form the top layer while
water forms the bottom layer.

To separate a solvent from a solution:

• Distillation- Distillation is carried out using the apparatus below. When the solution
is boiled, the solvent changes to vapour. The vapour passes down a condenser where
 it is converted back to liquid (condenses) and is collected as the distillate in the
beaker.

To separate two miscible liquids (liquids that mix together completely and do not form layers):

• Fractional Distillation- In cases where a mixture contains liquids that have relatively
close boiling points, fractional distillation is used for purification. In such mixtures,
the vapour produced is a mixture of these substances. The fractionating column aids
in separating the vapour into individual components, which allow for the collection of
pure substances.
Atomic structure
• Atoms are composed of three basic types of subatomic particles: protons, neutrons
and electrons
• Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus, while the electrons orbit the nucleus in
energy shells
• The energy shells of an atom are relatively far from the nucleus, making most of the
atom empty space. Electrons fill the shells closest to the nucleus first.
• The first energy shell has a capacity of 2 electrons, while the second and third can
both hold up to 8 electrons.

• The arrangement of the electrons in an atom can be written as its electronic

configuration/arrangement. It is the number of electrons in each shell of the atom
starting from the innermost shell. So the sulphur atom above has an electronic
configuration of 2,8,6.
• The outermost shell is known as the valence shell.
• A proton is a positively charged particle, with mass approximately equal to that of a
hydrogen atom.
• A neutron is a neutral particle, with mass approximately equal to that of a hydrogen
atom.
• An electron is a negatively charged particle, its charge being opposite to that of a
proton, and its mass approximately 1/1840 of that of a proton.

• An atom is always neutral (has no charge), so the number of protons (positively

charged) will be equal to the number of electrons (negatively charged)
 • The atoms of different elements contain different numbers of protons and electrons.
• Every atom has an atomic number and a mass/nucleon number
• The atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom and gives its
position in the periodic table.
• The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom is its mass number or nucleon
number.

Isotopes
• Isotopy is the existence of atoms of the same element with different numbers of
neutrons (but the same number of protons) in their nuclei
• Isotopes share chemical properties but have different physical properties

Uses of Isotopes
• Nuclear Power with Uranium-235: Nuclear power stations generate electricity from the
energy produced when isotopes like uranium-235 decay. Uranium-235 absorbs neutrons
to form uranium-236 and then nuclear fission occurs, which can trigger the fission of
other uranium atoms, which generates a massive quantity of energy.
• Carbon-14 Dating: In living animals and plants the percentage of the radioactive isotope
carbon-14 remains constant because it is continually being replaced from the carbon
dioxide in the air and from food. In dead tissue this does not happen so the percentage of
carbon-14 gradually decreases as the isotope decays. Hence by comparing the percentage
of carbon-14 in a dead sample with that in living matter, the age of the sample can be
found.
 • Radiotherapy- Cancer may be cured in some cases by killing the cancerous cells by
exposing them to the penetrating power of radiation from radioactive isotopes like
Cobalt-60
• Sterilization- Gamma rays are used to sterilise medical instruments by killing bacteria.
They are also used to ‘irradiate’ certain foods, again killing bacteria to preserve the food
for longer. They are safe to use as no radioactive material goes into the food.
• Tracers- If radioactive compounds are injected into a patient, the functioning of glands
and the flow of blood around the body may be checked by means of a Geiger counter or
some other detecting device. For example, the functioning of the thyroid gland can be
checked by giving patients radioactive iodine-131

Past paper Questions

Periodic table and periodicity
• The periodic table is arranged into horizontal rows called periods and vertical columns
called groups.
• The elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number, the electronic
configuration of the atoms and their chemical properties, and placed into rows so that
similar elements fall into groups.
• Elements in the periodic table exhibit periodicity, the recurrence of similar chemical and
physical properties at regular intervals.
• When element 21 is reached the electronic structures of the atoms become more
complicated and a centre block of transition elements has to be added (hence why CSEC
only requires that you know up to element 20, calcium).

Trends Down a Group

• The elements of a group have the same number of valence electrons.
• The metallic nature of the elements increases as a group is descended. This is most
noticeable in group IV, which starts with the non-metal carbon and ends with the metal
lead.
• The reactivity of metals increases down a group
• The reactivity of non-metals decreases down a group.
• All elements in Group VIII (also called Group 0) have a full valence shell.
• The number of shells increases down a group.
• The group number is the same as the number of valence electrons, so an element in group
IV will always have 4 valence electrons
 • Atomic radius (distance between the nucleus and valence shell) increases down a group.
This is because the number of occupied shells increases down the group, increasing the
distance between the nucleus and the outermost valence shell. The inner shells shield the
outer electrons from the attractive pull of the positively charged nucleus.
• Electronegativity (a measure of how readily an element attracts electrons) decreases
down a group. This is because the number of shells increases down a group, weakening
the pull of the nucleus on other electrons due to shielding.

Trends Across a Period

• The metallic nature decreases across a period, so the elements change from metals to
non-metals (Groups I-III are metals, while V-VIII are non-metals)
• The number of valence electrons increases across a period corresponding to the group
number
• The number of shells remains the same
• The period number corresponds to the number of shells, so an element in period 3 will
have 3 electron shells
• Atomic radius decreases across a period. This is because the number of occupied shells
remains the same, but the valence shell contains more electrons. The positively charged
nucleus is able to pull more strongly on the valence shell since there are more negatively
charged electrons to pull on.
• Electronegativity increases across a period, since the number of shells remains the same
but the number of protons in the nucleus increases. As a result, the nucleus is able to
attract electrons more readily.

Trends in Group II (Alkaline Earth Metals)

• Elements in group II have similar chemical properties because they all have 2 valence
electrons.
• In reactions, group II elements lose 2 electrons to form cations (positively charged ions).
This is called ionization, and the more easily an element forms ions, the more reactive
it is.
• Atomic radius (distance between the nucleus and valence shell) increases down group II.
This is because the number of occupied shells increases down the group, increasing the
distance between the nucleus and the outermost valence shell. The inner shells shield the
outer electrons from the attractive pull of the positively charged nucleus.
• Ease of ionization (and therefore reactivity) increases down group II. This is because the
atomic radius increases down the group, causing the attraction between the nucleus and
the valence electrons to decrease. The valence electrons are further away, and the inner
shells shield the outer electrons from the pull of the nucleus, allowing them to be lost
more easily.
 • Since the metals become more reactive down group II, they will react more easily with
reagents such as water, oxygen and dilute hydrochloric acid the further down they are in
the group.

Trends in Group VII (Halogens)

• Group VII elements all exist as diatomic molecules: Cl2, Br2, etc
• They are non-metals, and all have 7 valence electrons
• They gain one electron to form an anion (negatively charged ion). Thus, their reactivity
is based on how easily they gain electrons, the opposite of the group II metals, which
have to lose electrons
• The atomic radius increases down the group.
• Electronegativity decreases down the group.
• Ease of ionization (and reactivity) decreases down Group VII. This is because these
elements have to gain electrons, and therefore the more electronegative element is more
reactive.
• Oxidizing power (the tendency to take electrons from other elements) decreases down
the group, so a halogen higher in the group will displace a halogen lower in the group
from its compound.
Trends Across Period 3
• The metallic nature of elements decreases across period 3
• The oxides of the elements become more acidic across period 3- so the oxides of the
metals are basic while the oxides of the non-metals are acidic
Structure and bonding
• An atom is most stable when its valence shell is filled. Atoms of elements will either lose
or gain electrons to gain a stable electronic configuration (i.e. a full valence shell)
• Elements come together to form compounds in order to become stable.
• All elements except the noble gases (group VIII elements) form compounds commonly,
since only the noble gases have a full valence shell.
• Bonds are formed between atoms when electrons are redistributed among those atoms to
give each one the stable electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas in the periodic
table. Usually this results in the formation of an octet of electrons (8 valence electrons).

Ionic Bonding
• An ionic bond is formed when the electrons of one or more metal atoms are transferred
to one or more non-metal atoms so that both types of atoms have full valence shells
• The metal will lose electrons, forming a cation (positively charged ion)
• The non-metal will gain electrons from the metal, forming an anion (negatively charged
ion)
• Note that when atoms form ions, the ions have full valence shells
• The number of electrons lost or gained by an atom in forming an ion is its valency.
• For (non-transition) metals, the number of electrons lost per atom is equal to the group
number; for non-metals, the number of electrons gained by each atom is equal to 8
minus the group number.
• The ions of an ionic compound are arranged in an ionic lattice and are held together by
electrostatic forces of attraction (i.e. attraction between the positive charge and
negative charge of the cations and anions respectively).
• Dot and cross diagrams can be used to show the transfer of electrons and the bonding
within ionic compounds
Covalent Bonding
• A covalent bond is formed between non-metals by sharing electron pairs.
• A single covalent bond is the result of two non-metals contributing one electron each to
the bond, but there exist double (in O2) and triple covalent bonds (in N2) where each non-
metal contributes two or three electrons respectively.
• Only the valence electrons are used in bonding.

Metallic Bonding
• In metallic bonding, the metal in its entirety consists of metal cations tightly packed into
rows, surrounded by a sea of delocalized electrons. Delocalized refers to the fact that the
electrons are no longer individually associated with specific atoms. The attraction
between the cations and the electrons holds the metallic lattice together.
 • Metals have high melting and boiling points as a lot of energy is required to overcome
the strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the ‘sea of electrons’ and the lattice of
positive ions.
• As atoms in metals are packed tightly in layers, they usually have high densities.
• Metallic bonding is not affected when a force is applied as the layers of positive ions can
slide past each other among the ‘sea of mobile electrons.’ As a result, metals are
malleable and ductile

Types of Solids
Ionic Crystals

• In ionic compounds, the positive ions and negative ions are held together by strong
electrostatic forces of attraction, forming giant lattice structures.
• Have high melting and boiling points, since a large quantity of energy is required to
overcome the strong forces of attraction between the ions in the lattice. As a result, they
usually exist as solids at room temperature.
• The melting and boiling points are influenced by the strength of the electrostatic forces
of attraction. Magnesium oxide has a higher melting point than sodium chloride. The
ions in sodium chloride have charges of +1 (Na+) and –1 (Cl-), while the ions in
magnesium oxide have charges of +2 (Mg2+) and –2 (O2-). The electrostatic forces of
attraction are stronger in magnesium oxide, hence more energy is required to melt it.
• Ionic compounds are soluble in water and other polar solvents. This is because polar
solvents like water have partial charges that allow them to attract the positive and
negative ions of ionic compounds. They are insoluble in non-polar solvents, also called
organic solvents.
• Ionic compounds conduct electricity when dissolved in water (aqueous) or in molten
state (liquid), but not when in solid state. In aqueous and molten states, the ions are free
to move and hence can carry electric charge. In solid state however, the ions are held in
fixed positions in the lattice structure.
 • Ionic crystals are brittle, since when force is applied, oppositely charged ions are
brough next to each other, causing repulsion.

Simple Molecular/Covalent Solids

• Covalent substances with simple molecular structures consist of small discrete molecules
(discrete means that they are separate that are held together by weak intermolecular
forces of attraction. These forces are also known as van der Waals’ force of attraction.
• Substances with simple molecular structures have low melting and boiling points as a
small amount of energy is required to overcome the weak intermolecular forces of
attraction.
• The strength of the forces of attraction is dependent on molecular size. Substances with
large molecules are held together by stronger intermolecular forces compared to those
with small molecules. Therefore, the melting and boiling points of large simple
molecules are higher than those of small simple molecules.
• These substances do not conduct electricity as they do not have any freely-moving charge
carriers (no mobile ions, and no freely moving electrons).
• The particles are molecules, linked by very weak intermolecular attractive forces but it
must be emphasised that the individual atoms within the molecule are joined together by
strong intramolecular covalent bonds.
• These are soluble in non-polar solvents but insoluble in polar solvents like water. This
is because they do not have charged particles like the ions in ionic crystals to be attracted
to the partial charges in polar molecules.
Giant Molecular/Covalent/Atomic Solids

• They consist of giant atomic lattices with strong covalent bonds acting throughout
the whole solid.
• A giant molecular could be considered to be one giant molecule, as every atom is
joined together with strong covalent (intramolecular) bonds
 • Substances with giant molecular structures have high melting and boiling points as a
lot of energy is required to overcome the strong covalent bonds holding the atoms
together.
• Apart from graphite, giant molecular solids do not usually conduct electricity, as they
do not have charged particles to carry electrons (mobile ions or free electrons)

Allotropy
• Allotropy is the existence of different forms of the same element in the same physical
state.
• Diamond and Graphite are allotropes of carbon which have giant molecular
structures.

Diamond

• Each atom in diamond is covalently bonded to four other atoms.

• Due to its rigid structure, diamond is a very hard substance and is used for drill tips or
cutting tools.
 • All valence electrons in each carbon atom are used for covalent bonding, therefore
diamond cannot conduct electricity.
Graphite

• Each atom in graphite is covalently bonded to three other atoms, forming a continuous
layer of carbon atoms arranged in hexagons, known as a graphene layer.
• Graphite consists of many graphene layers which are held together by weak van der
Waals’ forces of attraction.
• These layers of carbon atoms can slide past each other, making graphite a soft and
slippery substance. This makes graphite suitable for use as a lubricant.
• Graphite can conduct electricity. Each carbon atom in graphite has one free electron
since each atom forms only three covalent bonds. These electrons are delocalised along
the layer of carbon atoms. The presence of delocalised electrons allows for the
conduction of electricity.
Mole Concept
Relative Atomic Mass

• The relative atomic mass of an element is the ratio of the average mass of one atom of
a specific element compared to 1/12 the mass of one atom of carbon-12.
• Relative atomic mass is dimensionless, that is, it has no units.
• Carbon-12 is assigned a mass of exactly 12.00 atomic mass units.
• Relative atomic mass is the same as the mass number of an element.
The Mole

• 1 mole of any substance consists of 6 × 1023 particles. The number 6 × 1023 is called the
Avogadro’s constant.
• The number of moles of a substance can be obtained by dividing the total number of
particles by the Avogadro’s constant.

• The mass of 1 mole of substance is given by its molar mass. The molar mass of an
element is equal to its relative atomic mass.
• Molar mass has the units g/mol. It is not dimensionless like relative mass.
• The number of moles can be obtained by dividing the mass of the substance in grams by
its molar mass.

• There is a difference between one mole of atoms and one mole of molecules, especially
in molecular elements like chlorine, nitrogen and hydrogen gas (which exist as diatomic
molecules). 1 mole of atoms is 6 × 10^23 atoms but, 1 mole of molecules is 6 × 10^23
molecules.

Empirical and Molecular Formulae

• The empirical formula of a compound gives the simplest ratio of the number of atoms of
each element in the compound.
• The molecular formula of a compound gives the actual number of atoms of each element
in the compound. The molecular formula of a compound is always a multiple of its
empirical formula.
• Since the molecular formula is always a multiple of the empirical formula, a compound
with the empirical formula AxBy has a molecular formula of (AxBy)n, where n is an
integer. The value of n can be found using the following formula.
Calculations with Gases

• 1 mole of any gas occupies a volume of 24 dm3 at room temperature and pressure.
o This volume is also called the molar volume. Recall that 1 dm3 is equal to 1000 cm3.
• 1 mole of any gas occupies 22.4 dm3 at standard temperature and pressure
• Avogadro’s Law states that any gas, at a particular temperature and pressure, occupies the
same volume.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠
• 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

Calculations with Solutions

• Calculating the amount of reactant particles in a solution requires the concentration of the
solution. The concentration gives the amount of reactant dissolved per unit volume of a
solution. This can be expressed in g/dm3 or mol/dm3.
Acids, Bases and Salts
Acids
• An acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water. It is a
proton donor.
• These hydrogens from the acid become ions are called replaceable hydrogen.
• Acids have a sour taste, turn blue litmus red, conduct electricity when in solution and
give solutions with pH values below 7.
• Note that an acid does not show the properties of an acid until dissolved in water.
Reactions of Acids

• Dilute acids react with metals that lie above hydrogen in the reactivity series. The
reaction produces a salt and hydrogen gas.
• 𝑍𝑛(𝑠) + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑍𝑛𝐶𝑙2(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2(𝑔)
• Note that nitric acid reacts with metals to produce nitrogen oxides instead of hydrogen.
• Although lead lies above hydrogen in the reactivity series, it appears to be unreactive in
dilute hydrochloric acid and dilute sulfuric acid. This is due to the formation of a layer of
insoluble salt around the metal. The layer prevents contact between the acid and the
metal, therefore causing the reaction to end prematurely.
• Acids react with carbonates (and hydrogen carbonates) to produce salt, water and
carbon dioxide.
• CaCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CaSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
• Acids react with bases to form a salt and water

• Al2O3(s) + 6HCl(aq) → 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2O(l)

Acid Strength

• The strength of an acid depends on how completely it ionizes in water.

• A strong acid fully ionises in water to form H+ ions. All hydrogen atoms in the acid
become ions in solution. All hydrogens in the acid are replaceable. Such acids include
hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid and phosphoric acid.
• H2SO4(aq) → 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
• A weak acid partially ionises in water. Hydrogen atoms in the acid still remain as a part
of the molecule and aren’t converted to ions. Not all hydrogens in the acid are
replaceable. Examples of weak acids include carboxylic acids, such as ethanoic acid
(CH3COOH).
• Strong acids have lower pH than weak acids, which have pH closer to 7.
Acid Anhydrides
 • Acid anhydrides are compounds which react with water to form acids.
• Usually, acid anhydrides are the oxides of non-metals, such as carbon dioxide (CO2),
sulphur trioxide (SO3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2), phosphorous
pentoxide (P2O5)

Bases
• A base is a metal oxide or hydroxide that reacts with acids to produce salt and water.
• A base is a proton acceptor, that is, it contains O2- or OH- ions which react with the H+
ions of acids to form water.

• Bases have a bitter taste, turn red litmus blue, and give solutions with pH values above
7.
• An alkali is a water-soluble base, that will dissolve in water to form a solution containing
OH- (hydroxide ions)
• Most bases are insoluble in water, and so they are not alkalis.
• Since alkalis are soluble in water, they can be electrolytes, able to carry electric current.
• All potassium, sodium and ammonium hydroxides are alkalis.
• Ammonia gas, potassium oxide, sodium oxide and calcium oxide react with water to
form solutions containing hydroxide ions.
• Bases react with ammonium salts to form a salt, water and ammonia gas.
Strength of Alkalis

• The strength of an alkali is also dependent on how completely it ionizes in water.

• A strong alkali fully ionises in water, and has a pH closer to 14.
• A weak alkali only partially ionizes in water, and has a pH closer to 7.
pH Scale

• The pH scale gives a measurement of how acidic or basic a substance dissolved in water
is.
• The pH scale is based on the relative concentration of H+ ions and OH- ions
• Acids will have a higher concentration of H+ ions, while alkalis will have a higher
concentration of OH- ions

Distinguishing Between Acids and Alkalis (Indicators)

 • Indicators change colour based on whether they are in an acidic or alkaline solution.

Indicator Name Colour in Acidic Solution Colour in Alkaline Solution

Litmus Red Blue
Methyl orange Red Yellow
Screened Methyl Orange Red Green
Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink

Oxides
• When a compound is formed between oxygen and another element, the result is a
compound known as an oxide.
• Oxides can be either acidic oxides, basic oxides, amphoteric oxides or neutral oxides
Acidic Oxides

• Some non-metals form acidic oxides, which dissolve in water to give acids.
• They react with bases to form a salt and water.
• For example: Carbon dioxide (CO2), sulphur trioxide (SO3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2),
sulphur dioxide (SO2), phosphorous pentoxide (P2O5) and Silicon dioxide (SO2) (Notice
that they are mostly the same as the acid anhydrides)
Basic Oxides

• Metals form basic oxides, which react with acids to form a salt and water.
• For example, copper (II) oxide (CuO) and magnesium oxide (MgO) are basic oxides.
Amphoteric Oxides

• These are the oxides of some metals which react with both acids and strong alkalis to
form a salt and water.
• The three most common amphoteric oxides are aluminium oxide (Al2O3), zinc oxide
(ZnO) and lead (II) oxide (PbO)
• Aluminium Oxide will react with strong alkalis to form aluminate salts, Zinc Oxide
will form zincate salts, and Lead (II) Oxide will form plumbate salts.
• The hydroxides of aluminium, zinc and lead are also amphoteric.
Basicity of Acids
• The basicity of an acid is dependent on how many hydrogen ions one molecule of the
acid releases in aqueous solution.
• Monobasic acids release one free hydrogen ion for each acid molecule in solution. This
means that they only have one replaceable hydrogen. For example, HCl, HNO3, and
CH3COOH (ethanoic acid is monobasic since only one hydrogen is replaceable in the
molecule).
• Dibasic acids release two free hydrogen ions for each molecule of the acid in solution.
They have two replaceable hydrogens, for example, H2SO4
• Tribasic acids give three free hydrogen ions for each molecule of acid in aqueous
solution, for example, H3PO4.

Acids in Living Systems

• Ascorbic acid (C6H8O6) is vitamin C. It is found in citrus fruit and some other fruits and
juices. Sodium hydrogencarbonate is sometimes added to fruit to neutralize any Vitamin
C to improve appearance and texture.
• Methanoic Acid (HCOOH) is found in the venom of ants, and can cause itching and
swelling. These can be treated with sodium hydrogencarbonate or zinc oxide lotion,
which neutralizes the acid.
• Citric Acid (C6H8O7) is found in citrus fruits, and can be used to remove rust stains from
clothing.
o Fe2O3(s) + 6H+(aq) → 2Fe3+(aq) + 3H2O(l)
• Lactic Acid (C3H6O3) is produced in muscle cells during strenuous activity. Its excessive
buildup stops muscles from contracting.
• Ethanoic Acid (CH3COOH) is found in vinegar, and can be used to preserve food items.
Enzymes which cause decay are denatured in its low pH and the growth of
microorganisms are unable to grow.

Salts
• Salts are compounds formed when one or more of the replaceable hydrogens of an acid
are replaced by metal or ammonium ions.
o Thus, a salt contains at least one metal or ammonium cation and an anion from the
acid.
• Although salts are ionic compounds, they are not all soluble in water:
Classification of Salts

• Salts are classified as either normal salts or acid salts.

• Normal Salts are formed when all of the hydrogen ions in an acid are replaced by metal
or ammonium acids.
o They have a pH of 7 when dissolved.
o All acids can form normal salts.
• Acid Salts are formed when the hydrogen ions in an acid are only partially replaced my
metal or ammonium ions.
o They still have hydrogen ions in their structure, so their names usually start with
‘hydrogen’ followed by the name of the rest of the anion (eg potassium
hydrogensulphate (KHSO4))
o They have pH of less than 7
o Only dibasic and tribasic acids can form acid salts
o Acid salts will be formed when not enough base or metal is reacted to replace all
the hydrogen ions in the dibasic or tribasic acid
• Salts can also either be anhydrous or hydrated salts.
o Anhydrous salts contain no water of crystallization in their structures
o Hydrated salts contain water of crystallization, which are water molecules
included as a part of the alt’s crystal lattice
▪ E.g. copper (II) sulphate pentahydrate (CuSO4.5H2O)

Uses of Salts
• Calcium carbonate is used in the manufacture of cement and decorative stones.
• Sodium chloride, sodium nitrite, sodium nitrate, and sodium benzoate are used in
food preservation.
• Calcium sulfate is used in Plaster of Paris for making casts and is also found in gypsum,
which is used in plastering walls.
• Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate is Epsom salt which is a laxative. Magnesium sulfate
decahydrate is Glauber salt which is also a laxative.
 • Sodium nitrate however, is implicated in causing brain damage in infants and also
suspected to be carcinogenic.
• Copper (II) Sulphate is used as a fungicide.
• Ammonium sulphate is used as fertilizer (it replenishes the soil with nitrogen ions).
• Iron (II) sulphate, mercury chloride, sodium arsenate and sodium chlorate (V) are
used as pesticides to kill insects, pests, weeds and fungi.
• Potassium manganate (VII) is used as a disinfectant.
• Sodium hydrogencarbonate is an ingredient in antacids to neutralize the excess
hydrochloric acid secreted by the stomach.

Preparation Of Salts
• The method used to prepare a salt depends primarily on the solubility of the salt and the
solubility of the reactants needed to prepare the salt.
• There are three main procedures used to prepare salts, ionic precipitation, acid and
insoluble solid and titration.
• Ionic precipitation is used to prepare insoluble salts. This is done through mixing two
aqueous solutions, one containing the cation of the salt and another containing the anion
of the salt. After mixing the two solutions, the salt can be separated through filtration
and purified by washing with distilled water.
o Note- when considering which aqueous solutions to use, the cation and anion of
the desired salt should be considered. So, if we intend to prepare the insoluble
Barium Sulphate (BaSO4), one solution must contain Ba2+ ions while the other
must contain SO42+ ions. So, Ba(NO3)2 could be used in one solution, and Na2SO4
could be used as the other solution.
• Acid and insoluble solid and titration are used to prepare soluble salts, but titration is
used almost exclusively to prepare sodium, potassium and ammonium salts. This is
because every sodium, potassium and ammonium compound is soluble, and therefore an
insoluble solid cannot be found to be used in another method.
• Non-sodium/potassium/ammonium soluble salts can be prepared by reacting an insoluble
solid with an acid (containing the needed anion). This insoluble solid can either be a
reactive metal solid, and insoluble carbonate or an insoluble base.
o Add the insoluble solid to the acid until in excess. This is to ensure that the acid is
completely reacted.
o Dip a piece of blue litmus paper into the solution, it should remain blue.
o Filter to remove the excess solid.
o Acquire salt crystals from the filtrate through crystallization or by evaporating the
water.
Note that this method does not work for unreactive metals like silver or copper or for very
reactive metals like potassium, sodium or calcium. This would be too dangerous as they
react violently with acids.
Titration

• Titration is used to prepare sodium, potassium and ammonium salts.

• Two solutions are needed: an alkali or carbonate solution containing the Na+, K+ or NH4+
ions; and a suitable acid to supply the anion for the desired salt.
o Using a pipette, add a fixed volume of the alkali to a conical flask. Add a few
drops of an indicator (phenolphthalein) to the acid.
o Place the acid in a burette and add the acid to the alkali until one drop of the acid
causes the phenolphthalein to become completely colourless.
o Record the volume of acid added from the burette. (Remember that a burette is
read from the top-downwards)
o Discard the mixture in the conical flask and repeat the procedure without the
indicator, adding the same volume found in the previous addition.
o The salt can be procured through evaporation/crystallization.

Neutralization Reactions
• A neutralization reaction is the reaction between a base and an acid to form a salt and
water. The main reaction occurring is between the hydrogen ions (protons) of the acid
and the oxide ions or hydroxide ions of the base to form water, while the salt is a by-
product.
• A neutralization reaction ends at the neutralization point, when all hydroxide ions have
reacted with all the hydrogen ions, and neither ion is present in excess. The pH of the
solution at the neutralization point is 7, neutral.
• The neutralization point of a reaction can be determined using an indicator or with
temperature change through titration:
o Indicator- Using a pipette, add a fixed volume of the alkali to a conical flask.
Add a few drops of an indicator (phenolphthalein) to the acid. Place the acid in a
burette and add the acid to the alkali until one drop of the acid causes the
phenolphthalein to become completely colourless. This is the neutralization
point.
o Temperature Change (Thermometric Titration)- Using a pipette, add a fixed
volume of the alkali to an insulated container (eg a Styrofoam cup). Record the
temperature of the alkali. Place the acid in a burette and add the acid to the alkali
in small quantities, eg 1 cm3, and record the temperature after each successive
drop until the temperature begins to fall consistently. These temperature values
are plotted on a graph of temperature against volume of acid added. Two straight
 lines of best fit are drawn, and their point of intersection is the neutralization
point.
▪ Neutralization reactions release heat (i.e. they are exothermic), so the
reaction will increase in temperature until it ends, at which point the
neutralization has ended.

Uses of Neutralization Reactions

• Toothpaste contains sodium hydrogencarbonate and sodium monofluorophosphate
(Na2FPO3)
o Sodium hydrogencarbonate neutralizes acids in the mouth
o Sodium monofluorophosphate’s fluoride ions displace hydroxide ions in the
enamel- calcium hydroxyapatite (Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2) -of teeth to form calcium
fluoroapatite (Ca10(PO4)6F2), which does not react with acid, protecting the
tooth from decaying
• Lime (CaO or Ca(OH)2) is added to the soil to neutralize acids present, and bring it
closer to neutral pH, since most plants grow best in neutral pH soil.
o Lime cannot be added at the same time as ammonium fertilizers, as the strong
alkali of lime will react with the ammonium salt fertilizer to produce a salt,
ammonia and water. Since neither the alkaline influence of the lime nor the
ammonium ions are present in the soil, neither benefit is available to the plants.
• Antacids like sodium hydrogencarbonate treat indigestion and acid reflux by neutralizing
excess stomach acid (HCl).
Volumetric Analysis
• Volumetric analysis is an approach that helps us to determine either the concentration
of a certain solution or the mole ratio of a certain reaction between two compounds,
an acid and an alkali.
• We use the data from titrations to determine this information. Titrations show us the
volume of solution that is reacting with another solution.
• In order to find the mole ratio between two reactants, we need the concentrations of both
solutions.
• In order to find the concentration of an unknown solution, we need to know the
concentration of the other solution.
o The solution of known concentration is called the standard solution.
Reduction-oxidation reactions
• Reduction-Oxidation or redox reactions are reactions in which one reactant gains
electrons while the other reactant loses electrons.
o That is, one reactant is reduced while the other reactant is oxidized.
o Reduction and oxidation are opposite reactions, so if one reactant is reduced, the
other must be oxidized.
o Oxidation is the loss of electrons while Reduction is the gain of electrons. A
useful mnemonic to remember this is OIL RIG:

Oxidation State/Number

• The oxidation state of an atom or ion is a number referring to the number of electrons
lost, shared, or gained through a chemical bond.
• Oxidation numbers can be positive, negative, or zero, so the + or – must always be
included.
• Oxidation number increases during oxidation but decreases (reduces) during reduction.

• Calculating Oxidation Number

• An element has an oxidation state of 0, regardless of whether it is found as
individual atoms or in molecules. For example, sodium (Na), neon (Ne) and chlorine
(Cl2) have oxidation states of 0.
• The sum of oxidation numbers of all atoms in an uncharged compound is 0. For a
polyatomic ion, the sum of oxidation numbers of all atoms is equal to its charge.
• The oxidation state of an ion is given by its charge. For example, a magnesium ion
Mg2+ and an oxide ion O2– have oxidation states of +2 and –2 respectively.
• Oxygen usually has the oxidation state of –2 in its compounds (except for in
peroxides). Hydrogen usually has the oxidation state of +1 in its compounds (except
for in hydrides).

Oxidizing and Reducing Agents

• An oxidising agent is a substance that causes another substance to be oxidised.

• The presence of an oxidising agent can be tested using potassium iodide (KI) solution.
o Iodide ions (I-) are oxidised to form iodine (I2) when an oxidising agent is present.
▪ 2 I-(aq) → I2(aq) + 2e-
o The solution turns from colourless to brown.
• A reducing agent is a substance that causes another substance to be reduced.
• The presence of a reducing agent can be tested using acidified potassium
manganate(VII) (KMnO4) solution.
o Manganate (VII) ions are reduced to manganese(II) ions in the presence of a
reducing agent. The solution turns from purple to colourless.
▪ MnO4–(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5e– → Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
• Acidified potassium dichromate(VI) solution can also be used to test for the presence
of reducing agents.
o Dichromate(VI) ions (Cr2O72–) are reduced to form chromium(III) (Cr3+) ions.
The solution turns from orange to green.
▪ Cr2O72–(aq) + 14H+(aq) + 6e– → 2Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O(l)
Electrochemistry
• Conductors are substances which allow current to flow through them.
• Electrical conductors are divided into two main groups, metals and graphite and
electrolytes.
• Electrolytes are ionic compounds which conduct electric current when dissolved in a
polar solvent (i.e. when in aqueous solution) or when molten.
• In metallic conduction, mobile, delocalized electrons carry electrical charge.
o The metal remains chemically unchanged.
• In electrolytic conduction, mobile ions in the liquid or aqueous state are responsible for
carrying charge.
o The electrolyte experiences chemical changes (decomposition) as a result of
conduction electricity.
Weak vs Strong Electrolytes

• Strong electrolytes completely ionize in aqueous solution, such as strong acids like
hydrochloric acid. They conduct electricity very well.
• Weak electrolytes are only partially ionized in aqueous solution, for example weak acids
(eg ethanoic acid) and weak alkalis (eq aqueous ammonia). The currents they conduct
are weak.

Electrolysis
• Electrolysis is the chemical change occurring when an electric current is passed through
an electrolyte. Usually, electrolysis results in the decomposition of the electrolyte.
• Electrolysis takes place in an electrolytic cell.

• During the process, electrons flow from the positive terminal to the negative terminal
of the battery.
• Ions are discharged at the electrodes, that is, they lose or gain electrons to become atoms
or molecules and lose their charges.
• The cathode is the negative electrode. It attracts cations (positive ions from the
electrolyte).
 o Cations gain electrons at the cathode. They are reduced.
• The anode is the positive electrode. It attracts anions (negative ions from the
electrolyte).
o Anions lose electrons to the anode and are oxidized.

Ions Present in an Electrolyte

• The ions present in an electrolyte depend primarily on which ionic compound is in the
electrolyte and whether the electrolyte is an aqueous solution or molten (liquid).
• The ions present will include the ions in the ionic compound, e.g. if the electrolyte is
molten lead (II) bromide (PbBr2), then the lead (II) ion (Pb2+) and bromide ion (Br-) are
present.
• If the electrolyte is aqueous, then the ions that make up water will also be present: water
partially dissociates to form the hydrogen ion (H+) and the hydroxide ion (OH-)
o Water is a weak electrolyte, it will carry a weak electric current since only 1 in
every 556 million water molecules dissociates:
▪ H2O(l) → H+(aq) + OH-(aq)

The Electrochemical Series and Preferential Discharge

• The electrochemical series is an arrangement of cations and anions in order of their ease
of discharge.
o If there are multiple cations or anions in an electrolyte, the easiest ion to be
discharged will be preferentially discharged instead of the other(s).
• The one that will be preferentially discharged is the ion that is lowest in the
electrochemical series.
 • If there are hydroxide ions in the electrolyte, they will be preferentially discharged
according to the equation: 4OH-(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e-
• If there are hydrogen ions in the electrolyte, they will be preferentially discharged unless
the other cations are copper, silver or gold ions. These metals also will not react with
acids.

Electrolysis of Certain Substances

• The preferential discharge of anions relies on 3 things:
o The type of anode
▪ Usually, if the anode is active, (e.g. copper) the anode will ionize instead
of discharging anions
o The position of the ion on the electrochemical series
▪ The lower the ion is on the electrochemical series, the more likely it is to
be preferentially discharged. The ions at the top are the most stable, and
therefore the hardest to discharge.
o The concentration of the electrolyte (applies to halide ions)
▪ The greater the concentration of an ion, the more likely it is to be
preferentially discharged. This rule applies mainly to solutions containing
halide ions (Cl-, Br- and I- ions).

Electrolysis of Dilute or Concentrated Aqueous Sodium Chloride Using Inert Electrodes

• H⁺(aq) and OH⁻(aq) ions are present from water

• Na⁺(aq) and Cl⁻(aq) ions are present from sodium chloride

• H⁺(aq) and Na⁺(aq) ions move towards the cathode, and H⁺ is lower on the
electrochemical series than Na⁺, so H⁺ is preferentially discharged:
o 2H⁺(aq) + 2e⁻ → H2(g)
 o This is unaffected by the concentration of the solution.
• Na⁺(aq) and Cl⁻(aq) ions move towards the anode. What happens here depends on
whether the solution is dilute or concentrated.
• If the solution is dilute (dilute aqueous sodium chloride), then the hydroxide is
preferentially discharged (as it is lower on the electrochemical series), resulting in the
liberation of oxygen at the anode:
o 4OH⁻(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e⁻
o Little to no chlorine is liberated here.
o The electrolyte becomes more concentrated, as water is liberated.
• However, if the solution is concentrated, the chloride ions are preferentially
discharged at the anode while very little oxygen is evolved:
o 2Cl⁻(aq) → Cl2(g) + 2e⁻
o The electrolyte becomes more basic, as hydroxide ions remain in solution

Electrolysis of Aqueous Copper (II) Sulphate Using Inert Electrodes

• H⁺(aq) and OH⁻(aq) ions are present from water

• Cu²⁺(aq) and SO4²⁻(aq) ions are present from copper (II) sulphate.

• H⁺(aq) and Cu²⁺(aq) ions go to the cathode.

• Copper is lower than hydrogen on the electrochemical series, so it is preferentially
discharged at the cathode.
o Cu²⁺(aq) + 2e⁻ → Cu(s)
o The copper is deposited as a pink brown solid on the cathode, and the
electrolyte’s blue colour fades
 • OH⁻(aq) and SO4²⁻(aq) ions go to the anode.
• Hydroxide ions are lower than sulphate ions on the electrochemical series so they are
preferentially discharged at the anode.
o The solution becomes more acidic as hydrogen ions remain in solution
• The reaction is the same if a copper cathode is used.

Electrolysis of Aqueous Copper (II) Sulphate Using Active Copper Cathode and Anode

• H⁺(aq) and OH⁻(aq) ions are present from water

• Cu²⁺(aq) and SO₄²⁻(aq) ions are present from copper (II) sulphate
• At the cathode: Cu²⁺(aq) + 2e⁻→ Cu(s)
o Copper (pink brown metal) is deposited on the cathode

• At the anode: Cu(s) → Cu²⁺(aq) + 2e⁻

o This is because the copper atoms in the anode leave the anode and enter the
electrolyte as copper (II) ions, Cu²⁺(aq).
o As the mass of the anode decreases, the mass of the cathode increases by the
same amount. The concentration of the electrolyte does not change, and the blue
colour does not fade.
Electrolysis of Molten Lead (II) Bromide Using Inert Electrodes

• The reaction at the cathode: Pb²⁺(l) + 2e⁻ → Pb(l)

o Molten lead forms on the cathode and collects at the bottom of the crucible.
• The reaction at the anode: 2Br⁻ (l) → Br2(g) + 2e⁻
o Red-brown bromine gas is evolved
• There is only one type of cation and one type of anion, so no preferential discharge
occurs
Quantitative Electrolysis
• The Faraday Constant is the charge in Coulombs (C) of one mole of electrons.
o Faraday Constant= 96500 C/mol
• We can use information such as the current flowing through an electrolyte and the time
for which it flows to calculate the quantity of material liberated through electrolysis
• The quantity of charge transferred throughout and electrolytic cell can be found as Q=It
o Where Q is the quantity of charge in Coulombs, I is the current in Amperes and t
is the time in seconds.

Industrial Applications of Electrolysis

Anodizing Aluminium

• Anodising is the process by which aluminium is given a thick protective coat of

aluminium oxide through electrolysis.
• When exposed to air, aluminium combines with oxygen to form aluminium oxide
(Al2O3). This oxide forms a coat on the outside of the metal that protects it from further
corrosion. Electrolysis is used to make this oxide layer thicker and tougher.
• In anodizing, the aluminium is used as the anode of an electrolytic cell containing dilute
sulphuric acid (or dilute chromic (VI) acid) as the electrolyte. Although, any electrolyte
which releases oxygen at the anode may be used.

• The reaction at the anode is: 4OH⁻ → 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e⁻

o The liberated oxygen reacts with the aluminium to form aluminium oxide.

Electroplating

• Electroplating involves covering a metal with a layer of another through electrolysis.

Usually, the outer layer is a less reactive metal.
• Electroplating metal objects serves to:
o enhance visual appeal of the plated object
o protect the covered metal object from corrosion
o avoid using large quantities of expensive metals for the object
• During electroplating, the object to be covered is used as the cathode (negative electrode)
and the pure plating metal is used as the anode. The electrolyte must also contain ions
of the plating metal.
• In electroplating, ions pass into solution from the pure metal anode and are discharged
and deposited as a thin layer on the cathode.
Electrorefining

• This is the purification/refining of metals through electrolysis.

• The anode is the impure sample, the cathode is the pure sample and the electrolyte
contains ions of the metal.
• For example, the electrolyte in copper electrorefining is a mixture of copper (II) sulphate
and sulphuric acid. The impure sample of copper is used as the anode and the cathode is a
strip of pure copper metal.
• Copper atoms leave the anode and enter the electrolyte as ions. These ions are then
discharged and deposited at the cathode.
• Usual impurities include zinc and gold. Zinc will lose electrons and pass into solution as
zinc ions. Other unreactive impurities like gold collect at the bottom of the anode as a
solid mixture known as anode mud.
Rates of Reaction
• The rate of a reaction is the speed or rate at which reactants are converted to products in
a reaction.
o Alternatively, it is the change in concentration of reactant or product with time at
a stated temperature (and under specific conditions).
• In order for a reaction to occur, there must be effective collisions between the reactants.
Two conditions are required for an effective collision to occur:
o Particles must collide in the correct orientation
o Particles must collide with sufficient energy
• The rate of reaction depends on the rate at which effective collisions occur.

Factors Affecting Rate of Reaction

• The concentration of reactants affects the rate of reactions that involve aqueous
reactants. With a higher concentration of reactants, the rate of reaction increases.
o This occurs as there are more reactant particles per unit volume, therefore the
frequency of effective collisions increases.
• Pressure affects the speed of reactions that involve gases.
o Increasing the pressure of gaseous reactants can be seen as increasing its
concentration as there are more reactants per unit volume. Therefore, at higher
pressures, the speed of reaction increases since the frequency of effective
collisions is higher.
• For reactions involving solid reactants, increasing the exposed surface area results in
a greater speed of reaction.
o This happens when a large piece of reactant is broken into smaller pieces.
With a greater surface area exposed, there are more places for other reactants
to collide with. This results in a higher frequency of effective collisions.
• The rate of reaction increases with an increase in temperature.
o At lower temperatures, reactant particles move slowly and do not collide with
sufficient energy, and not as frequently. At higher temperatures, reactant
particles have more kinetic energy. They are then able to move faster and
collide more frequently. As a result, more particles possess sufficient energy
for effective collisions to occur. This results in a higher frequency of effective
collisions.
• The presence of a catalyst increases the speed of reaction by providing an alternate
reaction pathway that has lower activation energy.
o There will be more reactant particles that possess sufficient energy for
effective collisions. Therefore, a catalysed reaction would proceed faster than
an uncatalysed reaction.
Measuring Rate of Reaction
• The speed of reaction can be obtained by measuring quantities of reactants or
products at regular time intervals. These quantities can then be plotted against time
to give an overview of the speed of reaction at different times.
• For a reaction that has a gaseous product, the speed of reaction can be obtained by
measuring the speed at which gas is produced. This is done by measuring the volume
of gas produced at regular time intervals.

• The speed of reaction for reactions with gaseous products can also be obtained by
measuring the speed at which the reactants are used up. This is done by measuring
the mass of the reaction mixture at regular time intervals.

• The gradient of the graph gives the speed of reaction. A large gradient (or a steep
slope) indicates that the speed of reaction is high while a small gradient (or a gentle
slope) indicates a low speed of reaction. When the reaction stops, the gradient is
zero.
• The graph with values obtained from the amount of reactant has a negative slope.
Conversely, the slope of the graph with values obtained from the amount of product
has a positive slope.
Energetics
Enthalpy
• Enthalpy (H) is the total energy content of a substance.
• The enthalpy change (ΔH) of a reaction is the difference between the enthalpy of the
products and the enthalpy of the reactants.
o Enthalpy change is usually measure in kilojoules (kJ) or kilojoules per mole
(kJ/mol)

Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions

• In exothermic reactions, heat/energy is released into the environment, and a rise in
temperature is observed.
o The energy of the products is less than the energy of the reactants.
o ΔH < 0 (enthalpy decreases)
o Temperature increases, but the energy of the reactants decrease.
• In endothermic reactions, heat/energy is absorbed from the environment, and a decrease
in temperature is observed.
o The energy of the products is greater than the energy of the reactants.
o ΔH > 0 (enthalpy increases)
o Temperature decreases, but the energy of the reactants increase.

Bond Breaking and Bond Forming

• Energy is released when bonds are formed.
o Forming a bond is exothermic, as the particles lose kinetic energy when they
become attracted to each other.
• Energy is absorbed when bonds are broken.
o Ending a bond is endothermic, as energy is required to break bonds and overcome
the attraction between particles.
• The enthalpy change of a reaction can be calculated by taking the difference between the
energy required for bond breaking and the energy required for bond making.
 • In endothermic reactions, the energy required to break bonds is greater than that required
to create new bonds.
• In exothermic reactions, the energy released to create bonds is greater than the energy
required to break bonds.

Activation Energy
• Reactant particles must overcome an energy barrier before they can form products.
• The minimum energy required for reactants to form products is the activation energy
(EA). Particles that have energy that is equal to or greater than the activation energy will
be able to react.

Energy Level Diagrams

• An energy level diagram shows both the enthalpy change and activation energy of a
reaction.
• For an exothermic reaction, the total energy of the reactants is higher than the total
energy of the products.

• For an endothermic reaction, the total energy of the products is higher than the total
energy of the products.
Calculating Enthalpy Changes
• If the change in temperature during a reaction is measured, the heat of reaction can be
found as follows: ∆𝐻 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇
o Where m is the mass of reactants, c is specific heat capacity and ΔT is
temperature change
• Three assumptions are made in calculating the heat of reaction:
o The density of a dilute aqueous solution is the same as pure water, 1 gcm-3. This
means that 1 cm3 of solution has a mass of 1 g.
o The specific heat capacity of a dilute aqueous solution is the same as pure water,
4.2 J g-1-C1.
o A negligible amount of heat is lost to, or absorbed from, the surroundings during
the reaction.
Heat of Solution

• The heat of solution is the heat change when 1 mol of solute is dissolved in a volume of
solvent such that no further dilution will produce further heat change.
• When a solute is being dissolved in a solvent, there are 3 main energetic processes
occurring:
▪ Bonds break between solute particles, absorbing energy from the surroundings
▪ Intermolecular forces between solvent molecules break, absorbing energy from
the surroundings
▪ Solvation occurs, attraction between the ions or molecules of the solute and the
molecules of the solvent, which releases energy to the surroundings.
• When determining the heat of solution, the initial temperature of the water and the
maximum or minimum temperature of the solution must be measured. The
temperature increase or decrease and the number of moles of solute that dissolved must
then be calculated.
Heat of Neutralization
• This is the heat change per mole of water produced in a neutralization reaction.
• When determining the heat of neutralisation, the temperature of both solutions must be
measured and used to determine the average initial temperature.
o The maximum temperature of the solution after mixing must then be measured
and used to calculate the temperature increase.
o Finally, the number of moles of water made in the reaction must be determined.
• The heat of neutralization is always approximately -57 kJmol-1.
o This is because the same common reaction occurs for all acid-alkali reactions,
where the hydrogen ions of the acid neutralize the hydroxide ions of the alkali:
▪ OH-(aq) + H+(aq) →H2O(l)
▪ This reaction always has a similar heat change.
Sources of Hydrocarbon compounds
Natural Sources
• Natural gas, which contains a mixture of the first four alkanes (primarily methane,
with ethane, propane and butane in smaller amounts)
• Petroleum (crude oil) is a mixture containing many varieties of alkanes, including
gaseous and solid varieties dissolved in liquid hydrocarbons.

Fractional Distillation

• Crude oil is separated into different fractions of hydrocarbon compounds using a

fractionating column.
• After impurities are removed, the crude oil is heated to 400oC, and vapours rise through
the tower.
• The liquid fraction, bitumen/asphalt, sinks to the bottom of the tower
• At each fraction, vapours condense based on the length of their carbon chains.
• Lighter, shorter chain fractions have lower boiling points, and are tapped off at higher
fractions.
Cracking
• Cracking is the process through which long-chain hydrocarbons are broken down into
shorter chain hydrocarbons by breaking carbon to carbon bonds
• Cracking is useful because:
o It allows us to gain more of the smaller, more useful hydrocarbons like petrol.
Most of the hydrocarbons produced by fractional distillation are long chain
hydrocarbons, and not enough smaller chain hydrocarbons are produced to meet
demand.
o Cracking produces reactive alkenes which are not produced by fractional
distillation. Cracking always results in the formation of at least one alkene.
• Cracking can be carried out as thermal cracking or catalytic cracking
o Thermal cracking uses temperatures up to 750oC and pressures up to 70 atm
o Catalytic cracking uses temperatures of around 500oC at fairly low pressures in
the presence of a catalyst (complex aluminosilicates and zeolites)
Organic Chemistry introduction
Bonding Properties of Carbon
• Carbon’s unique bonding properties are what allow for there to be such a great variety of
organic compounds
• Carbon atoms can form compounds containing chains (branched or straight) and rings.
o This is called catenation, that is, forming long chains by bonding with other
carbon atoms. This is because they can form single, double and triple bonds with
other carbon atoms and atoms of other elements.
• Since carbon atoms are tetravalent, (have four valence electrons) they can bond with
four other atoms of carbon or a monovalent element.

Homologous Series
• Homologous series are groups of organic compounds which share the same functional
group and similar characteristics (i.e. physical properties and chemical structures)
which differ only by the number of carbon atoms in the structural backbone.
▪ Each member has the same general formula.
▪ All members of the series have similar chemical properties.
▪ The physical properties of members of a homologous series change in a regular
way as the length of the carbon chain in the compound increases.
▪ Each member's molecular mass differs from the member before and after it by one
CH2 unit (molecular mass= 14).
▪ All members of a homologous series may be prepared by the same general
method.
▪ All members have the same functional group (a group of atoms which contribute
to the chemical properties of a homologous series)
 • n represents the number of carbon atoms.
• For aldehydes and esters, n may also be zero.

Functional Groups

Naming Hydrocarbon Compounds

• Alkanes have names ending in ‘-ane’

• Alkenes end in ‘-ene’
• Alkanoic acids end in ‘-oic acid’
• Alkanols end in ‘-anol’

• STEP 1- Which homologous series does the compound belong to? The one above
contains only single bonded carbon atoms and has a molecular formula of C6H14 (which
matches the general formula of an alkane) and is therefore an alkane. So, the name of the
compound must end in '-ane.'

• STEP 2- Which chain is the longest (main) chain and how many carbon atoms does it
contain? This will allow us to determine what the prefix should be. The longest chain
above has 5 carbon atoms, and so the prefix is 'pent-.'

• STEP 3- What is the name of the alkyl group which branches off the main chain? This
compound's branch has a formula of CH3, so its name is 'methyl-.'

• STEP 4- Number the carbon atoms in the main chain so that the atom to which the
branch is connected has the lowest possible number. The methyl branch is at position 3.

• STEP 5- Combine all of this information to create the name of the compound: 3-
methylpentane
Structural Isomerism
• Structural Isomerism is the existence of different organic compounds with the same
molecular formula but different structural formulae.
• For example, if you were asked to draw the structural formula of all the alkanes
containing six carbon atoms, you would start by identifying the molecular formula of the
alkane with six carbon atoms.
o Since the general formula of alkanes is CnH2n+2, the molecular formula used here
would be C6H14.
o The first isomer (with the longest main chain) would be the straight-chained
alkane, hexane.

o
o Then, to create branched chain compounds, move one methyl group (leaving the
main chain with 5 carbon atoms, creating pentane) to the 2 position and the then
the 3 position on the main chain to create 2 branched pentane compounds, 2-
methylpentane and 3-methylpentane.

o
o 2 more compounds can be created by moving another methyl group from the
pentane branched compound (leaving a branched butane compound) and
appending that methyl group to either the 2 or 3 positions on the butane main
chain, creating 2,2-dimethylbutane and 2,3-dimethylbutane.
o
Reactions of Carbon compounds
Alkanes
• Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons, so they have only carbon single bonds.
o This means that they have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms in their
structures.
• Moving down the series, the molecular size of the alkanes increases. This means that the
intermolecular forces of attraction become stronger. This leads to an increase in melting
and boiling points and an increase in viscosity down the series.
o The flammability however decreases with an increase in molecular size of the
alkanes.
• Alkanes are generally unreactive as C – C and C – H bonds are not easily broken. They
can only undergo combustion and substitution reactions.
Combustion

• Alkanes will burn in an excess of air (or oxygen) when ignited to produce carbon
dioxide, water and heat. This is known as a complete combustion reaction.
• Sometimes, the supply of oxygen in the reaction is insufficient, so the alkane is not
completely oxidised to carbon dioxide and water. In these incomplete combustion
reactions, products such as carbon, carbon monoxide and hydrogen may be formed
instead.
Halogenation

• In the presence of bright light, alkanes will undergo substitution reactions with the
halogens to form a halogenoalkane and a hydrogen halide.
o In substitution reactions, one or more hydrogen atoms in a saturated compound
is replaced by another atom or group of atoms- in this case, halogens.
• The condition of bright light is needed for halogenation reactions of alkanes because the
energy of light (or similar radiation) will break the single bond of the halogen molecule
to produce reactive halogen atoms or free radicals (atoms containing an unpaired
electron).

Alkenes
• Alkenes are unsaturated, since they contain carbon double bonds. Thus, they do
not have the maximum possible number of hydrogens in their structures.
• Due to the higher carbon-to-hydrogen ratio, alkenes burn with a smokier flame than
their corresponding alkanes.
Combustion
 • Similar to alkanes, alkenes will burn in excess oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water
and heat. This reaction is also very exothermic.
Addition Reactions

• Typically, alkenes will undergo addition reactions, where they react with a given reagent
to form a saturated compound as the only product.
o This is the opposite to alkanes, which undergo substitution reactions.
• A molecule is usually added across the carbon double bond.
Hydrogenation

• In the presence of finely divided nickel (the catalyst of the reaction), hydrogen adds to
alkenes to form alkanes.

Hydration
• Hydration is the addition of a water molecule across a double bond to form an alkanol.

Addition Reaction with Acidified Potassium Manganate (VII) Solution (Oxidation)

• Alkenes react with Acidified Potassium Manganate (VII) Solution to form dialcohols
(alkanols with two hydroxyl OH groups)
Distinguishing Between Alkanes and Alkenes
• To distinguish between alkanes and alkenes, we test for the unsaturation of an alkene.
• There are two ways to test for unsaturation:
o Add the compound to bromine water (bromine dissolved in water or
tetrachloromethane)
▪ If it is an alkane (saturated), the solution will remain red-brown as no
reaction will occur.
▪ If it is an alkene (unsaturated), the solution will rapidly change from red-
brown to colourless. The bromine is added to the alkene to form a
colourless haloalkane.

o Add acidified potassium manganate (VII) solution to the compound

▪ If it is an alkane (or another saturated compound), no reaction will occur,
and the solution will remain purple
▪ If it is an alkene, the solution will rapidly decolourize from purple to
colourless

Alkanols
• Alcohols are liquids at room temperature and pressure and are very volatile.
• As the molecular sizes of the alcohols increases down the series, the forces of attraction
between the molecules become stronger. As a result, the melting and boiling points
increase with larger molecular size.
 • Smaller alcohols are miscible in water due to the presence of the polar hydroxyl group.
As the molecular size of the alcohols increases, solubility in water decreases.
Combustion

• Alcohols undergo complete combustion in excess oxygen to produce carbon dioxide,

water and heat. This reaction is also very exothermic.
Reaction with Reactive Metals

• Alkanols of lower molecular mass (eg methanol, ethanol and propanol) react with
highly reactive metals (eg sodium, lithium and calcium) to produce hydrogen gas and
salts of the alkanols, called alkoxides.

Reaction with Oxidizing Agents

• Alkanols will react with powerful oxidizing agents (eg acidified potassium dichromate
(VI) and acidified potassium manganate (VII)) to form alkanoic acids.
o These reactions involve an intermediate alkanal (or aldehyde) being formed. For
example, the oxidation of ethanol to ethanoic acid
Dehydration of Alkanols to Alkenes

• A molecule of water is removed from one molecule of the alkanol to produce an alkene.
• The alkanols will react with a dehydrating agent (such as concentrated sulfuric acid,
phosphoric acid, anhydrous aluminium oxide or anhydrous zinc chloride) to form an
alkene through dehydration.
• The water molecule is lost across two adjacent carbon atoms in the chain, causing the
formation of a double bond between those two carbon atoms.

Condensation Reactions (Conversion of Alkanols to Esters)

• Alkanols react with alkanoic acids to form an ester and water

• During the reaction, a water molecule is lost between the functional group of the alkanol
and the alkanoic acid, forming an ester. The dehydrating agent (sulphuric acid) allows for
the removal of the water molecules

The new functional group, highlighted in red (COO) is the carboxylate group, is the functional
group of the ester. The new carbon to oxygen bond is the ester linkage.

• The name of the ester is found by combining the names of the alkanol and the alkanoic
acid.
o methanol + ethanoic acid → methyl ethanoate
• The alkyl part comes from the alkanol and the '-oate' part comes from the alkanoic acid.
• Although the name has the alkanol first, the molecular and structural formulae are usually
written with the alkanoic acid part first.
Production of Ethanol

• Ethanol used for human consumption is usually produced through fermentation of

glucose from fruits or grains. The process is carried out with yeast at 37 °C, in the
absence of oxygen.
• The yeast is kept at 37 °C since this is the optimum temperature for the enzyme zymase
to function. Greater temperatures would denature the enzyme, and lesser temperatures
would inactivate the enzyme

Carboxylic/Alkanoic Acids
• Carboxylic acids are weak acids that partially dissociate in water to give hydrogen ions.
o Due to the presence of these hydrogen ions when carboxylic acids dissolve in
water, they undergo reactions of acids.
• They react with alkanols to form esters
• They react with metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series to give a salt and water
o They also undergo the other reactions of acids

Esters
• Sweet-smelling liquids that are used as solvents for perfumes or for making artificial
food flavourings.
• They can be produced through esterification from the condensation reaction between
alcohols and carboxylic acids
• Esterification requires heating an alcohol and a carboxylic acid under reflux with a few
drops of concentrated sulfuric acid as a catalyst. This process is a reversible reaction.
o In esterification, a water molecule is removed from between the alkanoic acid and
alkanol
Hydrolysis

• Hydrolysis is the opposite of a condensation reaction. A water molecule is added to the

ester to break it up into the alkanoic acid and the alkanol once again
• There are two methods of hydrolysis, acid hydrolysis and alkaline hydrolysis
o Acid Hydrolysis- The ester and water are heated with dilute sulphuric acid or
hydrochloric acid
o Alkaline Hydrolysis- In alkaline hydrolysis, the alkanoic acid is formed first. The
acid is then neutralized by the excess alkali, forming the salt of the acid (a
carboxylate salt). The other product will be the alkanol.
Saponification
• This is the process by which soap is manufactured through the alkaline hydrolysis of
animal fats and vegetable oils when boiled with concentrated sodium or potassium
hydroxide solution.
• The reaction produces soap, which is the potassium or sodium salt of a long chain
alkanoic acid (also called a fatty acid) and glycerol (C3H5(OH)3).

Soapy vs Soapless Detergents

• Soapy detergents are manufactured from animal fats, and may be called soaps.
• Soapless detergents are manufactured from petroleum. They are synthetic, and may be
called detergents
Polymers
• A polymer is a long-chain macromolecule formed from the reaction of many (50 or
more) smaller molecules called monomers.
• Polymers can either be addition or condensation polymers based on how they were
formed
o Addition polymers are formed from addition polymerization
o Condensation polymers are formed from condensation polymerization
Addition Polymerization

• Occurs between unsaturated monomers

• Involves only one type of monomer
• The process involves breaking the C = C double bond so that the monomers can form
bonds with other monomers.
• For example, polyethene is an addition polymer formed from the addition reaction
between ethene monomers:

Condensation Polymerization
• Occurs between saturated monomers
• Requires monomers with two types of monomers with two functional groups
• The monomers are joined by eliminating a small molecule such as water between them
• For example, polyesters are formed between a di-acid and a di-alochol:

• Polyesters contain the ester COO linkage

• Polyamides like nylon contain the amide CONH linkage:
Section C- Inorganic chemistry
Characteristics of metals
Properties of Metals
• Metals are elements found in the Groups I, II and III of the periodic table.
o They have 1, 2 or 3 valence electrons.
• Metals react with non-metals by losing electrons to form cations. They behave as
reducing agents.
• Metals have high melting and boiling points as a lot of energy is required to overcome
the strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the ‘sea of electrons’ and the lattice of
positive ions.
o (Mercury is the only exception, as it is a liquid at root temperature and pressure)
• As atoms in metals are packed tightly in layers, they usually have high densities.
o (Some Group I metals are exceptions)
• Metallic bonding is not affected when a force is applied as the layers of positive ions can
slide past each other among the ‘sea of mobile electrons.’ As a result, metals are
malleable and ductile
• Metals are able to conduct electricity well due to the mobile, delocalized electrons in
their structures

Reactivity Series
• The reactivity series is an arrangement of metals based on their reactivity. This is based
on how readily they ionize, so metals at the top are more powerful reducing agents.
• Metals higher in the reactivity series will displace metals lower in the series from their
compounds.
• Metals higher in the series will also react more readily with water, oxygen, dilute
hydrochloric acid and dilute sulfuric acid.
Reactions of the Metals
• Metals (above hydrogen in the reactivity series) react with dilute HCl and H2SO4 to form
a salt and hydrogen
• Metals react with oxygen to form a metal oxide
• Metals react with water to form a metal hydroxide and hydrogen (only metals above
aluminium)
o When a metal reacts with steam, it forms a metal oxide and hydrogen (metals
below magnesium)
Thermal Stability
• More reactive metals form more stable compounds that do not decompose when
exposed to heat.
• Carbonates of potassium and sodium are thermally stable since these metals are found
high in the reactivity series.
• Carbonates of calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron, lead and copper decompose upon heating
to form metal oxide and carbon dioxide.
• Silver carbonate is the least stable since silver metal is the least reactive. It decomposes
completely into silver metal and carbon dioxide.
Extraction of Metals
• More reactive metals (that is, metals towards the top of the reactivity series above
aluminium inclusive) require electrolytic reduction to be extracted from their ores.
o These compounds are very stable, and require a lot of energy to be separated
• The less reactive metals (below aluminium on the reactivity series: zinc, iron, lead…) do
not need to be reduced using electrolysis, and can instead be reduced by chemical
methods, such as by heating with coke (carbon) or carbon monoxide.
o However, metals below copper (gold, platinum, silver…) can be found as native
metals, or in their pure state in the earth’s crust.

Extraction of Iron
• Raw materials for extracting iron:
o Iron ore: hematite (iron III oxide, Fe2O3) and magnetite (iron II,III oxide, Fe3O4)
o An energy source
o A reducing agent
o The reducing agent used is usually coke (carbon) or hydrogen gas
o A flux- The 'flux' is a substance (usually limestone) which forms a slag with sand
and other impurities which can be removed from the final product easily.
• Iron is extracted in a blast furnace:

• The six stages of iron extraction:

o Dried hot iron ore, limestone and coke are fed into the top of the blast furnace.
o Near the base of the furnace, hot air is blown in. The coke burns in the hot air,
producing carbon dioxide and heat:
 ▪ C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
o The carbon dioxide is reduced to carbon monoxide by the hot coke being fed in:
▪ CO2(g) + C(s) → 2CO(g)
o The newly formed carbon monoxide reduces the hot iron ore to molten iron:
▪ Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)
Fe3O4(s) + 4CO(g) → 3Fe(l) + 4CO2(g)
▪ The molten iron, Fe(l), will run to the bottom of the furnace.
o Limestone (CaCO3, calcium carbonate) breaks down at the high temperatures in
the furnace to calcium oxide and carbon dioxide:
▪ CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
o The calcium oxide combines with sand (silicon dioxide), the main impurity in
iron ore, to form a molten slag (calcium silicate) that can be tapped off separately:
▪ CaO(s) + SiO2(s) → CaSiO3(l)
▪ The molten slag is immiscible with the molten iron and floats on top of it,
so they can be run off separately.

Extraction of Aluminium
• Aluminium (along with metals above it in the reactivity series) is extracted by
electrolysis.
• The raw materials required are bauxite (hydrated aluminium oxide, Al2O3.xH2O) and
cryolite (sodium aluminium fluoride, Na3AlF6)
o Bauxite is purified and converted to alumina (aluminium oxide, Al2O3) for use in
electrolysis
• The electrolytic cell for aluminium extraction looks like this:

• The electrolyte is a mixture of molten cryolite and alumina at 950oC in order to separate
the ions.
o The alumina is mixed with the cryolite to:
 ▪ reduce the melting point of the mixture to reduce the energy required
▪ create a more conductive solution than molten alumina
• The aluminium ions move towards the cathode and are reduced to form aluminium
atoms:
o Al3+(l) + 3e- → Al(l)
o Molten aluminium collects at the bottom of the cell
• The oxide ions move towards the anode and are oxidised to form oxygen gas:
o 2O2-(l) → O2(g) + 4e-
o Oxygen gas is evolved at the anode.
▪ Note: oxygen evolved at the graphite anode reacts with the carbon in the
graphite, causing it to burn. As a result, the anode needs to be replaced
periodically.
Uses of metals
• Alloys are usually used in place of pure metals because pure metal is soft due to the
regular arrangement of atoms in the metal lattice. The atoms are arranged in neat layers
which slide past each other easily when a force is applied.
o In an alloy however, the arrangement of atoms is disrupted by the presence of
atoms of different sizes. This prevents the layers of atoms from sliding easily,
making the alloy harder than the pure metal.

• Alloys between metals allow combinations of the useful properties of the metals/elements
in the alloy, such as greater durability, resistance to corrosion or lower melting point.
• Aluminium, iron and lead are also used extensively to manufacture alloys because they
are easily alloyed with other metals.
Impact of metals on living systems and the
environment
• Corrosion is the gradual process by which a metal’s surface is worn away due to reacting
with other compounds in the environment, such as water and oxygen.
• Metals corrode to form the metal oxide.
• The higher the metal is in the reactivity series, the faster it corrodes.
Aluminium

• Aluminium forms a layer of aluminium oxide (Al2O3) on its surface once exposed to air.
• This corrosion is beneficial though, as this layer is unreactive and adheres to the metal
surface, acting like a protective layer.
Iron

• Rust, hydrated iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3.xH2O) forms on the surface of iron when it is
exposed to air and moisture.
o This corrosion is called rusting.
• This corrosion is detrimental to the structure of the metal, as the rust layer flakes off,
exposing fresh iron to oxygen and moisture, causing the process to repeat, gradually
wearing away the iron.

Importance of Metals in Living Organisms

• Magnesium is essential for the manufacture of chlorophyll in plants. This is necessary
for plants to carry out photosynthesis.
• Iron is necessary to produce haemoglobin in red blood cells. This is necessary to carry
oxygen for respiration around the body.
• Calcium is used to manufacture the calcium hydroxyapatite in bones and teeth.
• Zinc is needed in the body to ensure the proper function of the immune system, for
wounds to heal, and for cell growth and repair.
• Sodium and Potassium are both necessary for nerve impulses to be sent and muscle
contraction.
Past Paper Questions
Non-Metals
• Non-metals are elements found in Groups V, VI, VII and VIII/0 of the periodic table.
o These atoms have 5, 6, 7 or 8 valence electrons.
• Non-metals, when they react with metals, gain electrons to form anions. They act as
oxidizing agents.
o Non-metals react with other non-metals to form covalent compounds by
sharing electrons. Thus, they can behave as either oxidizing or reducing
agents
• Non-metals tend have low melting and boiling points
• They are poor conductors of electricity (except for graphite)
• Non-metal soilds are weak and brittle, as the weak Van der Waals’ forces between
molecules can be easily broken when a force is applied
• They are dull in appearance when solid
• They have lower densities

Reactions of Non-Metals
Preparation of Gases
• To decide on a method to prepare a gas, we must consider:
o The solubility of the gas in water
▪ This is to decide if the gas can be collected by bubbling through water (if
the gas doesn’t have to be dry).
o Reactivity of the gas with drying agents
▪ This is to determine which drying agents can be used (if the gas must be
dry).
o Density of the gas compared to the density of air
▪ This allows us to select how to collect the gas if it has been dried.
Collecting gases

• Displacement of Water- Used to collect gases which are not very soluble in water, like
oxygen and hydrogen

• Downward delivery- Used to collect gases which are denser than air, such as carbon
dioxide, hydrogen chloride and chlorine.

• Upward delivery- Used to collect gases which are less dense than air, such as ammonia
and hydrogen.
Drying Gases

• Anhydrous fused calcium chloride: This is calcium chloride which has been heated. This
can be used to dry gas which does not react with calcium chloride such as carbon
dioxide and oxygen.
o Ammonia reacts with calcium chloride, so it cannot be used.
• Concentrated sulfuric acid: This is a common drying agent but it cannot be used to dry
gases which are basic. Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen can be dried with concentrated
sulfuric acid
• Calcium Oxide: This drying agent cannot be used for acidic gases like carbon dioxide.
Thus, only oxygen and ammonia can be dried using calcium oxide
Preparing Carbon Dioxide

• Calcium carbonate is reacted with hydrochloric acid (not sulfuric acid)

o CaCO3(s) + HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
• The carbon dioxide can be piped through delivery tubes into a wash bottle with
concentrated sulfuric acid or fused anhydrous calcium chloride in a U-tube
• The dry gas can be collected through the upward displacement of air
Preparation Oxygen

• Hydrogen peroxide is decomposed using a manganese (IV) oxide catalyst

o 2H2O2(l) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
• The oxygen can be piped through delivery tubes into a wash bottle with concentrated
sulfuric acid or fused anhydrous calcium chloride in a U-tube or calcium oxide in a
U-tube
• The dry gas can be collected through the upward displacement of air
Preparing Ammonia

• Ammonia is released by heating an ammonium salt with a strong base, e.g. calcium
hydroxide and ammonium chloride
o Ca(OH)2(s) + 2NH4Cl(s) → CaCl2(s) + NH3(g) + 2H2O(g)
• The ammonium is piped to a U-tube where calcium oxide is the drying agent
• It can be collected by downwards displacement of air since it is lighter than air
o A piece of moist red litmus paper can be held at the mouth of the gas jar. It
will turn blue when the jar is full of ammonia gas.
Uses of Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen
Carbon Dioxide

• Is non-flammable and denser than air, so it is used in fire extinguishers to smother

flames.
• Is used in carbonated soft drinks.
• Sublimes at -78.5 °C, so it is used as a refrigerant as a solid (dry ice). It doesn’t leave a
liquid residue when it sublimes, and it keeps food frozen at very low temperatures.
Oxygen

• Used on aeroplanes and submarines to allow humans onboard to breath in case of

emergency
• Used in astronaut spacesuits to allow them to breathe
• Used in hospitals to help patients with breathing difficulty
• Used in welding torches to burn the fuel and produce high temperatures
• It is used as a liquid in rocket engines to burn the fuel

Uses of Non-Metals and their Compounds

Carbon

• Graphite is used as a solid lubricant and as a solid lubricant

 • Sodium hydrogencarbonate is used as and antacid and as a raising agent in baking
powder
• Diamond is used in drill tips and jewellery
Sulfur

• Used to vulcanize rubber for tyres, make match heads and make fungicides
• Sulfur dioxide is used as a food preservative and as a bleaching agent
• Sulfuric Acid is used in lead-acid batteries and in the production of fertilizers
Phosphorous

• To produce pesticides, phosphoric acid, fireworks and the striking surface on the sides of
matchboxes
• Phosphoric acid is used to prevent rust and to produce fertilizers
Chlorine

• Used to make antiseptics, insecticides, and sodium/calcium chlorate (I)

• Sodium/calcium chlorate (I) are used as bleaching agents and to sterilize water
Nitrogen

• Used to manufacture ammonia, and as a refrigerant to quick freeze foods

• Nitric acid is used to make dyes, explosives and fertilizers
• Ammonia is used in manufacturing nitric acid, fertilizers and household cleaners
Silicon

• Used to make silicone implants for plastic surgery and silicon chips for electronic devices
• Metal silicates are used in ceramic products
• Silicon dioxide (quartz) is used to make jewellery, glass and cement

Harmful Effects of Non-Metals and Their Compounds

Water
• Water molecules are polar, i.e. there are partial positive charges on the hydrogen atoms
and partial negative charges on the oxygen atoms.
o These opposite charges are attracted to each other, forming hydrogen bonds
• Water has a maximum density at 4 degrees Celsius.
o Ice at 0 degrees floats on water as it forms, allowing aquatic life to continue under
the ice sheets in winter.
• Water has high heat of vaporization, so when it evaporates from organisms, it removes
a lot of heat, helping to keep living things cool through sweating and transpiration.
• Water has relatively high melting and boiling points, so it is non-volatile.
o Since it exists as a liquid mostly on earth, there are abundant habitats for aquatic
organisms
• Water is often called a universal solvent, as it can dissolve many substances, including
ionic substances and other polar covalent compounds.
o Thus, water can dissolve chemicals necessary for respiration and chemical
processes, but also for transport in living organisms
Consequences of Water’s Solvent Properties

• Leaching- Leaching occurs as water passes through the soil and dissolves water-
soluble substances. This makes the soil less fertile since it can take mineral salts out
of the reach of plant roots.
• Water Hardness- Dissolved calcium and magnesium salts cause water hardness.
o Hard water does not lather easily with soap, while soft water does lather
easily.
o When soaps are added to hard water, insoluble calcium and magnesium salts
of the soaps are formed, known as soap scum.
▪ Soap scum discolours clothing and wastes soap, as soap only lathers
after all the calcium and magnesium ions have been precipitated out as
scum
• There are two types of water hardness:
o Temporary hardness- Dissolved calcium hydrogencarbonate (Ca(HCO3)2) and
magnesium hydrogencarbonate (Mg(HCO3 )2) cause temporary hardness.
▪ When rainwater containing dissolved carbon dioxide passes through
limestone (CaCO3), soluble calcium hydrogencarbonate forms, which
dissolves in the water:
• CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) CO2(g) → Ca(HCO3)2(aq)
▪ Temporary hardness can be removed by boiling:
• Ca(HCO3)2(aq)→ CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) CO2(g)
 o Permanent Hardness- Dissolved calcium sulfate (CaSO4) and magnesium
sulfate (MgSO4) cause permanent hardness.
▪ Permanent hardness cannot be removed by boiling, but can be
removed by adding sodium carbonate:
▪ CaSO4(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) → CaCO3(s) + Na2SO4(aq)

Green Chemistry
• Green chemistry is a set of principles used to guide the design, manufacture and production
of chemical products such that the use and generation of harmful substances is reduced.
• There are 12 principles of Green Chemistry:
o Prevent waste
o Maximize atom economy/efficiency
o Design less hazardous chemical syntheses
o Design safer chemicals and products
o Use safe solvents and auxiliaries
o Increase energy efficiency
o Use renewable raw materials
o Reduce derivatives to reduce additional reagents
o Use catalysts rather than reagents
o Design for degradation
o Monitor processes in real-time to prevent pollution
o Minimize the potential for accidents
Qualitative analysis
• To verify the presence of the ammonium ion, the solution can be warmed. If ammonium
ions are present, ammonia gas will be released, which turns moist red litmus blue