Theory and Research

Introduction to Sociology: Module 2

Knowledge:
From Religion to Science
 Prior to the 19th century religion was a strong
influence on knowledge

 19th century philosophers helped create the

modern way of studying society
Auguste Comte
 Coined the term “sociology”

 Called for systematic data collection and

objective analysis to describe changes in society

 Asked “What holds society together?” (social

statics or structure), and

 “Why is there change in society?” (social

dynamics or process)
Harriet Martineau
 1st to establish sociological research methods

 Translated and abridged the work of August Comte.

Comte read it and preferred Martineau’s version.

 Studied American morals (guiding values) and

manners (observable behaviors influenced by
morals)

 Established a code of ethics

Assumptions of Science
 There is a real physical – social world that can be
studied systematically.
 There is order in the world resulting from a series
of causes and effects.
 Empirical knowledge gathers and measures facts
objectively and carefully so that findings will be
the same for all people who observe those facts.
 Scientific knowledge must be based on
measurable and observable phenomena.
 Science is rooted in objectivity.
Theory
 Theories - statements regarding how facts are
related to each other and the connection
between them

 The level of analysis and theory help determine

the method used to measure the social
phenomena

◦ E.G., “Childhood experiences have an impact on career

choices”
Three Sociological Traditions
 Scientific sociology (influenced by Comte and Durkheim)
focuses on objectivity and modeling discipline after the
natural sciences

 Humanistic/Interpretive sociology emphasizes the

unique capacity of humans to create meaning

 Critical sociology sees the role of sociology being to

improve society and/or through the "social
improvement" tradition, otherwise known as applied
sociology.
 Each tradition will influence a major theory.
Theoretical Perspective
 Theoretical perspective- a basic view of
society that:

◦ Guides sociologists’ ideas and research

◦ Helps them understand social behavior
◦ Helps develop explanations of organized social
patterns and their relationships
◦ Can be micro- or macro- level (all can be used at the
meso level)
Symbolic Interactionism
 Symbolic Interaction Theory: (or social construction or
interpretative theory)

◦ Main ideas: Through interactions and symbols, we socially construct

our worlds.

 These constructions help us decide how to act and are dependent upon our
social positions
 Influenced by humanistic/interpretive sociology

◦ Key theorists: George H. Mead, the Iowa School

◦ Main criticisms: neglects macro-structures; difficult to study concepts

like “the mind” and “the self”
Rational Choice
 Rational Choice Theory: (or exchange theory)

◦ Main ideas: People make choices based on utilitarian

factors motivated by self interest; attempt to
maximize rewards and minimize costs; every
interaction involves an exchange of something valued

◦ Main criticisms: macro-level and internal processes

given little attention; challenge of the idea that
human behavior is always self-centered or utilitarian;
cannot explain altruistic behavior
Structural Functionalism
 Structural-Functional Theory: ( or functional theory)

◦ Main ideas: society is primarily stable and orderly; all parts of

the system are interrelated and necessary for society’s
function; influenced by scientific sociology

◦ Key theorists: Comte, Durkheim, Parsons, Merton

◦ Main criticisms: Fails to explain change in society; assumes

conflict is harmful (but it can actually lead to greater
stability); just because a system seems stable does not mean
that it is equitable
Functional Analysis
(Structural Functionalism)

 Functionalists examine the different functions

of various parts of society.
◦ Manifest functions – planned outcomes for social
institutions/structures. Carrot farmer successfully
grows a crop.
◦ Latent functions – unplanned or unintended
outcomes for social institutions/structures. Crop
attracts some rabbits and now farmer supplies carrots
AND rabbit fur to the village.
◦ Dysfunctions – actions that undermine the stability of
society. Rabbits eat all carrots, so farmer has none to
supply to village.
Conflict Theory
 Conflict Theory:

◦ Main ideas: conflict underlies all social relations because of

injustice in society; social change is desirable, especially when
it can lead to greater equality; the powerful impose their
values and beliefs on the weaker; influenced by critical
sociology

◦ Key theorists: Marx, Du Bois, Dahrendorf, Simmel, Coser

◦ Main criticisms: micro-level not explained; difficult to test

empirically; not effective in explaining cohesion and
cooperation; too political or radical
Feminism
 Feminist Theory
◦ Main Ideas: criticizes the hierarchical structures in
society that treat women and minorities unfairly;
sociology has traditionally been male dominated;
feminist theory is rooted in conflict and symbolic
interactionism.

◦ Key theorists: Harriet Martineau, Charlotte Perkins

Gilman, Jessie Bernard, Patricia Hill Collins, Janet
Saltzman Chafetz
Max Weber
 Weber fits into both micro and macro
approaches

 Verstehen (understanding) – actions that occur

affect our interpretation of the social world and
our actions

 Focused on bureaucracies which he believed to

be guided by rationality (efficiency)
Research Steps
 Planning the study
◦ Define the topic/problem
◦ Review existing relevant research
◦ Formulate hypotheses
 Designing the research methods
◦ Design the research method
◦ Select a sample
◦ Collect the data
 Doing the analysis
 Drawing conclusions
Planning the Study
 Define the problem clearly

 Find out what is already known about the topic

 Formulate hypotheses

 Operationalize variables – clearly define parameters

◦ E.G., What do we mean by a “hospital stay” = one or more

overnight stays in a hospital as a patient while under the age
of 16
Variable Relationships
 Ways that two concepts can be related:

◦ Correlation – empirical relationship between two variables such

that changes in one are associated with changes in the other

◦ Cause and effect

 Independent variable- the cause of change
 Dependent variable- the variable that changes
 Time dimension necessary

◦ Spurious relationship - coincidental correlation

 Control variables help eliminate the possibility of a spurious
relationship
Design the Research Method
 Methods depend upon the level of analysis, the
theory, and the research question

 The value of the study depends upon the

quality of the data collected
Surveys
 The Survey Method:

◦ Interview- conducted by speaking with respondents

directly

◦ Questionnaire- respondents answer in writing

 Open-ended questions- allow the respondent to answer
however they wish
 Close-ended questions- force the respondents to
choose from among a set of predetermined responses
Field Studies
 Field studies/observational methods- systematic,
planned observations of social interactions

◦ Detached/non-participant- the researcher merely observes

(unobtrusive)

◦ Participant observation- the researcher participates in the

activity being studied

 Research effects- the group may be altered by the presence of the

researcher
 Ethnography- a field study that involves self reflection; the findings
guide the future methods and observations
Experimental
 Controlled experiments- all variables are controlled
except the ones being studied

◦ Control group- subjects who are not exposed to the treatment

◦ Experimental group- subjects who are exposed to the

treatment

◦ Allow for the examination of true cause and effect, but cannot
be used to study many sociological questions, research effects
may result, and it is unethical to introduce many variables into
the laboratory
Existing Sources
 Existing sources- using pre-existing materials in a
new way

◦ Secondary analysis- Using data that has already been

collected for other studies
 Data may not be representative, may not directly answer the
researcher’s questions, and any problems in the original data
will persist in the new study

◦ Content analysis- systematic categorization and recording

of information from written or recorded sources
 Unobtrusive, inexpensive, and easy to do
Select a Sample
 Sample- a small group of people who are
systematically chosen to represent the larger
population

◦ Representative- accurately reflects the group being studied

◦ Random- every person in the population has an equal

chance of being selected

◦ Non-representative- cannot be generalized to the larger

population
Doing the Analysis and
Drawing Conclusions
 Data is interpreted

 Results are discussed and conclusions are

drawn about whether the hypotheses are
supported or rejected

 Findings must be replicable

 Each study gets us closer to an accurate

understanding of the social world
Ethics
 Sociologists must ensure that subjects are not
harmed in any way and that their
confidentiality is protected

 The subjects must provide informed consent

 Human subjects boards at universities and

research institutions help protect subjects