Chapter 2 –soil-water-plant relation ship 2018

2. SOIL-WATER-PLANT RELATIONSHIPS
2.1 Introduction
Soils are the storehouse of water, nutrients and air which are necessary for plant growth.
Therefore, plants grow on soils that provide them water and nutrients. The plants need
water, the soil stores the water needed by the plants, and the atmosphere provides the
energy needed by the plant to withdraw water from the soil.
Considering many ways by which water may be removed from the soil, it must be
considered as efficient storage medium. Irrigation water and rainwater after infiltration
into the soil get stored in different classes of soil pores (fine-, medium and large pores).
The water stored in the soil pores constitutes the soil water. Fortunately, water can be
held by the soil for long periods of time and still available for plants use. Plants absorb
water mainly through their roots and use only 1.0 to 1.5% of the volume of water
absorbed for building their vegetative structures and performing various physiological
and biochemical activities. The rest of water is lost through transpiration of plants.
Knowledge of the process of water transport in soil, into plants and from soil and plants
to the atmosphere are the basics of irrigation practice. Often important question in
irrigation practices is the “when to irrigate and how much to irrigate” questions which
answers depend on soil-water-plant-atmosphere relationships. Both excess and deficit of
soil water affects the plant growth and results in yield reduction. An insight into these
relationships requires the study of physical characteristics of soils relevant to the rate of
entry of water into the soil, moisture retention, storage, and transport, availability to
plants as well as mechanisms of water absorption, conduction and transpiration by plants.
2.2. Soil-water relationships
2.2.1. Physical properties of soils
Soil is the natural material that covers the land surface of the earth. Soils have profiles,
constituting of specific kinds and combinations of horizons, as well as specific surfaces
and relief or landscape features. They are formed by a combination of natural processes
under the interrelated influences of climate, vegetation, relief (including hydrology),
parent material, and time. Soil is a three-phase system constituting solid, liquid and
gases. The minerals and organic matters in soil together constitute the solid phase. The
main component of solid phase is the soil particles, the size and shape of which give rise

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to pore spaces of different shape and geometry. These pore spaces are filled with water
and air in varying proportions, depending on the amount of moisture available. In
completely dry soils, all pores would be filled with air, and in completely saturated soils,
water (soil solutions) would occupy all of the pore spaces. Agricultural soils seldom, if
ever, exist in either of these extreme conditions

Water film
Air space

Soil particles

Figure 2.1: Diagram showing cross section

of soil

The physical properties of the soil, including its ability to store water, are highly related
to the fraction or percentage of the total soil volume that is occupied by solid and the
fraction or percentage that is pore space. For plant growth
and development, the fraction or percentage of the pore space that is occupied by water
and that contains air is of extreme interest. . The volumes composition of the three main
constituents in the soil system varies widely.
A typical silt loam soil contains about 50% soil solids, 30% water and 20% air. Besides,
living organisms such as fungi, bacteria, algae, protozoa, insects and small burrowing
animals are present in the soil which directly or indirectly affects soil structure and plant
growth. Soil components when exist in proper proportion offer a favorable condition for
plant growth.
Important physical properties of soil influencing the soil-water relationship are soil
characteristics governing the entry of water into the soil during irrigation or rain, water
movement through the soil medium, retention of water by soil and availability of water to
plants.
i. Colour

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Colour of soil depends upon its composition, porosity and also its age. Concentration of
organic matter imparts grey, black, or brown colour to the soils. Red and yellow colours
are imparted to the soils due to diffusion of iron oxides.
ii. Soil Texture
Soil texture refers to the relative size of soil particles in a given soil. According to their
size soils particles are grouped into sand, silt and clay. The relative sizes of sand silt and
clay as proposed by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the
International Soil Science Society (ISSS) are given in Tab. 2.1.
Table 2.1: Size limits of soil separates
Soil separates Particle diameter (mm)
USAD ISSS
Very course sand 2.0 - 1.0 -
Course sand 1.0 - 0.5 2.0 - 0.2
Medium sand 0.50 - 0.25 -
Fine sand 0.25 - 0.10 0.20 - 0.02
Very fine sand 0.10 - 0.05 -
Silt 0.05 - 0.002 0.02 - 0.002
Clay < 0.002 < 0.002

Fig. 2.2: The relative sizes of

three soil samples

Based on the percentage content of sand, silt and clay present, the textural class of a soil
is determined by using mechanical analysis/sieve analyses and the USDA triangular chart
(Fig 2.3)

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Fig. 2.3: USDA textural triangle

Sandy soils have greater proportion of large sized particles and hence commonly termed
as coarse or light soils. They form a relatively simple capillary system and have a large
volume of non-capillary macro-pores that encourage good drainage and aeration. They
have usually a low water holding capacity and low cation exchange capacity
Clay soil has a high percentage of fine particles and is referred to as fine or heavy soils.
Clay soils are aggregated into complex granules and present large surface area. The large
specific surface area per unit volume enable clay soils to hold more water and cations
than sandy soil. Clay soils allow slow movement of water and cause poor drainage and
aeration.
Loamy soil having almost equal amount of sand and clay is called medium textured soil.
Such soils tend to exhibit good balance between large and small pores; thus, movement
of water, air and roots is easy and water retention is adequate. Hence they offer the most
favorable conditions for plant growth by providing good soil drainage and aeration as
well as more available water and nutrients. Soil texture can be determined both in the
field and in the laboratory.

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Example
A soil sample has an analysis of 72% sand, 3% silt, and 25% clay. Look at the USDA textural
triangle (Fig. 2.3) and notice the percent sand arrow pointing from right to left on the bottom of
the triangle. Find the 72% sand point and mentally sketch a line from that point parallel to the
side opposite the 100% sand corner of the triangle. Such a line will pass through all points on the
triangle that corresponds to a soil having 72% sand. Now locate the 3% silt point on the upper
right side of the triangle, and visualize a line from this point parallel to the side opposite the
100% silt corner of the triangle. This line intersects the sand line at a single point inside the area
labeled as sandy clay
loam.

ii. Soil Structure

Soil structure refers to the arrangement and organization of soil particles in the soil mass
and the tendency of individual soil particles to bind together into aggregates. Grouping of
particles into structural units occur in all soils. However, the strength of the bonds, the
size and the shape of the structural units and the proportion of the soil particles involved
in the units differ considerably among soils.
Structure development is influenced by:
 Amount and type of clay, as well as the exchangeable ions on the clay (also water
acts as bridge between clay particles)
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 Amount and type of organic matter, since it provides food for soil fungi and
bacteria and their secretion of cementing agents (polysaccharides)
 Presence of iron and aluminum oxides (cementing agents)
 Binding between organic and inorganic compounds (aluminum oxides, Cations,
clays)
 Vegetation: produces OM, roots act as holding soil together, and protects soil
surface
The overall quality of the soil structure may be evaluated in terms of porosity,
aggregation, cohesiveness and permeability for water and air.
Soil aggregates may be temporary or stable depending on the amount and nature the
cementing agents such as clay, organic matter, microbial glue and mineral cementing
materials like aluminium and iron oxides present.
On the basis of their shape soil structures can be typed as:
Granular Columnar and prismatic
Platy Massive (non-structure
Single grain (non-structure) Blocky

(angular and sub-angular)

Fig. 2.4: Soil structure and its effect on permeability

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A soil structure is important in plant growth as it influences the amount and nature of
porosity and regulates water, air and heat regimes in the soil besides affecting mechanical
properties. Hence, it has a pronounced effect on soil properties such as
Erodibility, Porosity, Hydraulic
conductivity, Infiltration, and Water
holding capacity
The management of soils aims at obtaining soil structures favorable for plant growth and
yield, besides ensuring soil conservation, and good infiltration and movement of water in
the soils. Common methods of soil structure management include addition of organic
matter and adoption of suitable tillage, soil conservation and cropping practices.
iii. Volume and mass relationships
Let us consider the volume and mass relationships among the three constituents of soil
(solids, liquid and air), and define some basic parameters which have useful practical
importance in characterizing the physical condition of a soil.
Volume Mass
Relations Relations

Fig. 2.4: Schematic diagram of the soil as three-phase system

Symbols given in Fig. 2.4 are defined as:

Vt =total soil volume Vf =total void volume

Vs = volume of soil solids Mt = total soil mass

Vw =volume of water Ms =mass of soil solids
Va =volume of soil air Mw =mass of soil water

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Ma =mass of soil air which is

negligible
Density, porosity and soil water terms are defined with reference to Fig. 2.4.
Vt  Vs  Vw  Va

Mt  M s  M w  Ma
Most often bulk and particle densities are used to characterize densities of soil. They are
described as follows:
a. Bulk density (  b )
Mass per unit volume of soil comprising the solid and gaseous phase in exclusion of the
liquid phase is called bulk density. That means it describes the soil as it is in the natural
state including pore spaces. In other words, bulk density is the weight of oven dry soil per
unit total volume. It is sometimes referred to as apparent specific gravity. The difference
between the two terms is that the bulk density is given in gm/cm3 while apparent specific
gravity is expressed as dimensionless quantity. Bulk density is normally expressed on a
dry weight basis, which value ranging from 1.0 – 1.8 gm/cm3 for mineral soils. Its values
indicate whether a soil layer is too compacted to allow root penetration or if it is effective
for adequate aeration of the root zone.
To determine bulk density soil core method is widely used. In this method soil sample is
taken from the field using core sampler of known volume and oven dried at 105 0C to
obtain a constant weight. The mass of the soil is then obtained by weighing the dried soil.
The bulk density is then calculated from the weight of the soil per unit volume of known
core sampler which is expressed as
Ms Ms
b  
Vt Vs  Va  Vw 
Bulk density of a soil is affected by soil texture, organic matter content and tillage
practices and ranges from 1.1 to 1.3 gm/cm3 in fine textured surface soils and from 1.4 to
1.8 gm/cm3 in coarse textured surface soils. It decreases with an increase in looseness of
soils and increases with compaction of soil. Hence, the value of bulk density indicates the
extent of pore space in the soil. That means, a low density indicates a high volume of
pore space and a high density shows low volume of pore space in soil.

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b. Particle density (  s )
It denotes the mass of soil solid per unit volume of soil solid and is expressed in gm/cm3.
In determining the particle density of soil, consideration is given only to solid particles.
Thus the particle density of any soil is constant and does not vary with the amount of
space between the particles. It is defined as the mass (weight) per unit volume of soil
particles (soil solids).
Ms
s 
Vs
Particle density does not change with tillage or cropping practices. In most mineral soils
the s is about 2.2 – 2.7 gm/cm3.
c. Void ratio and Porosity
The common terms used for volume relationships are void ratios, porosity and degree of
saturation.
Void ratio (e) is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids.
Vf
Thus, e 
Vs
Porosity (n) is the ratio of the volume of pores (voids) to the total volume of soil. It is the
volume of soil occupied by air and water.
Vf
n
Vt
To determine porosity, soil samples are taken with core samplers and placed in a pan of
water until completely saturated. Then after saturation the cores are weighed. Then after,
the saturated samples are oven dried which again weighed. The difference in weight
between saturated and oven dry cores represents a volume of the pore space.
Vf
Vf Vf Vt  n 
e    
Vs Vt  V f Vt V f  1 n 

Vt Vt

 e 
Or n  
 1 e 

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Total porosity can also be calculated from the bulk density and particle density using the
following relationships,
  
n  1  b 
 s 
Total porosity is influenced by textural characteristics of soil and ranges from 35 to 50 %
in sandy soils and from 40 to 60 % in clayey soils. It increases with an increase in
fineness, looseness of soils and amount of soil aggregates.
Degree of saturation(S) defined as the ratio of the volume of water to the volume of
voids.
Vw
S
Vf

d. Soil Water Content

The common terms used for weight relationships are moisture (water) content and unit
weights.
Moisture (water) content (w) is defined as the ratio of the weight of water to the weight
of solids in the given volume of soil.
Ww
w
Ws

Unit weights () is the weight of soil to the volume of the soil solution. It can also be
expressed in terms of the weight of soil solid (dry unit weight, moisture content and total
volumes).
Soil water content is expressed on mass basis or volume basis. It is measured using
gravimetric, neutron scattering, gamma ray, capacitance method, time domain
reflectometry
Types of soil water
Soil water has earlier been classified mainly into three heads:
(i) Hygroscopic water,
(ii) Capillary water, and
(iii) Gravitational water.

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Hygroscopic Water: Water held tightly to the surface of soil particles by adsorption
forces. It occurs as a very thin film over the surface of soil particles and is held
tenaciously at a tension of 31 atmospheres.
It is not available for plant growth because the water particles are not capable of
movement by capillary or gravity. However, during the period of extreme drought it may
be used by trees and desert vegetations.
Capillary water: With increasing supply of water, the water film held around soil
particles thickens. Water then enters the pore system gradually filling the pores and
wedges between adjacent soil particles until a stage is reached when the water tension is
in equilibrium with gravity. This soil water tension is about 0.10 – 0.33atm. The capillary
water supplies the water needed by plants. Hence, it is also designated as plant available
water. Main factors that influence the amount of capillary water in the soil are the
structure, texture and organic matter content of the soil. A greater amount of water is held
by a fine textured soil than by a coarse textured one.
Saturation

Gravitational water

Field capacity

Capillary water (Plant

available water)

Permanent welting point

Hygroscopic coeff.
Hygroscopic Air dry
water
Oven dry

Fig. 2.5: Illustration of soil water constants

Availability of water increases usually with fineness of soil particles, as the capillary
water content is more in fine textured soils. Optimum growth of plant takes place
when the soil water is maintained at near field capacity.
Gravitational water: When sufficient water is added to soil, water gradually fills the
pore system expelling air completely from soil. Water moving downwards through soil

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under gravity is termed as gravitational water. The water tension at this stage is 0.33 atm
or less.
2.3. Basic concepts of soil water dynamics
2.3.1 Introduction

Water status in soils is characterized by both the amount of water present and its energy
state. Soil water is subjected to forces of variable origin and intensity, hereby acquiring
different quantities and forms of energy. The two primary forms of energy recognized are
kinetic and potential. Kinetic energy is acquired by virtue of motion and is proportional
to velocity squared. However, because the movement of water in soils is relatively slow
its kinetic energy is considered negligible. Potential energy, which is defined by the
position of soil water within a soil body and by internal conditions, is largely responsible
for determining soil water status under isothermal conditions. Like all other matter, soil
water tends to move from where the potential energy is higher to where it is lower, in
pursuit of equilibrium with its surroundings.
The magnitude of the driving force behind such spontaneous motion is a difference in
potential energy across a distance between two points of interest. At a macroscopic scale,
we can define potential energy relative to a reference state. The standard state for soil
water is defined as pure and free water (no solutes and no external forces other than
gravity) at a reference pressure, temperature, and elevation, and is arbitrarily given the
value of zero.
2.3.2 Components of forces acting on soil water
Soil water is subject to several force fields, the combined effects of which result in a
deviation in potential energy relative to the reference state, called the ‘total soil water
potential which is defined as “the amount of work that an infinitesimal unit quantity of
water at equilibrium is capable of doing work when it moves (isothermally and
reversibly) to a pool of water at similar standard (reference) state, i.e., similar pressure,
elevation, temperature and chemical composition.’’ It should be emphasized that there
are alternative definitions of soil water potential using concepts of chemical potential or
specific free energy of the chemical species water (which is different from the soil
solution termed ‘soil water’).

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The primary forces acting on soil water held within a rigid soil matrix under isothermal
conditions can be conveniently grouped as:
 Matric forces resulting from interactions of the solid phase with the liquid and
gaseous phases;
 Osmotic forces owing to differences in chemical composition of soil solution; and
 Body forces induced by gravitational and other (e.g., centrifugal) inertial force fields.
i. Matric forces
Matric force resulted from the combined effects of capillarity and adsorptive forces
within the soil matrix. The primary mechanisms for these effects include:
 capillarity caused by liquid–gas interfaces forming and interacting within the
irregular soil-pore geometry;
 adhesion of water molecules to solid surfaces due to short-range London–van der
Waals forces and extension of these effects by cohesion through hydrogen bonds
formed in the liquid; and
 ion hydration and water participating in diffuse double layers (particularly near
clay surfaces)
Adsorptive forces cause water molecules adsorbed on clay particles
Water molecules (H2O) are electrically neutral. However, the electrical charge within the
molecules is asymmetrically distributed. As a result, water molecules are strongly polar
and attract each other by H bonding

Fig. 2.6: Schematic diagram of two

water molecules.

The sharing of electrons by oxygen and hydrogen produces water molecules that are
negatively charged on the oxygen side and positively charged on the side where the
proton of the hydrogen sticks out. Molecules attract each other by H bonding, the
attraction of the proton of one water molecule for the negatively charged oxygen side of
an adjacent water molecule.

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Capillary forces are due to capillary tension (negative forces) which is mainly responsible
for retention of water around soil particles, in the wedges between soil particles.
Capillarity involves molecular forces located in the boundary layers between phases.
The force of mutual attraction of water molecules in the air water interference is known
as cohesive force.
Beyond the sphere of strong attraction of soil particles, water molecules are held in the
water film by cohesion (H bonding between water molecules). This outer film water is
called cohesion water (see fig 2.7). Molecules of cohesion water, compared to adhesion
water, are in greater motion, have greater energy and move more readily.

Fig. 2.7: Schematic presentation showing the relationship of adhesion and cohesion water with
respect to soil particles

Other force involved in the capillarity is the adhesive force that acts in solid-liquid
interface. It represents the mutual attractive force between soil particles and water and it
is responsible for retention of water as much thicker film.

Fig. 2.8: Capillary rise of water

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The capillary concept can be illustrated by regarding the soil as a mixture of solids and
pores in which the pores form capillary tubes. If such a small capillary tube is inserted in
water, the water will rise into the tube under the influence of capillary forces (Fig. 2.8).
The total upward force lifting the water column, Ff, is obtained by multiplying the
vertical component of surface tension by the circumference of the capillary
F1 =  cos  x 2r (2.12)
Where F1 = upward force (N)
 = surface tension of water against air ( = 0.073 kg/sec at 20°C)
 = contact angle of water with the tube (rad), ( cos   1 )
r = equivalent radius of tube (m)
By its weight in the gravitational field, the water column of length h and mass r2w
exerts a downward force F that opposes capillary rise
F2 = r2 hw x g (2.13)
Where F2= downward force (N)
w = density of water (= 1000 kg/m3)
g = acceleration due to gravity (= 9.81 m/s2)
h = height of capillary rise (m)
At equilibrium, the upward force F1 equals the downward force F2 and water movement
stops. In that case
 cos   2r 2 cos 
 Cos  x 2r = r2 hw x g h 
 r 2h w g  w gr
The attraction between water and soil particle surfaces is usually so strong that the angle
of contact is very close to zero, making its cosine  1. The cos  can therefore be ignored
under these circumstances. Three of the other factors affecting capillary rise (, w, and
g) are constants at a given temperature (e.g., 4°C) and can therefore be combined in to a
single constant
2  75 gm / s 2 1 0.15 (cm 2 )
h   (2.14)
r 1 gm / cm 3  980 cm / s 2 r (cm)
Thus the smaller the tube, the higher the capillary rise.

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Fig. 2.9: Relationship between capillary raise and soil texture

iii. Osmotic force

Occur when solutions of different concentrations are separated by a semi-permeable
membrane. Random motion of water and solute molecules create a net movement of
water to the compartment with higher concentration, until equilibrium is reached. This
net movement by concentration differences is called diffusion.
Soil water contains certain amount of dissolved salts and other solutes and is termed as
soil solution. Presence of solutes in soil water decreases the potential energy of water in
the soil. The potential energy of water in the solution is lower than the reference state
(pure water). When a solution is separated by a semi-permeable membrane from pure
water or form a solution of lower concentration, water tends to diffuse or osmoses into
the concentrated solution through the membrane.

Excess gas
pressure

Salt Pure water

solution

Semi-permeable
membrane

Fig. 2.10: Illustration of the concept of osmotic pressure

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The osmotic pressure can be illustrated by Fig. 2.9. A container, divided in to parts by
semi-permeable membrane, hold salt solution at one side of the membrane and pure water
at the other side. Both sides are at atmospheric pressure. Because the concentration of
water molecules is higher in the pure water than in the solution, more water molecules
will move in the direction of the solution than in the other direction. As the result, the
surface of the soil solution will rise slowly and that of the pure water will drop. One can
prevent this flow of water across the membrane and maintain static equilibrium by
exerting on the salt solution a gas pressure in excess of atmospheric pressure. The excess
gas pressure needed to maintain equilibrium is equal to the osmotic pressure,, of the
solution. Then the osmotic potential can be written as:
1
O   
w
Because membranes do not generally separate soil zones, the osmotic potential has little
effect on the mass movement of water in soil. Its major effect is on the uptake of water by
plant root cells that are isolated from the soil solution by their semi-permeable cell
membranes.
iii. Gravitational force
Every body on the earth’s surface is attracted toward the earth’s center by a gravitational
force equal to the weight of the body, that weight being the product of mass of the body
and the gravitational acceleration. To raise a body against this attraction, work must be
expended, and this work is stored by the raised body in the form of gravitational
potential energy. The amount of this energy depends on the body’s position in the
gravitational force field.
As long as the gravity is lesser in magnitude than the matric and osmotic suctions
(suction or tension is used to indicate the negative force) together, there is no downward
movement of water. When the soil gets wet after irrigation or rain, the combined matric
and osmotic suctions decrease greatly and become lower in magnitude than the gravity.
Consequently, there is a downward movement of water.
2.3.3 Soil water potential concept
It is defined as the potential energy of pure water, with no external forces acting on it, at a
reference pressure (atmospheric), reference temperature, and reference elevation. Soil

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water potential is then determined as potential energy per unit quantity of water, relative
to the reference potential of zero.
Potential = Force x Distance = mgl =rwVgl (Nm)
Potentials are usually defined relative to water with a composition identical to the soil
solution, at atmospheric pressure, a temperature of 293 K (20°C), and datum elevation
zero. Soil-water potential is defined as the work expended on or by the soil water during
the transfer of an infinitesimal quantity of water from point A to an reference pool or
point B in the soil.
The total soil water potential is the sum of potentials resulting from different force fields.
It can be written as:
t m O  g (2.16)

t =total potential
m =matric potential
O =osmotic potential
g =gravitational potential
In soil physics, water potential can be expressed as energy on a mass basis ( m ), on a
volume basis (v) or on a weight basis (w). As an example, let us take the gravitational
potential, g, with the water-table as reference level. The definition of potential says that
the mechanical work required to raise a mass of water (m = wV) from the water-table to
a height z is equal to mgz or wVgz. Thus the gravitational potential on mass basis (m),
on volume basis (v) or, on weight basis (w) will be
 wV g z
g   gz ( J / kg ) , gravitational potential on mass basis
w V
 wV g z
g   gz ( Pa  pressure) , gravitational potential on volume basis
V

wV g z
g   z (m heightor in watercolumn) , gravitational potential on weight basis
w Vg
In hydrology, one prefers to use the potential on a weight basis, and potentials are
referred to as 'heads'. In the following, we shall restrict ourselves to water potentials
based on weight. In analogy to Eq. 2.16, we can write

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ht  hm  hO  hg

With the potentials now called 'heads' and the subscripts having the same meaning as in
Eq. 2.16
 The matric head (hm) in unsaturated soil is negative, because work is needed to
withdraw water against the soil-matric forces. At the groundwater level,
atmospheric pressure exists and therefore h, = 0;
 Changes in total water head in the soil may also be caused by changes in the
pressure of the air adjacent to it. In natural soils, however, such changes are fairly
exceptional, so we can assume that he, = 0;
In soil-water studies, we can very often neglect the influence of the osmotic head.
Taking h0 = 0, hg = z and denoting ht as H, we can also write
H = hm + z (2.18)
H = hydraulic head (m)
z = elevation head or gravitational head (m)
According to Equation in head determine the direction and the magnitude of soil-water
H
flow. When the soil water is in equilibrium,   0 , and there is no flow.
z
2.4. Infiltration
2.4.1. Introduction
 Infiltration is a process in which water enters the surface strata of the soil mass. The
infiltrated water first meets the soil moisture deficiency, if any, and thereafter the
excess water moves vertically downwards to reach the groundwater table. This
vertical movement is called percolation.
 Infiltration capacity of the soil is defined as the maximum rate at which it is capable
of absorbing water.
Infiltration rate decreases during rain or irrigation. The rate of decrease is rapid initially
and the infiltration rate tends to approach a constant value. In general infiltration rate is
high in the early stages of infiltration, particularly where the soil is initially dry, but tends
to decrease monotonically and eventually to approach asymptotically a constant rate,
which is often termed the final infiltration capacity but which is preferably called steady-
state infiltration.

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Chapter 2 –soil-water-plant relation ship 2018

The decrease of infiltration rate from an initially high rate is the result of decrease in
hydraulic potential gradient (constituting one of the forces drawing water into the soil)
which occurs as infiltration proceeds. If the surface of an initially dry soil is suddenly
saturated, as, for instance, if the surface is ponded, the hydraulic gradient acting in the
surface layer is at first very steep. As the wetting zone deepens, however, this gradient is
reduced, and, as the wetted part of the profile becomes thicker and thicker, the suction
gradient tends eventually to become vanishingly small.
It is influenced by soil properties and also by moisture gradient. Moisture tension may be
zero near the surface of soil shortly after wetting and may be very high a few centimeters
below, thus causing a large downward force (in addition to gravity) pulling the water into
the unsaturated soil. Several hours after wetting, these differences in tension may be very
small, and gravity then becomes the dominant force causing infiltration. The decrease of
infiltration with time after wetting a soil is of importance in rainfall-runoff studies and in
irrigation.
2.4.2. Factors affecting infiltration
Major factors governing the rate of infiltration of water are: (i) Conditions and
characteristics of surface soil, (ii) Duration and intensity of irrigation or rainfall,
(iii)Vegetation cover, (iv) Tillage and crop management practices

Condition and characteristics of soil primarily involved in the process are the soil water
content, soil texture, soil structure, soil compaction, soil organic matter content soil
surface sealing, presence of cracks in surface soil, soil depth, depth of water table and the
soil hydraulic conductivity.
 Soil water content and looseness of the soil surface exert a profound influence on
the initial rate and the total amount of infiltration. As the soil water content
decreases or soil gets compact, the rate of infiltration decreases.
 Soil tillage and crop management practices increase the looseness of the soil and
by that increase the infiltration rate.
 Contour ploughing and terracing in agricultural areas have the effect of delaying
runoff resulting thereby in increased infiltration.
 Coarse textured soils have mainly large particles in between which there are large
pores.

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Chapter 2 –soil-water-plant relation ship 2018

 On the other hand, fine textured soils have mainly small particles in between
which there are small pores
 In coarse soils, the rain or irrigation water enters and moves more easily into
larger pores; it takes less time for the water to infiltrate into the soil. In other
words, infiltration rate is higher for coarse textured soils than for fine textured
soils
 The water infiltrates faster (higher infiltration rate) when the soil is dry, than
when it is wet. As a consequence, when irrigation water is applied to a field, the
water at first infiltrates easily, but as the soil becomes wet, the infiltration rate
decreases.
 Generally speaking, water infiltrates quickly (high infiltration rate) into granular
soils but very slowly (low infiltration rate) into massive and compact soils.
 Because the farmer can influence the soil structure (by means of cultural
practices), he can also change the infiltration rate of his soil.
 A soil surface with vegetative cover favors a greater infiltration than a bare soil as
the vegetative cover encourages slow movement of water over the surface.
 Mulch-cover on bare soil has more or less the effect of vegetation in absorbing the
raindrop impact and maintaining a fairly high rate of infiltration.

The infiltration rate is influenced by the rainfall duration and its intensity.

 The duration of sustained heavy rainfall results in a steady reduction in the

infiltration capacity until the rate of infiltration attains a nearly constant value.

 When the rainfall rate is smaller than the infiltration capacity, there is still a steady
reduction of the infiltration capacity, but the rate of reduction is lower. Under this
condition, all rainfall will be infiltrated as long as rain falls.

 Rainfall intensity affects infiltration in two ways:

i. when rainfall intensity is lesser than infiltration rate In this case, all the
rainwater will be absorbed by the soil

ii. When rainfall intensity greater than infiltration rate In this case infiltration
rate decreases due to the following reasons:

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Chapter 2 –soil-water-plant relation ship 2018

 Increment of supply of moisture to the surface layer

 mechanical compaction of soil by raindrops impact

 in-wash of fine soil particles

During heavy rainfall, the top soil is affected by mechanical compaction and by the wash
of finer materials. This leads to faster decrease in the rate of infiltration than with low
intensities of rainfall.
2.4.3. Measurements of Infiltration
Infiltration is measured using a device called infiltrometer. Two types of infiltrometers
used are: single and double ring infiltrometer.
It consists of a hollow metal cylinder 30cm in diameter and 60 cm long driven into the
ground such that 10cm of it projects above ground level. A graduated jar or burette is
used to add water, to give directly the volume of water added over time. Knowing the
volume of water added at different time intervals, the plot of infiltration capacity vs. time
is obtained. The experiments are continued till a uniform rate of infiltration is obtained.

a) b)

Inner ring

Outer ring

Fig. 2.14: Ring infiltrometer, a) single ring, b) double ring

Under single ring infiltrometer the infiltrated water spreads at the outlet from the tube as
shown by dotted lines in Fig. 2.14. As the result the tube area is not representative of the
area through which infiltration takes place. To overcome this problem, the ring
infiltrometer consisting of a set of two concentric rings, i.e. double ring (Fig. 2.14 b) is
used. In this case, two rings are inserted into the ground and water is maintained on the
soil surface, in both the rings, to a common level. The outer ring provides a water jacket
or buffer to the infiltrating water from the inner ring and hence prevents spreading out of

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Chapter 2 –soil-water-plant relation ship 2018

the infiltrating water from the inner tube. The measurement of water volume is taken
from the inner ring only.
Infiltration equations
An ideal infiltration capacity curve proposed by Horton is given by
i t   i f  i0  i f e  Bt (2.20)

where i(t) is the infiltration capacity at any time t from the beginning of water application
in mm/h, i0 is the maximum initial infiltration vale, when t  0 in mm/h at the beginning

of water application , i f is minimum infiltration rate at the final steady stage where the

soil profile becomes fully saturated which is related to the hydraulic conductivity, B is an
empirical constant depending on soil types, soil cover complex, vegetation and other
factors and t is the time lapse from the start of water application. Values of i0 , i f and B

are dependent on number of factors like soil characteristics and climatic conditions. A
typical curve of I (t) separating the rainfall intensity from infiltration and surface runoff is
shown in Fig. 2.15.

i0 i(t)
P(t)
Rainfall & Infiltration
(mm/h)

if

Fig. 2.15:
Pilip equation
This is given by
1
I t   S t  A  t 2
(2.21)
1
1 
i t  
dI
 St 2 A (2.22)
dt 2
Where S is the sorptivity which is a factor characterizing the soil water relationship, and
A is the factor that represents the effect of gravity.

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Equation 2.22 shows that the infiltration capacity decreases with infiltration time, A gives
the final infiltration rate, the value of which is very near the saturated hydraulic
conductivity of the topsoil.
Kostiakov equation
k
Kostiakov : i (t )  k  t  n , I (t )   t1 n  A  t B
1 n (2.23)
k
modified Kostiakov : i (t )  k  t  n  C , I (t )   t1 n  C  t  A  t B  C  t
Where k (equivalent depth/time) and n are 1  nfitted to infiltration trials, and C is the

infiltration rate at large time t.

Example: From a double ring infiltrometer the following infiltration rate were observed.
Time (h) 0.0167 0.0583 0.125 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.25
i (cm/h) 8.76 7.90 6.45 4.68 2.75 1.76 1.10
Determine the constants i0, if and B of Horton’s equation to describe the above data
Solution: The Horton’s equation is given by
i t   i f  i0  i f e  Bt

The constants i0, if and B can be found out from the following two methods
Method i: The given data is plotted on an ordinary graph as shown in fig. below:
10
9
8
Infiltration (cm/h)

7 i0
6
FC= area of shaded portion
5
= 2.515cm (cm/h*h)
4
3
2
1
if
0
0 0.2 0.5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (h)

Then exponential curve is fitted by eye to the plotted data. This yielded
 i0=9.2 cm/h and
 if =1.0cm/h
The value of B may then be obtained as follows:
The Horton’s equation is rewritten as
i  i   i
f 0  i f e  Bt

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Chapter 2 –soil-water-plant relation ship 2018

Integrating the above equation on both sides, we get

 i  i dt

LHS = f = the area of shaded portion in fig = Fc
0

i i f 
 i  i f e  Bt  dt 
 0
RHS = 0
0 B
From these two results we can determine B from the equation

B
i0  i f

9.2 1.0  3.26
Fc 2.515
The Horton’s equation to describe the given data is therefore given by
i  1.0  9.2  1.0  e 3.26 t  1.0  8.2 e 3.26 t
Exercise questions
1. A sample of moist soil with a wet mass of 1.0 kg and a volume of 0.64 liters
(6.4×10−4m3) was dried in the oven and found to have a dry mass of 0.8 kg. Assuming
the typical value of particle density for a mineral soil (2650 kg/m3), calculate:-
a. the bulk density ρb,
b. porosity n,
c. void ration e,
d. mass wetness wm,
e. volume wetness θ,
f. water volume ratio vw,
g. degree of saturation s, and
h. Air-filled porosity na.
2. A soil core was drawn with a core sampler having an inside dimension of 5 cm
diameter and 15 cm length from a field two days after irrigation when the soil water was
near field capacity. The weight of the core sampler with fresh soil sample was 1.95 kg
and the weight of the same on oven drying was 1.84 kg. The empty core sampler
weighted 1.4 kg. Calculate the (a) bulk density of soil, (b) water holding capacity of soil
in percent on volume basis and (c) depth of water held per meter depth of soil.

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