TRINITY POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE INC.

892 Alfina Bldg., Quirino Highway, Brgy. Gulod, Novaliches, Quezon City
Telephone Number: 7738-1713
Email: tpchrdnova@[Link]

Module in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (Week 1)

At the end of the module, you should be able to:

1. Explain the concept of a group and the factors that influence the formation of groups
2. Describe the organize nature of social life and rules governing behavior
3. Compare different social forms of social organization according to their manifest and latent functions

LESSON PROPER

GROUPS WITHIN SOCIETY

The Concept of Groups

Of the most common fears or phobia for most people is the fear of being alone. Even loners need company. It is
hard to imagine life without any kind of group involvement. When we speak of a group, it normally refers to an assemblage
or a cluster of people. It is also comprised of two or more people having something in common or a sense of emotional
solidarity, they interact with each other and are guided by a set of norms. Group can range from a small unit such as family
or as large as a nation. It can be temporary such as a roaring crowd in a basketball game or permanent such as race or
ethnicity. The sociologist saw these as social groups because there is a system of social relationship between members and
that each individual member has a specific role or duty to be performed to achieve the common goal. Thus, their behavior
is guided by the standards, rules and regulations, patterned ways of doing things, and other established practices of the group
which can be reflective also of the individuals behavior. Among the common characteristics of groups are:

1. Interaction between members- Communication or interaction between members exist in the form of words, gestures,
writing, music which can affect an influence or affect each other’s behavior;
2. Belongingness- Members can differentiate themselves from nonmembers. This sense of belongingness sets them apart
from the others based from their set of ideals and standards;
3. Arrangement in values and norms- Becoming a member of a group entails performing certain responsibilities and
abiding by a set of norms. They are also entitled to privileges as a result of being accepted in the group.
4. A definable structure within the group. Members perform different roles. Some become leaders while others perform
specialized roles so that the society can function properly.

An individual has a certain need to meet and becoming part of a group

could make him fulfill that. However, these are factors which influence
formation or membership within a group. These are:

1. Motivates shared by individuals. People having a common cause, same

interest and same experiences and situation from groups to be able to share
these within their circle. For instance, people having the same hobbies form
a group to be able to share their experiences with one another.

2. Size of a group. The concept of the size in a group whether it is a small or a large group cannot be measured in quantities.
In some families for instance, having seven members can already be considered large while an organization with five
employees would just be enough to run its daily operations.

3. Type of group goals. Groups are also formed to achieve a common goal. In order to reach their goal, a group will block
structural forms which can hinder its achievement and find better ways in order to reach their target. Thus, an institution
like the government can agree to the decentralization of the government, which means that the local government would give
the autonomy to exercise power in their respective localities, rather than maintaining a strict bureaucratic system.

4. The kind of group cohesion. Group cohesion refers to the degree to which the members of a group have the ability to
function and interact together towards the pursuit of their goals. Group cohesion is also determined by the extent to which
individual’s need and interests are satisfied. For instances, group cohesion is higher in a family where there is love and
support given to each member compared to a company whose workers are on strike because their demands were not met. It
is most likely that the members or the company have lower morale because there was no sense of honor demonstrated by
members of the company.

Page 1 of 22
 TRINITY POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE INC.
892 Alfina Bldg., Quirino Highway, Brgy. Gulod, Novaliches, Quezon City
Telephone Number: 7738-1713
Email: tpchrdnova@[Link]

TYPES OF SOCIAL GROUPS

A social group consists of two or more people who regularly interact and share a
sense of unity and common identity. Renowned social psychologist Muzafer Sherif
(1969) formulated a technical definition of a social group. It is a social unit consisting of
a number of individuals interacting with each other with respect to:

a. Common motives and goals;

b. An accepted division of labor
c. Established status relationships;
d. Accepted norms and values with references to matters relevant to the group;
e. The development of accepted sanctions, such as raise and punishment, when norms were respected or violated.

This simply means, we all typically belong to many different types of social groups. For example, you could be a
member of a sports team, club, church group, college class, workplace and more. It can be classified according to (1) the
nature of social ties; (2) according to self-identification; and (3) according to organization. Specifically, the groups
include:

According to the Nature of Social Ties

1. PRIMARY GROUPS

Primary groups are those that are close-knit. They are typically small scale, include intimate relationships, and are
usually long lasting. According to Charles Cooley (1959, in Panopio [Link]., 1995, p.128)”it involves the sort of sympathy
and mutual identification for which we are the natural expression” which means that the members of primary groups feel a
strong personal identity with the group. He further stated that there should be a face-to-face association and cooperation.

Examples of primary groups are family, friends, peers, neighbors, classmates, sororities, fraternities and church
members. These groups are marked by primary relationships in which communication is informal. Members of primary
groups have strong emotional ties. They also relate to one another as whole and unique individuals. In some cases, however,
not all face-to-face association is considered a primary group. For instance, a very abusive husband to his wife and a
displeasing father to his children will not be able to form an intimate and close-knit relationship even if they belong to a
single family. In contrast, although very rarely, that some people develop closeness and intimate relationship as text-mates,
even if they have not yet seen each other in person.

2. SECONDARY GROUPS

In contrast, secondary groups can be large or small and relationships are most mostly impersonal, businesslike,
contractual and usually short term. These groups are marked by secondary relationships in which communication is formal
and is affected via phone, e-mail print media, radio or television. Members of secondary groups may not know each other
or have much face-to-face interaction. Group composition is heterogeneous and is widespread. They tend to relate to others
only in particular roles and for practical reasons. These groups are typically found at work and school.

Page 2 of 22
 TRINITY POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE INC.
892 Alfina Bldg., Quirino Highway, Brgy. Gulod, Novaliches, Quezon City
Telephone Number: 7738-1713
Email: tpchrdnova@[Link]

A typical example of a secondary group is a committee represented by the employees from different branches coming
together to plan or organize the company’s Christmas party or annual staff outing. Although group members may have some
similar interests, the purpose of the group is about the task instead of the relationship. Members of secondary groups are
less personal or emotional than those of primary groups. Sometimes, secondary groups become pretty informal, and the
members get to know each other fairly well. Even so, their friendship exists in a limited context; they won’t necessarily
remain close beyond the holiday party. Keep in mind also that not all secondary relationship is unhealthy. In fact, large
companies preferred to keep secondary relations to be able to ensure equality, efficiency and fair treatments in giving
promotions and new appointments based on the results of the merit system.

3. GEMEINSCHAFT AND GESSELLSCHAFT

Similar to the primary and secondary groups is the study developed by Ferdinand Tonnies in his work entitled
Gemeinschaft und Gessellschaft (1887), which set out to develop concepts that could be used as analytic tools for
understanding why and how the social world is organized. Gemeinschaft, frequently translated as “community “refers to
individuals bound together by common norms, often because of shared physical space and shared beliefs. Familial ties
represent the purest form of gemeinschafts, although religious institutions are also a classic example of this type of
relationship. Such groupings based on feelings of togetherness and mutual bonds are maintained by members of the group
who see the existence of the group as their key goal. Characteristics of these groups include slight specialization and division
of labor, strong personal relationship and relatively simple social institutions. To apply this concept in Philippine context, a
gemeinschaft may refer to a typical barrio in the rural areas where there is damayan and bayanihan because members
consider themselves as part of a huge family even if they are not related by blood. Gesellschaft, frequently translated as
“society “refers to associations in which self-interest is the primary justification for membership. A modern business is a
good example of an association in which individuals seek to maximize their own self-interest, and in order to do so, an
association to coordinate efforts is formed. The specialization of professional roles them together, and often formal authority
is necessary to maintain structures. Characteristics of these groups include highly calculated divisions of labor, impersonal
secondary relationships and strong social institutions. Such groups are sustained by their member’s individual aims and
goals. Gesellschaft keeps its equilibrium through police, laws, tribunals and prisons.

According to Self- Identification

1. IN-GROUPS
The feeling of “we” as against
“they” explains how groups can be part of
an in-group and an out-group,
respectively. An individual develops a
form of relationship where he or she feels
a sense of belongingness, solidarity,
loyalty, camaraderie, esprit de corps and a
protective attitude towards other groups.
An in-group can refer to a family, a
“barkada”, a class, a particular race, or an
organization. Members show a deep attachment with the other members, they know each other personally, and enjoy
common activities. The characteristics of an in-group are as follows:

◼ Members use titles, external symbols and dress to distinguish themselves from the out-group;
◼ Members tend to clash or compete with members of the out-group. This competition with the other group can also
strengthen the unity within each group; and
◼ Members apply positive stereotypes to their in-group and negative stereotypes to the out-group.

However, if the “we feeling become excessive, it can lead to ethnocentrism. According to Henderson (1979) it is a
belief that their group is the best and that all others are inferior to it.

2. OUT-GROUPS
An out-group is a group in which we do not participate. It is that group toward which one has the feeling of indifference,
avoidance, dislike, antagonism and even hatred. In plain simple words, the in-group is our group while the out-group is
somebody else. As mentioned earlier, out-groups, as outsiders, received negative stereotypes from the in-group. For
example, the rival schools during an intercollegiate basketball competition have a preconceive notion that the other team is
a cheater, thus, the term “luto” is being uttered by the losing team against their opponent.

Page 3 of 22
 TRINITY POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE INC.
892 Alfina Bldg., Quirino Highway, Brgy. Gulod, Novaliches, Quezon City
Telephone Number: 7738-1713
Email: tpchrdnova@[Link]

3. REFERENCE GROUPS
People may form opinions or judge their own behaviors against those of a reference group or a group used as a standard
for self-appraisals. The central aspect of the reference group is identification rather than actual membership. A typical
example of a reference group is how a culinary student, medical student, or a law student begins to observe and conform to
the norms of practicing chefs, doctors or lawyers long before he actually enters that field. Similarly, an adolescent already
identifies himself as an adult, even if he is still a minor. There is a tendency for him to “idolize” or to look up to an adult he
wishes to emulate later when he becomes an adult himself. Sociologist find reference groups as useful in the attitudinal
development of an individual especially when an individual begins to internalize and anticipate his social roles as an adult.
Such positive self-evaluation reflects the normative effect that a reference group has on its own members, as well as those
who compare themselves to the group. Still, reference groups can have a comparison effect on self-evaluations. If most law
students in a particular school passed the bar exam, then other law school will probably compare themselves to them.

According to Organization

1. INFORMAL GROUPS
An informal group is unplanned, spontaneous, and has no explicit rules for membership. It has the same characteristics
as the primary and gemeinschaft types. This group is a result of an interaction between two or more individuals which are
usually bound by emotions and sentiments. Friendships, gangs and adolescent cliques fall under this category since they
usually exchange confidences, share a feeling of intimacy and acquire a sense of belonging.

2. FORMAL GROUPS
Formal groups can also be referred to as social organizations. The group was deliberately formed and their duties,
purpose were explicitly defined. Tasks, privileges, systems of merits, and job description were spelled out including how
activities should be carried out. Social relations will be based on the statuses they occupy and the explicit norms of
organizations. For examples, a school has a president, directress, principal, coordinators, in same manner as the company
has a CEO, COO, President, and Vice President. The faculty and the business manual clearly state their respective job
descriptions and the years of term they can serve the organization.
The manual also includes their privileges and merits. In doing so, the formal organization will remain stable and
the same even if the persons handling the posts would be altered.

Reference: Understanding Culture, Society and Politics, Everlinda Diala – Jimenez, Salesiana Books Don
Bosco Press Inc.

Page 4 of 22
 TRINITY POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE INC.
892 Alfina Bldg., Quirino Highway, Brgy. Gulod, Novaliches, Quezon City
Telephone Number: 7738-1713
Email: tpchrdnova@[Link]

Module in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (Week 2 and 3)

At the end of the module, you should be able to:

1. Trace kinship ties and social networks
2. Describe the organized nature of social life and rules governing behavior
3. Compare different social forms of social organization according to their manifest and latent functions

LESSON PROPER

KINSHIP, MARRIAGE AND THE HOUSEHOLD

WHAT IS KINSHIP?

One of the most common school projects you may have encountered once when you were in elementary or junior
high was tracing your family tree, to know your family’s genealogy or medical history. In the complex diagrams, you can
somehow visualize how these relationships molded you to the person you are today. Sociologist and anthropologist refer to
these dynamic and cluster social relations as kinship.
Kinship is the most universal and basic of all human relationship that is based on ties of blood, marriage or adaptation.
Sociologist A.R. Radcliffe Brown defined kinship as a system of dynamic relations between person and person in a
community, the behavior of any two persons in any of these relations being regulated in some way and to a greater or less
extent by social usage. Smelser, on the other hand defined kinship as, “a cluster of social relations based on such factors as
biological ties, marriage and legal rules regarding adoption, guardianship and the like. “It also varies from culture to culture,
from society to society according to the Dictionary of Anthropology.

KINSHIP SYSTEM

Descent or ancestry refers to the origin or background of a person in terms of family or nationality. Descent patterns
normally determine kin structures or groupings. Anthropologists commonly use diagrams to illustrate and explain kinship
relationship. The symbols below are commonly used:

In kinship diagrams, one individual is usually labeled

as ego. This is the person to whom all kinship relationships
are referred. In the case below, ego has a brother (Br), sister
(Si), father (Fa) and mother (Mo). Note also that ego is
shown as being gender nonspecific- that is, either male or
female.

Kinship is classified into five types: Consanguineous,

Affinal, Lineal, Collateral, and Quasi or Fictive Kin.

1. CONSANGUINEOUS KINSHIP
The relationship is based on blood ties. Parents
and their children and between children of same parents.
Thus, son, daughter, brother, sister, paternal uncle, and the
like are consanguineous kin. The kin relationship between
half siblings may also be considered consanguineal because
they have the same set of father or mother.

2. AFFINAL KINSHIP
The kinship relationship established by marriage is known as affinal kinship. The husband and the wife’s relationship
are affinal. It is extended to their respective families after marriage thus, terms such as son-in-law, father-in-law, mother-
in-law, sister-in-law, etc. are examples of affinal kin. Similarly, an affinal kinship is also formed from a stepsibling
established from one parent’s remarriage in particular, the existing children of the man or woman before remarriage.

Page 5 of 22
 TRINITY POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE INC.
892 Alfina Bldg., Quirino Highway, Brgy. Gulod, Novaliches, Quezon City
Telephone Number: 7738-1713
Email: tpchrdnova@[Link]

3. LINEAL KIN
Are either the direct ancestors or descendant of a particular ego. They are related by a direct line of descent such as
father, father’s father, son and son’s son and the like. In recent cultural studies, they found out that lineal bonds are most
common among Caucasian and Asian families.

4. COLLATERAL KIN
Are composed of ego’s sibling and their descendants and the siblings his or her lineal kin of ascending generations and
their descendants as well. They can be pictured as side branches off of the main trunk that links a person to his ancestry and
progeny. Collateral kin are persons who is related indirectly through the mediation of another relative such as father’s
brother, mother’s sister etc. The illustration below shows the difference between lineal and collateral kinship.

On the basis of nearness or distance kin may be

classified into primary, secondary and tertiary kin.
These are:
1. PRIMARY KIN
Those kin who are closely and directly related to
one another are called primary kin. Normally there are
eight types of primary kin which includes husband-
wife, father-son, mother-son, father-daughter, mother-
daughter, sister-brother, younger brother-elder brother.
Younger sister-elder sister. One’s father is one’s
primary consanguineous kin whereas one’s wife is
one’s primary affinal kin.

2. SECONDARY KIN
Secondary kin are defined in relation to our primary kin. Primary kin of our primary kin are called secondary kin.
Father’s brother, sister’s husband, brother’s wife are our secondary kin.

3. TERTIARY KIN
The secondary kin of our primary kin is known as tertiary kin. Brother of sister’s husband, wife of brother-in-law are
example of tertiary kin.

KINSHIP TERMINOLOGIES
In order to define the closeness of the kin relations of one individual to another, instead of saying my brother’s female
offspring (referring to niece) kinship terminologies play an important role. It could be vocative or terms of address;
referential or terms of reference; Classificatory, Descriptive; And Teknonymic.
Terms like kuya (eldest), dikong (second), sangko (third) refer to brothers according to their birth order. Ate, ditse,
sanse, are their female counterpart, impo for grandparents, ima for mother, and tatang for father are classified as vocative
because these are terms used to address them. But these vocative terms can be used also terms in referring to people even
if they are not your relatives. For be used to refer to someone who is older than you even if you are not blood related.
Referential terms are used to give your exact relation to an individual such as father, mother, first cousin, aunt,
uncle and the like.
Classificatory terms are those terns which fuse together a number of relations under a single term while descriptive
show a more specific and exact relation of an individual to another. For example, the term cousin is a classificatory term
while mother’s sister’s son is a descriptive term.
The practice of addressing an adult as the parent of one’s first child is called teknonymy. In India, for instance, it
is taboo for women to mention her husband’s name so they use their child’s name and add the word father. Attaching a
popular person’s name to his relative is also a form of teknonymy. A typical example of this is the way Filipinos refer to
the parents or siblings of popular actors.

Page 6 of 22
 TRINITY POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE INC.
892 Alfina Bldg., Quirino Highway, Brgy. Gulod, Novaliches, Quezon City
Telephone Number: 7738-1713
Email: tpchrdnova@[Link]

KINSHIP ORGANIZATION

A. BY BLOOD
1. Unilineal Descent (Patrilineal and Matrilineal)
This traces descent only through a single line of ancestors, male or female. Both males and females are members of a
unilineal family, but descent links are only recognized through relatives of one gender. The two basic forms of unilineal
descent are referred to as patrilineal and matrilineal. In a patrilineal descent, a person is affiliated with a group through his
or her father but not their mother. However, only males pass on their family identity to their children. A woman’s children
are members of her husband’s patrilineal line. The red people on the succeeding diagram are related to each other patrilineal.
The female line of tracing one’s descent may be classified as matrilineal. When using this pattern, individual are
relatives if they can trace descent through females to the same female ancestor. While both male and female children are
members of their mother’s matrilineal descent group, only daughters can pass on the family line to their offspring. The
green people below are related to each other matrilineally.

2. Cognatic Descent (Bilinear, Ambilineal, Parallel, and

Bilateral)
At least 40% of the societies around the world today trace
descent through both the mother’s and the father’s ancestors to
some degree. They follow one of several non-unilineal or
cognatic descent principles which usually results in more
varied and complex family systems than are found in societies
with patrilineal or matrilineal descent patterns. Cognatic
descent is known to occur in four variations: bilinear,
ambilineal, parallel and bilateral descent.
By far the most common pattern is bilateral descent. In this principle, a person affiliates him or herself in a group
of relatives, a person affiliates him or herself in a group of relatives related through both of his and her parents.
When both patrilineal and matrilineal descent principles are combined, the result is the bilinear, or double, descent
pattern. With this rare hybrid system, every individual is a member of his or her mother’s matrilineage and father’s
patrilineage.

Parallel descent principle, men trace their ancestry through male lines and women trace theirs through female lines. Unlike
bilinear descent, each individual is a member of only one descent group.

Ambilineal descent recognizes descent from either males or females, but individuals may select only one line to trace
descent. Since each generation can choose which parent to trace descent through, a family line may be patrilineal in one
generation and matrilineal in the next. In other words, ambilineal descent is flexible in that it allows people to adjust to
changing family situations.

B. BY MARRIAGE
We commonly hear the phrase “till death do us part” as vows
delivered by newlywed couples during a marriage ceremony.
Marriage is intended to start a family and eventually,
consanguineous kinship were later form. Societies and their laws
vary in the form of conjugal bonds they prefer. Levinson and Malone
(1980) identified two forms of marriage being practiced in most
societies: Polygamy and
Polygamy is the practice of having more than one spouse at the same time while monogamy is a form of marriage wherein
a person marries another person but is permitted to remarry in circumstances such as death of the spouse or after a divorce
(serial monogamy) but they cannot marry more than one spouse at the same time.

Page 7 of 22
 TRINITY POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE INC.
892 Alfina Bldg., Quirino Highway, Brgy. Gulod, Novaliches, Quezon City
Telephone Number: 7738-1713
Email: tpchrdnova@[Link]

C. BY RESIDENCE
After marriage, it is expected for a couple to establish their own family, however, when it comes to their
choice of residence, financial capacity and convenience played a crucial factor. In many societies, newly married
couples do not establish their own residence but instead become part of an existing household or compound occupied
by relatives. Which relatives are favored is culturally prescribed? However, there are a few common patterns of
residency rules around the world: Patrilocal, Matrilocal, Avunculocal, Ambilocal, and Neolocal Residence. In
order to understand the rationale for each of them, it is essential to know that the most important determining factor
is the specific type of kinship system. Of secretary importance usually are economic concerns and personal factors.

1. PATRILOCAL RESIDENCE occurs when a society follows patrilineal descent principle. This occurs when newly
married couple establishes their home near or in the groom’s father’s house. This is because it allows the groom to remain
near his male relatives. Women do not remain in their natal household after marriage with this residence pattern. About
69% of the world’s societies follow patrilocal residence, making it the most common.

2. MATRILOCAL RESIDENCE is much preferred by families whose descent is traced matrilineally. This keeps
women near their female relatives. Men leave their households when they marry.

3. AVUNCULOCAL RESIDENCE is associated with matrilineal descent. It occurs when a newly married couple
establishes their home near or in the groom’s maternal uncle’s house. When men obtain statuses or jobs from their nearest
elder matrilineal male relative. Having a woman’s son live near her brother allows the older man to more easily teach his
nephew what he needs to know in order to assume his matrilineally inherited role.

4. AMBILOCAL RESIDENCE occurs when a newly married

couple has the choice of living with or near the groom’s or the bride’s
family. The couple may also live for a while with one set of parents
and then move to live with the other. This kind of residence
preference is most common among typical Filipino families.

5. NEOLOCAL RESIDENCE occurs when a newly married couple establishes their home independent of both sets of
relatives. While only about 5% of the world’s societies follow this pattern. It is popular and common in urban North America
today largely because it suits the cultural emphasis on independence. However, economic constraints can possibly make
neolocal residence a difficult goal to achieve, especially for young newlyweds. Elsewhere, neolocal residence is found in
societies in which kinship is minimized or economic considerations require moving residence periodically.

D. BY FAMILY SIZE
Residence rules may have an impact on the form of family that lives together. If the post-marital
residence is neolocal, it is most likely that the independent household is considered as a single nuclear family,
comprising of a man, woman with their children which is considered as a small, two-generation family. This family
size is most common to families who live in urban areas.
The larger groups are most often in one of three general forms: an extended family, a joint family or
a polygamous family.
Extended families consist of two or more nuclear families linked together by ties of descent. They
consist of living relatives from three or more generations.

They commonly share their resources in farming, animal herding and do their domestic tasks together otherwise
known as efficient collective work units. The downside of this type of household was its effect on the allocation of
resources. Scarcity of resources may lead to personal conflicts between the members which may eventually lead to
the division into two or more independent families.

Joint families are comprised of two or more relatives of the same generation living together with their respective
spouses and children.

Page 8 of 22
 TRINITY POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE INC.
892 Alfina Bldg., Quirino Highway, Brgy. Gulod, Novaliches, Quezon City
Telephone Number: 7738-1713
Email: tpchrdnova@[Link]

Polygamous family may be comprised of a man or a woman with all their spouses and their children. It is a challenge
to diagram it since there may be two or more wives living in the same household.
In some cases, the absences of the father due to death, divorce or his abandonment of the children may result to a
matrifocal or am acentric family household. Such a household consists of a woman, her children and sometimes
her grandchildren as well.

E. BY RITUAL (COMPARADRAZGO)
One of the lingering traces of Spanish presence in the Filipino culture is our adherence to our Christian
faith. Philippines is the only Asian country where majority of its population is Catholic. The sacraments of baptism,
confirmation and marriage became occasions where Filipino families not only gather together but begin to strengthen,
intensify and extend personal alliances in the form of the camparadrazgo. American anthropologist Donn Hart studied
this local practice was the first to use the term camparadrazgo or refer to the relationship between the godparent
(ninong or ninang) and godchild (inaanak). This mutual kinship system which means godparenthood or sponsorship
assumes the development of a relationship based on ritual between a patron and a client.
The comparadrazgo system extends and binds family ties, loyalties, obligations, reciprocity and
interdependence among people in the community. In addition to compadres, landlords and employers may further be
viewed as surrogate parents to adult family members; thus, other social institutions and relationships also become
incorporated into the extended family system.

FAMILY AND THE HOUSEHOLD

Kin groups are comprised of families. A family aside from being a basic unit in a society from being a basic
unit in a society is defined in the 1987 Philippine Constitution as “the foundation of the nation. Accordingly, it shall
strengthen its solidarity and actively promote its total development”.

1. NUCLEAR FAMILY
A nuclear family is the most traditional form of family. It consists of father, mother and their children. This is most
common among families in a neolocal residence. Contact with wider kin, while it clearly exists, is more likely to involve
“impersonal contacts” as telephone conversations, rather than the more closely personal relationships experienced in the
extended family.

2. EXTENDED FAMILY
The extended family consist of grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins. In some circumstances, the extended family
comes to live either with or near the place of a member of the nuclear family. For example, it is common for Filipino families
that elderly parents move in with their children due to old age, particularly the female relatives who choose to perform these
duties for their extended family rather than sending them to foster homes/facilities.

3. SINGLE-PARENT FAMILIES
This family structure involves a single person plus dependent child. This can be attributed to four main factors:
A. An increase in the number of people divorcing.
B. The removal of most of the social stigma in marriage out of wedlock (or abandonment of a male partner
or his female partner after pregnancy)
C. The death of a marriage partner
D. Personal decision not to get married but yet to play the role of a parent through legal adoption.

4. Reconstituted Families (also known as Step or blended families)

This family structure is becoming more common or tolerable in American as reflected among contemporary US
popular sitcoms. The increase in divorce and remarriage rates often results to bringing two families together under the same
roof as step families. Stepmothers and stepfathers head the family. This type of family is usually nuclear in form and involves
parents, children of either spouse from a first marriage and children from their present marriage.

Reference: Understanding Culture, Society and Politics, Everlinda Diala – Jimenez, Salesiana Books Don
Bosco Press Inc.

Page 9 of 22
 TRINITY POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE INC.
892 Alfina Bldg., Quirino Highway, Brgy. Gulod, Novaliches, Quezon City
Telephone Number: 7738-1713
Email: tpchrdnova@[Link]

Module in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (Week 4)

At the end of the module, you should be able to:

1. Analyze social and political structures

LESSON PROPER

POLITICAL ORGANIZATION

American anthropologist Elman Rogers Service classified primitive societies based on the nature of political structure
and authority. These include bands, tribes, chiefdoms, and state.

Band- considered to be smallest in terms pf membership. It comprised of a small, nomadic group from common family
ties. There is no formal leadership and they are politically independent. They are seen egalitarian, which means that people
of the same age and/or gender see themselves as equal.

Tribes- are bigger than bands for they consist of a combination of kin and non-kin groups with a common culture. Just
like bands, its leadership is informal and the society is egalitarian in nature. Tribal societies developed when people began
to settle permanently in their communities and live by means of agriculture and herding of animals.

Chiefdom- is a political unit which follows a formal structure that is not bureaucratic and is headed by a chief, who
holds power over more than one community group. With an integrated community involved, chiefdom is usually more
densely populated.

State- political system first appeared in societies with large-scale intensive agriculture. They began as chiefdom and
then evolved into more centralized, authoritarian kingdoms when their populations grew into tens of thousands of people.

Authority and Legitimacy

Renowned sociologist Max Weber defined authority as the “right to rule” with a moral aspect. He classified types
of authority into three:

1. Traditional authority. This type of authority is based on the concept of feudalism and patrimonialism which both see
rulers as the head of patriarchal society. The subject is completely dependent upon the lord. Under this system, the right to
rule is passed down through heredity. The system is governed by tradition and does not facilitate social change,

2. Charismatic authority. Is based upon the perceived extraordinary characteristics of an individual. To be a charismatic
leader involves an unexplainable power to influence or persuade others. Leaders often found themselves serving a mission
and vision to inspire others oftentimes associated with the head of a new social order, or a religious prophet having divine
powers.

3. Legal-rational authority. As the name implies, is an authority empowered by a formalistic belief in the content of the
law (legal) or natural law (rationality). This type of authority is found in the modern state, in government and non-
government organizations, public and private corporations that exercises bureaucratic system. Subjects are guided by a set
of uniform principles and therefore, obedience is not merely based on loyalty to a leader.

Reference: Understanding Culture, Society and Politics, Everlinda Diala – Jimenez, Salesiana Books Don
Bosco Press Inc.

Page 10 of 22
 TRINITY POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE INC.
892 Alfina Bldg., Quirino Highway, Brgy. Gulod, Novaliches, Quezon City
Telephone Number: 7738-1713
Email: tpchrdnova@[Link]

Module in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (Week 5)

At the end of the module, you should be able to:

1. Analyze economic organization and its impact on the lives of people in the society
2. Differentiate functions of non-state institutions in society
3. Examine stratification from the functionalist and conflict perspectives
4. Identify characteristics of the systems of stratification
5. Suggest ways to address global inequalities

LESSON PROPER

ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS

Economics comes from the Greek word “oikonomos” which means household management. Just like the role
taken by parents in managing their respective households, for a society to function well, there are economic institutions that
assumes that role. Institutions are durable system of established and embedded social rules and conventions that structure
social interactions.

How are Economic Institutions Formed?

Economic institutions emerged either informally through repeated interactions between individuals or
organizations that established expected norms of behavior or formally specifically designed by state or non-state agencies
to do a particular function.
Not all institutions require the support of governments, but some do in order to remove ambiguity and to
provide legal backing for the norms in question. This suggests that many institutions will require action by governments to
create and implement the norm.

There are three main functions of these institutions: determining and safeguarding property rights, enabling
and facilitating transactions and allowing the economic participants to organize and cooperate.
Good economic institutions can be defined as those that provide security of property rights and relatively
equal access to economic resources to a broad cross-section of society.

Polanyi’s Forms of Economic Integration

Karl Polanyi, an anthropologist and Austro- Hungarian war officer during world war I. opened new doors for
the development of another sub-discipline in social science, economic sociology, or the study of the social cause and effect
of various economic phenomena. In his famous work, The Great Transformation (1944), conceived and written during
World War II, he described the political and economic origins of the downfall of the great civilizations of 19 th century. And
how it transformed towards the 20th century because of the four institutions namely: Balance of political power, the
international gold standard, a self-regulating market system and the liberal state. He believed that the self-regulating
market was “the fount and matrix of the system”, the innovation which gave rise to a specific civilization”.
Polanyi centered on the concepts of “social embeddedness “and “forms of economic integration. He criticized
laissez faire economics because the economic actions that were taking place in a capitalist economy become destructive
when they are disembodied or not governed by any social or noneconomic authorities or in simple terms, in capitalism, the
economy decides about the society instead of the society deciding about its economy. Thus, he indirectly stated in his
argument that our social relationships are embedded in the economic system.
In each economy, Polanyi specifies, there is usually a mixture of these three forms. One of them can be dominant,
while the others are subordinate.

Page 11 of 22
 TRINITY POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE INC.
892 Alfina Bldg., Quirino Highway, Brgy. Gulod, Novaliches, Quezon City
Telephone Number: 7738-1713
Email: tpchrdnova@[Link]

A. RECIPROCITY
In a healthy relationship, individuals prefer to use the motto “give and take” instead of following extremes such as
“take and receive” or “give until it hurts”. The process of giving and taking valued objects and services simply refers to the
term exchange. The exchange of goods and services within a society and kinship. For instance, when you were still young,
your parents took care of you, and when they aged, you will have the obligation to take care of them. Exchanges can be
reciprocal, redistributive or market.
Reciprocity entails that “goods and services are produced and exchanged on the expectation that other goods and
services would be received in ways and over periods of time that we fixed by shared social norms.
According to Harris (1995, in Rolda and Panopio, 2007, p.211) reciprocal exchange has the following characteristics:
1. No immediate return;
2. No systematic calculation of the value of the products and services exchange; and
3. An overt denial that a balance is being calculated or that the balance must come out even.

TYPES OF RECIPROCITY

1. Generalized reciprocity. Is gift giving without the expectation of

an immediate return. A closest Filipino equivalent for this is “pagtanaw
ng utang na loob”. For example, if you are shopping with a friend and
you buy him a cup of coffee, you may expect him to buy you one in return
at some time in the future.

2. Balanced reciprocity. There is an explicit expectation of

immediate return. In Filipino slang language, it is referred to as
“kaliwaan “. Simple barter or supermarket purchases involve this
understanding. If you walk out of store without paying for the goods that
you have taken, you will very likely be stopped by the store employees
and possibly be arrested because you failed to immediately reciprocate
with the appropriate amount of money.

3. Negative reciprocity. Occurs when there is an attempt to get

someone to exchange something he or she may not want to give up or
when there is an attempt to get a more valued thing than what you will
give in return. In Filipino slang, people refer to this act as
“panggugulang”. This may involve trickery, coercion or hard
bargaining. For instance, your neighbor applied for a new job abroad. She
desperately needs to sell her car before she leaves. It is nearly new and it
cost her a half million pesos. You offer her Php 100 000 which she
reluctantly accepts because there is no other choice. You are taking advantage of her situation resulting in negative
reciprocity.

The three types of reciprocity can be viewed based on one’s social distance with the others. The farther an individual is
from the inner circle, the more likely that he will receive a negative type of reciprocity. In summation, the types of reciprocity
may be associated with the kind of social relations we wish to achieve. We can practice generalized or balanced or balance
reciprocity if we wish to lengthen or strengthen our social relationship but if we refuse to reciprocate or we practice some
negative reciprocity it may end a message that we wanted to end a social relationship.

Page 12 of 22
 TRINITY POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE INC.
892 Alfina Bldg., Quirino Highway, Brgy. Gulod, Novaliches, Quezon City
Telephone Number: 7738-1713
Email: tpchrdnova@[Link]

B. REDISTRIBUTION

Redistribution entails the production and allocation of “goods on the basis of norms establishing the modalities of labor
services and types of resources that should be transferred to a political chief. It describes the process of material goods and
service transfer not between the independent agents as in an exchange process but transfer between the agents and the Center
as a mediator.

Ancient civilizations like in Mesopotamia or Egypt practiced redistribution in the same way as how our present-day
governments provide allocation based on the taxes, we pay the institution. In redistribution, goods or money collected from
many individuals are taken to a central place or common fund. There is an authority that overseas its collection that was
given the right to make decisions in behalf of those who contributed. The goods or services are returned to the contributors
in the form of public goods and services that benefits the whole community, for example, roads, bridges, and other public
infrastructures like airports, public schools or hospitals. On the other hand, those individuals who may need assistance may
also receive redistribution exchange in the form of social services like Social Security System (SSS) and its counterpart,
GSIS for government employees, Home Development Mutual Fund (PAGIBIG Fund) and Philheallth.

TWO FORMS OF REDISTRIBUTION EXCHANGE

A. EGALITARIAN. The redistributor works hard to produce services or goods to be given away in exchange of a small
amount or nothing in return. For example, during natural disasters like an earthquake or typhoon, the rescue team or the
people who repack relief goods redistribute it out of compassion or the motivation to help those who are in need without
asking anything in return.

B. STRATIFIED. The redistributor gets more for himself like what a businessman does to gain profit from the
consumers of the product he sells.

Filipinos, especially in rural areas, practice redistribution exchange during a town fiesta or marriage banquet. During
these celebrations, the host, from an affluent family or the newlywed couple and their parents, lavish their guests with food,
drinks and entertainment.

C. MARKET EXCHANGE (BUYING AND SELLING)

During pre- industrial times in small-scale societies, the primary mode of exchange was the barter system. They brought
their surplus products in exchange for commodities that they were not able to produce themselves. But when the use of
money was introduced in buying and selling goods, the market was created. Markets are economic institutions that regulate
exchange behavior. In a market, different values or prices are established for particular goods and services which varies
according to the changes in the levels of supply and demand. There are processes involved in a market exchange:

1. It requires a medium of exchange, in this case, the use of money.

2. A rate at which goods are exchange for money (or prices) and

3. Parties who will be engaged in buying and selling of goods based on the laws of supply and demand. During the
transaction, there is no physical coercion in purchasing the good and prices were not controlled by a third party, Like the
government and no single producer can control the market that will force people to buy goods.

Reference: Understanding Culture, Society and Politics, Everlinda Diala – Jimenez, Salesiana Books Don
Bosco Press Inc.

Page 13 of 22
 TRINITY POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE INC.
892 Alfina Bldg., Quirino Highway, Brgy. Gulod, Novaliches, Quezon City
Telephone Number: 7738-1713
Email: tpchrdnova@[Link]

Module in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (Week 6)

At the end of the module, you should be able to:

Differentiate functions of nonstate institutions in society

LESSON PROPER

Governments set up a variety of state institutions to provide services, for the common good such as police forces, public
works, education ministries, public health services, public transportation and the like. These same institutions are used by
external support agencies as channels for projects intended to benefit the poor. These refer to non-state institutions take on
various forms: NGOs, both national and international; indigenous and minority groups; (semi) autonomous groups, human
rights, defenders; paramilitary groups; multinational enterprises; and finally, individuals. Many of these groups promote
human rights while others, on the contrary, condone crimes or even commit crimes affecting the lives and human rights of
individuals. Bank, corporations, cooperatives, trade unions, and development agencies are few of the many examples of
non-state economic institutions that affected the way society viewed economy.

A. BANKS
According to the National Statistical Coordination Board (NSCB) banking institutions are corporations, companies or
associations authorized by the government which are engaged in the lending of funds obtained from the public through the
receipt of deposits and the sale of bonds or obligations of any kind. Some of the jargons used may seem unfamiliar but when
you hear banking terms such as loans, time deposits, credit cards, interest, mutual and trust funds to name a few, you will
be interested to find out how they impact our society.
In the Philippines, the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas or BSP is the sole authority that monitors and complies various
indicators on the Philippine banking systems. They classify Philippine banks according to:

1. Universal and Commercial Banks represent the largest single group, resource -wise, of financial institutions in the
country. They offer the widest variety of banking services among financial institutions.
Examples of existing universal banks in the country include Banco de Oro, Bank of the Philippine Islands
(BPI) and Union Bank while commercial banks include East West Bank, Bank of Commerce and
PBCom.

2. The Thrift Banking System. Is composed of saving and mortgage banks, private development banks, stock savings
and loan associations and microfinance thrift banks. Thrift banks are engaged in accumulating savings of depositors and
investing them. They also provide short-term working capital and medium- and long-term financing to businesses engaged
in agriculture, services, industry and housing and diversified financial and allied services and to their chosen markets and
constituencies, especially small-and medium-enterprises and individuals. Among the well-known thrift banks in the country
are Robinsons Bank, BFI Family Saving Bank and PS Bank.

3. Rural and Cooperative Banks are the more popular type of banks in the rural communities. Their role is to promote
and expand the rural economy in an orderly and effective manner by providing the people in the rural communities with
basic financial services. Rural and cooperative banks help farmers through the stages of production, from buying seedling
to marketing of their produce. Rural banks and cooperative banks are differentiated from each other by ownership. While
rural banks are privately owned and managed, cooperative banks are organized/owned by cooperatives or federation of
cooperatives. Common examples of these bank are Land Bank and Development Bank of the Philippines.

4. Non-Banks with Quasi-Banking Functions. This group consists of institutions engaged in the borrowing of funds
from 20 or more lenders for the borrower’s own account through issuance, endorsement or assignment with recourse or
acceptance of deposit substitutes for purposes of relending or purchasing receivables and other obligations.

The following banks were listed as top ten banks in the country (2016) based on the aspects of assets, deposits,
loans, receivable and capital.

TOP 10 BEST BANKS IN THE PHILIPPINES AS TO ASSETS

1. BDO 6. DBP
2. Metrobank 7. PNB
3. BPI 8. Chinabank
4. Landbank 9. Unionbank
5. RCBC 10. Security Bank

Page 14 of 22
 TRINITY POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE INC.
892 Alfina Bldg., Quirino Highway, Brgy. Gulod, Novaliches, Quezon City
Telephone Number: 7738-1713
Email: tpchrdnova@[Link]

TOP 10 BEST BANKS IN THE PHILIPPINES AS TO DEPOSITS

1. BDO 6. RCBC
2. BPI 7. PNB
3. Metrobank 8. Unionbank
4. Landbank 9. DBP
5. Chinabank 10. UCPB

TOP 10 BEST BANKS IN THE PHILIPPINES AS TO LOANS

1. BDO 6. RCBC
2. BPI 7. PNB
3. Metrobank 8. Security Bank
4. Landbank 9. DBP
5. Chinabank 10. Unionbank

TOP 10 BEST BANKS IN THE PHILIPPINES AS TO CAPITAL

1. BDO 6. DBP
2. Metrobank 7. RCBC
3. BPI 8. Chinabank
4. Landbank 9. Security Bank
5. Unionbank 10. PNB

B. CORPORATIONS
A corporation is a business or organization formed by a group of people, and it has rights and liabilities separate
from those of the individuals involved. It may be a nonprofit organization engaged in activities for the public good; a
municipal corporation, such as a city or town; or a private corporation, which has been organized to make a profit.

In legal perspective, a corporation is like a person, for it has responsibilities, and has many rights like buying, selling
and owning property; it can enter into leases and contracts; and bring lawsuits. It also has the obligation to pay taxes, it can
be prosecuted and punished if it violates the law. The only difference and advantage of a corporation is that it can exist
indefinitely, beyond the lifetime of any one member or founder and it offers its owners the protection of limited personal
ability.

The following are example of leading corporations in the country (not ranked): SM Prime Holdings, San Miguel
Corporation, Ayala Land, SM Investments Corporation, JG Summit, Petron Corporation, Smart Communications, Nestle,
and Meralco.

C. COOPERATIVES
A cooperative is a duly registered association of persons with a common bond of interest, who have voluntarily
joined together to achieve a lawful common social or economic end, making equitable contribution to the capital
required and accepting a fair share of the risks and benefits of the undertaking in accordance with universally
accepted cooperatives principles.

It may be classified according to membership either as primary (members are natural persons) secondary (members
of which are primaries) or tertiary (members are secondary cooperatives). In terms of territory, cooperatives are categorized
according to areas of operations which may or may not coincide with the political subdivisions of the country.

TYPES OF COOPERATIVE IN THE PHILIPPINES ARE AS FOLLOWS:

A. Credit Cooperative. is one that promotes and undertakes saving and lending services among its members. It generates
a common pool of funds in order related financial services to its members for productive and provident purposes

B. Consumer’s Cooperative. The primary purpose of which is to produce and distribute commodities to members and
nonmembers;

Page 15 of 22
 TRINITY POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE INC.
892 Alfina Bldg., Quirino Highway, Brgy. Gulod, Novaliches, Quezon City
Telephone Number: 7738-1713
Email: tpchrdnova@[Link]

C. Producer’s Cooperatives. Is one that undertakes a joint production whether agricultural or industrial. It is formed and
operated by its members to undertake the production and processing of raw materials or goods produced by its members
into finished or processed products for sale by the cooperative to its members and nonmembers.

D. Marketing Cooperative. Is one which engages in the supply of production inputs to members and markets their
products.

E. Service Cooperative. Is one which engages in medical and dental care, hospitalization, transportation, insurance,
housing, labor, electric light and power, communication, professional and other services

F. Multipurpose Cooperative. Is one which combines two or more of the business activities of these different types of
cooperatives.

G. Advocacy Cooperative. Is a primary cooperative which promotes and advocates cooperatives which promotes and
advocates corporativism among its members and the public through socially-oriented projects, education and training,
research and communication, and other similar activities to reach out to its intended beneficiaries.

H. Agrarian Reform Cooperative. It is one organized by marginal farmers majority of which are agrarian reform
beneficiaries for the purpose of developing an appropriate system of land tenure, land development land consolidates or
land management in areas covered by agrarian reform?

I. Cooperative Bank. It is one organized for the primary purpose of providing a wide range of financial services to
cooperatives and their members.

J. Daily Cooperatives. Is one whose members are engaged in the production of fresh milk which may be processed
and/or- marketed as dairy products.

K. Education Cooperative. It is one organized for the primary purpose of owning and operating licensed educational
institutions, notwithstanding the provisions of Republic Act No. 9155, otherwise known as the Governance of Basic
Education Act of 2001.

L. Electric Cooperative. It is one organized for the primary purpose of undertaking power generation, utilizing renewable
energy sources, including hybrid system, acquisition and operation of sub-transmission or distribution to its household
members.

M. Financial Service Cooperative. It is one organized for the primary purpose of engaging in savings and credit services
and other financial services.

N. Fishermen Cooperative. It is one organized by marginalized fishermen in localities whose products are marketed
either as fresh or processed products.

O. Health Services Cooperative. It is one organized for the primary purpose of providing medical, dental and other
health services.

P. Housing Cooperative. It is one organized to assist or provide, access to housing for the benefit of its regular members
who actively participate in the savings program for housing. It is co-owned and controlled by its members.

Q. Insurance Cooperative. It is one engaged in the business of insuring life and property of cooperatives and their
members.

R. Transport Cooperative. It is one which includes land and sea transportation, limited to small vessels, as defined or
classified under the Philippine maritime laws, organized under the provisions of this Code.

S. Water Service Cooperative. It is one organized to own, operate and manage water systems for the provision and
distributions of potable water for its members and their households.

T. Worker’s Cooperate. It is one organized by workers, including the self-employed, who are at the same time the
members and owners of the enterprise.

Page 16 of 22
 TRINITY POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE INC.
892 Alfina Bldg., Quirino Highway, Brgy. Gulod, Novaliches, Quezon City
Telephone Number: 7738-1713
Email: tpchrdnova@[Link]

U. Other types of cooperative as may be determined by the CDA.

The types of cooperatives are defined in the Joint Rules and Regulations for the taxation of cooperatives, issued
pursuant to the Philippines Cooperative Code of 2008 (RA 9520).

D. LABOR/TRADE UNIONS a trade union is a membership-based organization made up of workers and union leaders,
united to protect and promote their common interests. A trade union may be a company union that represents interests of
only one company and may not have any connection with other unions.

The principal purpose of a trade union is to protect and advance the interests of its members in the workplace.
Specifically, trade unions represent its members to accomplish the following.

1. Negotiate wages and working condition terms

2. Negotiate agreements with employers on pay and conditions

3. Discuss major changes to the workplace such as large-scale redundancy

4. Discuss member’s concern with employers

5. Accompany members in disciplinary and grievance meetings

6. Provide members with legal and financial

7. Raise new demands in behalf of its members like provision for education facilities and certain consumer benefits such as
free or discounted health insurance for its members and their immediate family members.

8. Take collective action to enforce the terms of collective bargaining.

DOLE (Department of Labor and Employment) & NLRC (National Labor Relations Commission) - are government
agencies that oversee the general welfare of employee in congruence with what is stipulated in the Constitution and the
Labor Code of the Philippines. Most trade unions are independent of any employer. However, trade unions try to develop
close working relationships with employers.

Some workers join a trade union because they believe that a union can:

◼ Negotiate better pay

◼ Negotiate better working conditions, like more holidays or improved health and safety

◼ Provide training for new skills

◼ Give general advice and support

Union members have the right to be accompanied to a discipline or

grievance hearing by a trade union representative (although trade unions are not
compelled to provide this). All employees, regardless of whether they are union
members or not, are entitled to be accompanied by a work colleague.

The law gives you the right to join a trade union wherever you work. This
right applies whether a union has been recognized or not. The employee is
protected from being disadvantaged for being a union member. Specifically, trade
union membership is an unlawful reason for:

◼ Refusal employment

◼ Dismissal from employment

◼ Illegal selection for redundancy

Page 17 of 22
 TRINITY POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE INC.
892 Alfina Bldg., Quirino Highway, Brgy. Gulod, Novaliches, Quezon City
Telephone Number: 7738-1713
Email: tpchrdnova@[Link]

OTHER NON-STATE INSTITUTIONS

This subsection will discuss non-state institutions that are noneconomic.

A. TRANSNATIONAL ADVOCACY GROUPS

Transnational advocacy groups are fluids and open relationships among knowledgeable, committed individuals and
organizations. They differ from other types of networks in that they exist to promote principled causes, ideas and values.
They exist to change international policy as well as make these changes real in the day-to-day lives of ordinary people.
Their goal is to give voice to the voiceless. (e. g. the impoverished, women the politically vulnerable, consumers,
disorganized populations etc.)

Importance of Transnational Advocacy Groups they campaign on behalf of principled causes, sets of values and
ideas, vulnerable constituencies or environments. Advocacy groups provide a voice for civil society and concerns of groups
outside the political arena. This in turn is instrumental in making new legislation with domestic or international benefits.

Participants of Transnational Advocacy Networks the world has indeed become one global village and the benefits
of social media and the internet became one of the factors why advocacy networks have reached a global audience. These
groups are participated by people from all walks of life who believe in the objectives that the advocacy the group upholds.
The common actors that play a major part in the establishment and development of transnational advocacy networks include:
national and international nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), local social organizations, trade unions and consumer
organizations, intellectuals and scholars, agencies within international and regional intergovernmental organizations, parts
of executive or parliamentary branches of governments.

B. DEVELOPMENT AGENCIES An agency whose goal is to help, develop and support economic growth within a
specified city or region by providing necessary resources and assistance. Development agencies are public, private or most
often a public/private partnership and their purpose is to promote economic growth and development in the areas they serve.

C. International Organizations the United Nations may be considered as a primary international organization that
targets to promote and preserve world peace. Established on October 24, 1945, it initially aimed to end the horrors of World
War II, but after peace has been restored, UN did not cease to spearhead efforts in addressing global issues such as poverty,
hunger, terrorism, environmental problems, economy among many others. Article I of the UN Charter states its purposes
to:

1. Maintain international peace and security, and to that end: to take effective collective measures for the prevention and
removal of threats to the peace and for the suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches of the peace, and to bring
about by peaceful means and in conformity with the principles of justice and international law, adjustment or settlement of
international disputes or situations which might lead to a breach of the peace.

2. Develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of
people and to take other appropriate measures to strengthen universal peace.

3. Achieve international cooperation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural or humanitarian
character and in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedom for all without distinction
as to race, sex, language or religion.

4. To be center for harmonizing the actions of nations in the attainment of these common ends.

Reference: Understanding Culture, Society and Politics, Everlinda Diala – Jimenez, Salesiana Books Don
Bosco Press Inc.

Page 18 of 22
 TRINITY POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE INC.
892 Alfina Bldg., Quirino Highway, Brgy. Gulod, Novaliches, Quezon City
Telephone Number: 7738-1713
Email: tpchrdnova@[Link]

Module in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (Week 7)

At the end of the module, you should be able to:

Identify characteristics of the system of stratification

LESSON PROPER

SYSTEM OF STRATIFICATION

Human basic needs such as food, clothing and shelter may be universal in all cultures. However, the choices for
acquiring these vary in every individual. One family may live in a small barong-barong (shanty), wear old, shabby clothes,
eat measly meals once or twice a day while others can afford to buy a mansion, own several cars, wear designer bags and
clothes and eat meals at fancy restaurants. One might call the latter as “sosyal”, burgis or “elitista” and the former as “masa”.

Basic Principles of Social Stratification

1. It is universal. Some form of stratification is found within every human society.

2. The existence of a social stratification system has many consequences for individuals and groups.

3. Social stratification is not simply individual differences but rather a characteristic of a society.

4. It transcends from one generation to another

5. It is supported by patterns of belief

CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE ON STRAFICATION

Karl Marx, the original proponent of the conflict perspective, posited that the society is divided between the haves
and the have nots or the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. He believed that selfishness and greed are embedded in human
nature. His main focus was to look at the plight of the working class and the unequal opportunities given to them despite
their strenuous efforts in a capitalist society.

FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE STRATIFICATION

German sociologist Max Weber identified three distinct components of stratification- class, status and power. Class refers
to people who have similar levels of wealth and income. He termed status the ranking of groups based on the degree of
prestige they possess regardless of the amount of money involved in it. For instance, a person belonging to the legal or
medical profession has more prestige than a smuggler or a drug lord who may earn more but is despised by his society and
therefore gains a low status. Power is the third component and reflects the political dimension.

TYPES OF STRATIFICATION SYSTEM

1. Caste System (Close System). It is generally associated with the Hindus of India, Sri Lanka, and Pakistan. It is
ascribed at birth and is inherited by one generation to another. Their place in the system determines the kind of
education, lifestyle and work opportunities to be given. It is fixed because they are expected to interact and marry
the people in the same caste and there is no mobility or a chance that one’s social ranking will be promoted or
demoted.

There are four castes based on their Varnas or specific roles within the society:

1. Brahmins- composed of priests and scholars

2. Kshatriyas- caste of the soldier/warriors
3. Vaishyas- merchant and farmer caste
4. Sudras- composed of laborers and peasants

Page 19 of 22
 TRINITY POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE INC.
892 Alfina Bldg., Quirino Highway, Brgy. Gulod, Novaliches, Quezon City
Telephone Number: 7738-1713
Email: tpchrdnova@[Link]

2. The Estate System

This system is associated with the feudalism that sprang in
Europe during the medieval period. It is similar to the caste system
because it is fixed and rigid (nobility, clergy, and peasants) but
unlike the caste system, there is a chance for social mobility in this
system. For instance, a serf who was able to pay his debts can buy
his freedom to become a commoner, while a member of the nobility
can enter priesthood.
This system resembles the social hierarchy in the barangay
system of the pre-colonial Filipinos classified as datu, maharlika,
timawa and alipin. Under this system, marriage, valor during war
and payment of deft were used as means for social mobility.

3. Open System
Most current societies fall under this system wherein an
individual’s position in the society is determined by his or her
effort and ability rather than factors relating to birth. There is
greater social mobility, either up or down the scale and everyone
is given an opportunity to attain social and economic rewards.
Open class system society encourages competition among
individuals for rewards and achievement instead of ascription.
Other characteristics include:

1. Classes still exist but not institutionalized unlike the two previous systems;
2. Social mobility frequently occurs
3. Although class boundaries were unclear. Inequality is still apparent.

OTHER FORMS OF SOCIAL MOBILITY

1. Horizontal Mobility - Refers to the movement of an individual from one social position to another having the same
rank. For instance, a call center trainer who resigns from her post to become a fulltime high school teacher. It may be a
different occupation but it falls under the same ranking.

2. Vertical Mobility - An individual who experiences moving up to a higher social rank such as the case of a security
guard who becomes a lawyer.

3. Intergenerational Mobility - Involves changes in the social position of the family between generations.

4. Intragenerational Mobility - An individual who becomes bankrupt in his or her business and turns into a tricycle
driver is an example of a downward intergenerational mobility.

Reference: Understanding Culture, Society and Politics, Everlinda Diala – Jimenez, Salesiana Books Don
Bosco Press Inc.

Page 20 of 22
 TRINITY POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE INC.
892 Alfina Bldg., Quirino Highway, Brgy. Gulod, Novaliches, Quezon City
Telephone Number: 7738-1713
Email: tpchrdnova@[Link]

Module in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (Week 8)

At the end of the module, you should be able to:

1. Evaluate how functions of education affect the lives of people in society
2. Promote primary education as a human right
3. Conduct participant observation (e. g religious ritual of a different group; observe election practices)
4. Recognize the practice of medical pluralism in light of cultural diversity and relativism

LESSON PROPER

FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION
The term education is derived from the Latin word “educare” which means to “bring up “or to “draw out” the
latent potentials of a child. From this simple phrase. Durkheim expounded on the definition of education as “the action
exercised by the older generations upon those who are not yet ready for social life. Its objective is to awaken and develop
in the child those physical, intellectual, and moral states which are required of him both by his society as a whole and by
the milieu for which he is especially designed. Education as social institutions, plays a vital role in our society. Generally,
it contributes to the development of personality of individuals, transmission and preservation of culture, socialization of the
young and creation of knowledge. The first three role describe the conservative function of education in the society which
means that it aims at preserving traditions, value system and cultural practices so that individuals fit in their society.
Education functions as a means or carrier of development. Society is subjected to change and the responses to those changes
are a product of research in the field of education. A detailed discussion of these functions is found below:

CONSERVATIVE FUNCTIONS
1. Personality Development
Education helps in the development of qualities of an individual (e. g. physical, mental, emotional) as well as his
disposition and characters. As mentioned earlier, Dukheim believed that the objective of education “to awaken and develop
in the child those physical, intellectual and moral states which are required of him both by his society as a whole and by the
milieu for which he is especially designed.

2. Socialization
The most important function of education is socialization. Human initially have no knowledge about the culture it
is learned and they must learn them in the way which their society is functioning. The children as they grow up must be
introduced into the culture either formally so they can function and contribute well to the society.

3. Transmission and Preservation of Culture

Regulating individual behavior through transmitting a way of life and communicating ideas and values to new
generation is an important function of education. As a means of socialization, educational institutions help of transmit social
heritage to train its younger generation

PROGRESSIVE FUNCTIONS
1. Social Integration. Education, by imparting values, also integrates people into the broader society. The curriculum
of the school, its extracurricular’ activities and the informal relationship among the students and teachers communicate
certain values and social skills such as cooperation or team-spirit and obedience and fair play.

2. Determine of Status. The amount or extent of education an individual gets is a good indicator of socio-economic
status, from lower working class to upper class, which can be equated at a certain extent economic opportunity.

3. Provides Route for Social Mobility. Educational qualifications increasingly form the basis for the allocation of
individuals to social statues and social mobility. There has been a steady move from one status to another due to educational
attainment. Industries in most parts of the world place increase emphasis on the attainment of both of skills and the
educational credentials that a person has acquired in order to land on a job.

4. Social Development. Education plays an integral part in the social development of a nation. The functional literacy
rate is used as a gauge for the economic status of a nation. Skills and values learned in education are directly related to the
way the economy and occupational structure operate. In summation, education aims that every individual should achieve,
self-actualization, that is achievement of one’s full potential through creativity, independence, spontaneity, and a grasp of
the real world which will in turn make him a productive citizen, willing to share what he learned to others and to use those
potentials to serve his countrymen.

Page 21 of 22
 TRINITY POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE INC.
892 Alfina Bldg., Quirino Highway, Brgy. Gulod, Novaliches, Quezon City
Telephone Number: 7738-1713
Email: tpchrdnova@[Link]

BASIC EDUCATION AS A HUMAN RIGHT

International human rights law guarantees the right to education. The Universal Declaration on Human Rights, adopted
1948, states specifically in Article 26”. Everyone has the right to education”.
Since then, the right to education has been widely recognized and developed by a number of international normative
instruments established by the United Nations, including the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights, the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education.

Among the Philippine law that ensures the rights of Filipinos to education include:

1. 1987 Constitutions Article 14 Sections 1-5

2. BATAS PAMBANSA BLG.232 September 11, 1982” An Act Providing for the Establishment and maintenance of an
integrated system of Education”- This law states that the state shall promote the right of every individual to relevant quality
education, regardless of sex, age, creed, socio-economic status, physical and mental conditions, racial or ethnic origin,
political or other affiliation. The State shall therefore, promote and maintain equality of access to education as well as the
enjoyment of the benefits of education by all its citizens.
3. BP 232, Section 9 Rights of Students in School
4. BP 232, Section 10 Rights of all School Personnel
5. BP 232, Section 11 Special Rights and/or privileges of teaching or academic staff.
6. BP 232, Section 13 Special Rights of School
7. Republic Act No. 9155 August 11,2001- An act Instituting a Frame Work of Governance for Basic Education,
Establishing Authority and Accountability, Renaming the Department of Education, Culture and sports as the Department
of Education, and for other purposes. The state shall protect and promote the right of all citizen to quality basic education
and to make such education accessible to all by providing all Filipino children a free and compulsory education in the
elementary level and free education in the high school.
8. Republic Act 6655, 1988, “An Act Establishing and Providing for a free Public Secondary Education- It is the policy
of the State to provide for a free public secondary education to all qualified citizens and to promote quality education at all
levels.

Reference: Understanding Culture, Society and Politics, Everlinda Diala – Jimenez, Salesiana Books Don
Bosco Press Inc.
[Link]

Page 22 of 22