Internal Combustion Engines / Engine Components Design

and Manufacturing project

Porsche 911 GT3 R:

Downsizing & Turbo-matching

Group members:
• Anzaldi Sebastian Giuseppe
• Curaba Simone
• Lombardo Alessio
• Pasini Matteo
• Torreggiani Lorenzo

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Summary

1. Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... 3
2. Introduction................................................................................................................................... 4
3. Turbocharging ............................................................................................................................... 7
3.1 Project targets ....................................................................................................................... 8
3.2 Parameters Estimation for Downsizing and Turbo Matching .............................................. 9
3.3 Engine – Turbocharger matching ....................................................................................... 15
4. Engine structural analysis ........................................................................................................... 20
4.1 Project constraints & initial parameters ............................................................................. 20
4.2 Combustion model ............................................................................................................. 21
4.3 Crank mechanism loads ..................................................................................................... 22
5. Engine structural design ............................................................................................................. 24
5.1 Conrod................................................................................................................................ 24
5.1.1 Shank ......................................................................................................................................... 24
5.1.2 Small end ................................................................................................................................... 27
5.1.3 Transition zone .......................................................................................................................... 28
5.1.4 Rod cap ...................................................................................................................................... 29
5.2 Bolted connection .............................................................................................................. 30
5.3 Piston pin............................................................................................................................ 33
5.4 Crankshaft .......................................................................................................................... 36
5.4.1 Crankshaft balancing ................................................................................................................. 38
5.4.2 Torque at the crankshaft ............................................................................................................ 38
5.4.3 Load on supports........................................................................................................................ 40
5.4.4 Critical sections ......................................................................................................................... 42
5.4.5 Torsional vibration analysis ....................................................................................................... 43
6. Conclusions................................................................................................................................. 47
7. References................................................................................................................................... 48

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1. Abstract
The Porsche 911 GTR R 2023 (992) is the latest race car developed by the German manufacturer to
compete in the GT3 Championship. With its iconic naturally aspirated 4.2L, 6-cylinder boxer engine,
it represents the highest expressions of high-performance engine design, capable to deliver a power
of 416kW (565HP) and with the limiter set at 9500rpm. However, the current regulatory framework
concerning emissions, energy efficiency, and environmental sustainability necessitates a rethinking
of traditional approaches to high-performance powertrain development. In this context, the present
project aims to evaluate the technical feasibility of implementing a downsizing and turbocharging
strategy on the 911 GT3 powertrain, with the goal of preserving and, if possible, enhancing the
performance of the vehicle. The project involves a comparative analysis between the current naturally
aspirated configuration and a potential lower-displacement turbocharged architecture, considering
weight, costs and complexity. Additional attention is given to the choice of the turbocharging system.

3
2. Introduction
With the latest generation of the 911 GT3 R, Porsche raises the bar even higher, redefining the concept
of race car. Born to race in FIA GT3 and WEC championship, the car is driven by a rear longitudinally
mounted 4.2L 6-cylinder boxer engine, water cooled, with 4 valves technology and direct gasoline
injection.

Original engine parameters

Engine configuration (in line, V-type, Boxer) Boxer

Max power 565 𝐻𝑃
Total displacement 4188,9 𝑐𝑚3
Supercharged NO
Cylinder bank angle (𝜸 ) 180 °
Max fuel octane number 98
Max engine speed 9300 𝑟𝑝𝑚
Singler cylinder Displacement 698,15 𝑐𝑚3
Selected piston Stroke 81,40 𝑚𝑚
Selected Bore 104,50 𝑚𝑚
Stroke/Bore ratio 0,78 𝑚𝑚
Crank Radius 40,70 𝑚𝑚
Piston top Area 8576,74 𝑚𝑚2
Single cylinder Displacement 698,15 𝑐𝑚3
Max crankshaft angular velocity (w) 973,89 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
Mean piston velocity 25,23 𝑚/𝑠

Table 1: Engine parameter

Figure 2.1: Torque and Power curves of the N.A. engine

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 Figure 2.2: Porsche boxer 6 cylinders engine

With respect to the previous generation, the displacement has been increased by 5%, the engine,
mounted behind the rear axle, has been tilted up 5° to have more space for the diffuser, while the
torque and power curves have been optimized across all the engine speeds, making the powertrain
particularly suited for the gentlemen drivers. Unfortunately, in the last decades, the automotive
industry has faced increasingly stringent challenges in terms of energy efficiency, fuel economy, and
emissions containment. The concept of “downsizing” comes in this context, consisting in reducing
the displacement and number of cylinders of the engines to make the engine work in a more efficient
way, to reduce mechanical and thermal losses, with benefits on both overall efficiency and
environmental impact.

If we look at one of the main engine parameters, we can observe that, for the same amount of torque
provided, the larger is the displacement and the lower is the bmep:

𝑛 4∗𝑇∗𝜋
𝑃 = 𝑇 ∗ 2𝜋 ∗ 𝑛 = 𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝 ∗ 𝑉𝑑 ∗ 𝜏 ⟹ 𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝 =
𝑉𝑑
2

Furthermore, looking at the mechanical efficiency, since the friction work is more or less constant
through all engine loads, if the indicated work decreases also the mechanical efficiency decreases:

𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝 𝑊 𝑊𝑖 − 𝑊𝑓 𝑊𝑓
𝜂𝑚 = = = = 1 −
𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑝 𝑊𝑖 𝑊𝑖 𝑊𝑖

By using an engine with a smaller displacement, providing the same torque, we can make it work to
higher loads, increasing the overall efficiency and reducing fuel consumption. However, reducing the
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displacement inevitably leads to a loss of torque and power, especially at low engine speeds, which
compromises both drivability and overall performance. To compensate for this drawback,
supercharging can be introduced. This technique increases the mass of air entering the engine,
improving combustion and enabling power and torque outputs even higher than those of naturally
aspirated engines with the same original displacement. In this project, we aim to design a new version
of the iconic Boxer engine, reducing its displacement by removing two cylinders. This modification
significantly affects the power output, causing a noticeable reduction in performance. To offset this
power loss, a pair of turbochargers is installed. Naturally, the transition from a naturally aspirated to
a supercharged engine cannot be achieved by simply adding turbochargers; the entire engine
architecture must be re-engineered. A matching between the engine and the turbocharger must be
performed:

• the main engine’s components must be strengthened to resist to the new thermal and
mechanical loads
• the auxiliary components must be moved to allocate the turbochargers

In this report we focus our attention on the matching between the engine and the turbocharger, trying
to recover as much power as possible with respect to the original engine, and on the strengthening of
the components by means of an Excel spreadsheet. During the project a 3D model of the crank
mechanism is developed, with the goal of supporting calculations (masses, inertia moments).
Finally, a comparison in terms of performances, cost and complexity is performed, between the
reduced-displacement N.A. engine and the turbocharged one, to analyse critically if this solution is
convenient or if it’s better to adopt other strategies, such as hybridization.

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3. Turbocharging
Turbocharging is a technique which consists in using the valuable energy of the exhaust gases to
expand them into a turbine and producing an additional work that is spent to compress the charge, to
increase its density, in such a way that for a given displacement we can introduce more air into the
cylinders.
The turbine is mechanically linked to a centrifugal compressor, and they work in perfect balance
condition: the work required by the compressor is exactly provided by the turbine.
Generally, at the compressor outlet, the temperature is much higher than the ambient one and, to
increase further the density of the charge, an intercooler is often used, placed downstream the
compressor and before the intake valves.

Figure 3.1: Turbocharging system example

One of the major issues that drives the choice of a turbocharger is the trade-off between size and
maximum rotational speed/transient response:

• if we need a turbocharger able to deliver a very high flow rate of air or exhaust gases, we will
choose a big turbocharger, but it means having a larger inertia, so slow transient, and high
centrifugal forces acting on it

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 • if we choose a small turbocharger, the transient will be faster and the centrifugal forces will
be lower, but at the same time it could not be able to deliver the right flow rate of air or exhaust
gases

3.1 Project targets

Starting from the declared peak power, the first step was to calculate the BTE of the current engine.

𝑛 𝑃
𝑃 = 𝐵𝑇𝐸 ∗ 𝜆𝑣 ∗ 𝜌𝑎 ∗ 𝑉𝑑 ∗ 𝐿𝐻𝑉 ⋅ ∗ 𝜙 ∗ ⟹ 𝐵𝑇𝐸 = 𝑛
2 𝜆𝑣 ∗ 𝜌𝑎 ∗ 𝑉𝑑 ∗ 𝜙 ∗ 2

Operating engine parameters

Max power 421,32 𝑘𝑊
Engine speed for max power 8700 𝑟𝑝𝑚
Total displacement 4188,9 𝑐𝑚3
Volumetric efficiency 1,15 −
Air density 1,16 𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚3
LHV 44 𝑀𝐽
Stoichiometric air/fuel 14,7 −
Air/fuel 13,5 −
LHV* 3,259 𝑀𝐽
Equivalence ratio 0,89 −

By assuming some of the parameters listed in the table, we calculated a BTE = 0,34 at 8000 rpm.
From this moment on, we decided to remove 2 of the 6 cylinders, keeping the same unitary
displacement. With the new total displacement of 2.8L (2792,59 𝑐𝑚3 ), the peak power of 421 kW
(565HP) @8700 rpm dropped to 233.5 kW (313 HP) @8700 rpm, with a power loss of 44.5%.

This reduction is challenging and set the power recovery target up to 188kW (252 HP). This lost
power due to the downsizing will be tried to be recovered using a turbocharger in a way that, with a
fixed displacement we are able to introduce more air into the cylinders. Since more air means a higher
volumetric efficiency we expect a higher power; hopefully high enough to recover 252 HP due to the
downsizing.

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3.2 Parameters Estimation for Downsizing and Turbo
Matching

This chapter presents a comprehensive analysis of the parameter estimation methodology employed
in the downsizing project for the Porsche 911 GT3 R, focusing on the transition from a naturally
aspirated 6-cylinder to a turbocharged 4-cylinder configuration. The parameter estimation process
forms the foundation for understanding the performance implications of downsizing and establishing
the technical requirements for effective turbo matching.

Volumetric Efficiency and GMEP Correlation

In order to reconstruct the behaviour of the naturally aspirated Porsche 911 GT3 R engine we decide
to set as a hypothesis a strong behaviour correspondence between the relative volumetric efficiency
coefficient and GMEP over the full speed range. This is expected because, in naturally aspirated
conditions, improved cylinder filling raises trapped air mass, increasing combustion heat release and
high-pressure loop work measured by GMEP. The GMEP maximum aligns with a relative volumetric
efficiency of 1.15 around 6000 rpm, indicating that intake/exhaust tuning and valve timing achieve
near optimal breathing at this speed; consequently, the engine’s load generating capacity scales with
volumetric efficiency via GMEP rather than with, for example, indicated torque, which is influenced
by pumping losses.
The volumetric efficiency behaviour in naturally aspirated engines is heavily influenced by dynamic
effects, including intake wave propagation, resonance phenomena in the intake manifold, and valve
timing optimization. Understanding this relationship is crucial for establishing baseline performance
parameters and predicting how removing cylinder will affect overall engine behaviour.

Figure 3.2: Torque/Power - RPM correlation

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 Figure 3.3: Volumetric efficiency - RPM graph

Intake System Pressure Loss Characterization

The intake system pressure losses represent a critical parameter affecting engine breathing capability
and overall performance. Through detailed analysis, it was determined that pressure losses within the
intake manifold follow a quadratic relationship with engine speed, reflecting the increasing dynamic
pressure effects as airflow velocity increases. The pressure loss profile ranges from 2 kPa at 6000
rpm to 5 kPa at 8700 rpm, representing the maximum operating speed of the vehicle without reaching
the rpm limiter.
This quadratic pressure loss behaviour is typical of fluid flow through complex geometries, where
pressure drop increases proportionally to the square of velocity. The relatively low-pressure losses
observed in the Porsche system reflect the sophisticated intake manifold design optimized for high-
performance applications. These pressure losses directly impact the effective volumetric efficiency
and must be accurately modelled to predict the breathing capacity of the downsized engine
configuration.
The intake pressure loss characterization becomes particularly important when transitioning to a
turbocharged configuration, as the compressor must overcome both atmospheric pressure and these
internal pressure losses to achieve the desired boost pressure. The quadratic nature of these losses
means that pressure drop increases rapidly at higher engine speeds, requiring careful consideration in
turbocharger selection and matching.

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 Figure 3.4: Air filter and Intercooler pressure losses

Friction Modelling Using Chen-Flynn Correlation

The engine friction losses were modelled using the Chen-Flynn correlation, a well-established
empirical relationship that expresses Friction Mean Effective Pressure (FMEP) as a function of four
coefficients (A, B, C, D) related to engine operating conditions. The Chen-Flynn model takes the
form:
𝐹𝑀𝐸𝑃 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 ∗ 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝐶 ∗ 𝑈𝑝 + 𝐷 ∗ 𝑈𝑝 ²

where 𝑈𝑝 represents mean piston velocity and 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum cylinder pressure.
A B C D
0.5 0.005 0.07 -
For this analysis, the minimum possible values for the Chen-Flynn coefficients were selected, based
on the assumption that Porsche has implemented extensive friction reduction measures throughout
the engine design. This approach reflects the manufacturer's commitment to minimizing mechanical
losses through advanced materials, surface treatments, and optimal tribological design. The use of
minimum friction coefficients provides a realistic baseline for the high-performance nature of the
GT3 R engine while acknowledging the sophisticated engineering employed in its development.
The mechanical efficiency was subsequently calculated as the ratio between BMEP and IMEP where:
𝐼𝑀𝐸𝑃 = 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑃 + 𝐹𝑀𝐸𝑃
providing insight into how effectively the engine converts indicated work into brake work across
different operating conditions. This relationship is fundamental for understanding the downsized
engine's efficiency characteristics and establishing targets for the turbocharged configuration.

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Pumping Loss Analysis and GMEP Calculation
Pumping losses represent another significant factor affecting engine efficiency, particularly in
naturally aspirated engines operating at high speeds. The analysis assumed a quadratic relationship
for pumping losses, beginning from zero at engine speeds up to 2000 rpm and increasing
progressively to 2 bars at the maximum engine speed of 9200 rpm. This characteristic reflects the
increasing flow restriction effects as engine speed increases and the throttle body and intake manifold
become more restrictive.

Figure 3.5: PMEP - RPM graph

The Gross Mean Effective Pressure (GMEP) was calculated as the difference between Indicated Mean
Effective Pressure (IMEP) and Pumping Mean Effective Pressure (PMEP), providing a measure of
the engine's work output before accounting for mechanical friction losses. This parameter is
particularly important for understanding the thermodynamic efficiency of the combustion process
independent of mechanical losses.
𝐺𝑀𝐸𝑃 = 𝐼𝑀𝐸𝑃 − 𝑃𝑀𝐸𝑃
The pumping loss characterization reveals that naturally aspirated engines experience significant
penalty at high engine speeds due to flow restrictions. This insight becomes crucial when evaluating
the potential benefits of turbocharging, as forced induction can help overcome these pumping losses
by providing positive intake manifold pressure rather than the vacuum conditions typical of naturally
aspirated operation.

Brake Thermal Efficiency and Fuel Consumption Relationships

With the determination of indicated torque and power from IMEP calculations, the analysis proceeded
to establish the Brake Thermal Efficiency (BTE) relationship. The BTE represents the ratio of useful
work output to the energy content of the fuel consumed, providing a direct measure of engine
efficiency. This parameter serves as the foundation for calculating air flow rates and fuel consumption
characteristics across the operating range.

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The BTE calculation methodology enables the determination of mass flow rates for both air and fuel,
establishing the relationship between engine operating conditions and consumption parameters. This
information is essential for turbocharger matching, as it defines the air flow requirements that the
compressor must satisfy at different operating points. Furthermore, the BTE relationship provides the
basis for comparing the efficiency characteristics of the naturally aspirated baseline against the
projected turbocharged configuration.

Figure 3.6: Fuel mass flow rate - RPM graph

BTE Comparison
0,400

0,380

0,360 BTE NA
BTE

0,340 BTE TC

0,320

0,300

0,280
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000 7500 8000 8500 9000 9200
RPM

Figure 3.7: Comparison between BTE's of T.C. and N.A. engine - RPM

Turbocharged Engine Configuration Parameters

The transition to a turbocharged configuration necessitates significant modifications to several
fundamental engine parameters to prevent knocking and optimize performance. The compression
ratio was reduced from 13.5 to 9.5 in order to accommodate the increased cylinder pressures
associated with forced induction, compared to the higher compression ratios typically employed in
naturally aspirated high-performance engines. This reduction is essential for maintaining adequate
knock margin while operating under boost conditions.
The downsized engine configuration maintains the same individual cylinder displacement while
removing two cylinders, resulting in a total displacement reduction from 4.2L to approximately 2.8L.
This approach preserves the optimized combustion chamber geometry and valve sizing while
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achieving the desired displacement reduction. The 4/6 cylinder reduction factor becomes a
fundamental parameter in calculating the power recovery requirements for the turbocharging system.

Turbocharged Engine Volumetric Efficiency Characteristics

For the turbocharged configuration, the relative volumetric efficiency behaviour differs significantly
from the naturally aspirated engine due to the elimination of dynamic intake effects. Instead of the
complex wave dynamics that characterize naturally aspirated engines, the turbocharged configuration
exhibits a more predictable quadratic decrease in volumetric efficiency from 1.0 at 1000 rpm to 0.8
at 9200 rpm.
This simplified volumetric efficiency relationship reflects the more controlled nature of forced
induction systems, where the compressor provides consistent air delivery independent of intake wave
dynamics. The gradual decrease with engine speed accounts for increasing heat transfer effects and
flow losses at higher operating speeds but eliminates the resonance peaks and valleys characteristic
of naturally aspirated intake systems.

Figure 3.8: Relative volumetric efficiency – RPM of TC engine

Power Recovery Target Calculation

The comprehensive parameter estimation culminates in the calculation of the power recovery target
for the turbocharging system. At the maximum power operating condition of 8700 rpm, the power
deficit is determined by multiplying the 4/6 cylinder reduction factor by the ratio of ideal
thermodynamic efficiencies between the naturally aspirated and turbocharged configurations. This
calculation reveals that the turbocharging system must recover approximately 188kW to match the
performance of the original 6-cylinder naturally aspirated engine.
This power recovery target represents 44.5% of the original engine's output, establishing a significant
but achievable goal for the turbocharger matching process. The magnitude of this target emphasizes
the importance of optimal turbocharger selection and system integration to ensure that the downsized

14
engine can deliver equivalent performance to its naturally aspirated predecessor while providing the
efficiency benefits associated with reduced displacement and higher specific loading.
The parameter estimation methodology provides a comprehensive foundation for the subsequent
turbocharger matching analysis, establishing clear performance targets and operational requirements
that guide the selection and optimization of the forced induction system. The detailed characterization
of engine breathing, friction, and thermodynamic parameters ensures that the turbocharging system
design is based on accurate performance predictions and realistic operational constraints.

3.3 Engine – Turbocharger matching

The choice of the turbocharger is done by selecting the proper one from a catalogue of a specialized
company (Mitsubishi, Garrett, Mahle). The selection process starts from the choice of the most
suitable compressor for the engine we want to supercharge. For this step we have a lot of freedom
but, after that, we must ask to the manufacturer to indicate which turbine can be matched with the
selected compressor, since for each compressor there's a limited choice of turbines.
Compressor Map Fundamentals
The turbocharger selection process relies fundamentally on understanding compressor performance
characteristics as represented in the compressor map. The compressor map provides a comprehensive
visualization of the operating envelope and efficiency characteristics of a centrifugal compressor
across different flow rates and pressure ratios.

Figure 3.9: General compressor map as reference

The x-axis represents the corrected mass flow rate, typically expressed in 𝑙𝑏/𝑚𝑖n or 𝑘𝑔/𝑠, which
accounts for variations in inlet temperature and pressure conditions. This parameter is crucial because
it allows for standardized comparison of compressor performance across different operating
15
conditions. The corrected flow rate is calculated using the relationship that normalizes the actual mass
flow rate to standard reference conditions of temperature and pressure.
The y-axis depicts the pressure ratio across the compressor, defined as the ratio between outlet
𝑃₂
pressure and inlet pressure (𝑃₁). This parameter directly correlates to the boost pressure capability of
the turbocharger and determines the density increase of the charge air entering the engine cylinders.

Two critical boundary lines define the operational limits of the compressor map:

• Surge Line: Located on the left boundary of the map, the surge line represents the minimum
stable operating flow rate for any given pressure ratio. Operating beyond this line results in
compressor surge, a highly undesirable phenomenon characterized by flow reversal, violent
pressure fluctuations, and potential mechanical damage to the compressor. Surge occurs when
the compressor blades can no longer impart sufficient energy to the airflow due to excessive
incidence angles, leading to flow separation and instability. For engine applications,
maintaining adequate margin from the surge line is essential to ensure stable operation across
varying ambient conditions and transient load changes.

• Choke Line: Positioned on the right boundary, the choke line defines the maximum mass
flow rate capability of the compressor at any pressure ratio. This limit is reached when the
flow velocity through the compressor reaches sonic conditions (Mach 1), preventing any
further increase in mass flow rate regardless of downstream pressure reduction. Operating at
or beyond the choke line results in dramatic efficiency degradation and potential mechanical
stress due to shock wave formation within the compressor passages.

Between these boundaries, iso-efficiency lines indicate regions of constant isentropic efficiency,
typically ranging from 60% to 80% for automotive turbochargers. The peak efficiency island, usually
located in the central region of the map, represents the optimal operating zone where maximum
energy transfer occurs with minimal losses.

Turbocharger Sizing Methodology

The downsizing strategy implemented in this project necessitates the recovery of 188 kW of power
lost through cylinder count reduction from six to four cylinders. To achieve the target power output
of 415 kW at maximum engine speed, while maintaining excellent low-end torque characteristics, a
twin-turbocharger configuration was selected. This approach offers several advantages over a single
large turbocharger: reduced rotational inertia for improved transient response, better packaging
flexibility within the engine bay, and the ability to optimize each turbocharger for a specific cylinder
bank.

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The fundamental relationship for determining the required air mass flow rate begins with the power
equation:
𝑃 = 𝑚̇𝑓 ∗ 𝐿𝐻𝑉 ∗ 𝐵𝑇𝐸

Where the fuel mass flow rate is calculated using the brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) at the
target power level:
𝑚̇𝑓 = 𝑃 ∗ 𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶

For the maximum power condition at 8,700 rpm, with a target power of 415 kW and BSFC of 270
g/kWh, the total fuel consumption amounts to 100.5 kg/h. The corresponding air mass flow rate is
determined through the air-fuel ratio relationship:
𝐴
𝑚̇𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝑚̇𝑓 ∗
𝐹

With an air-fuel ratio of 12.87, and since the engine employs two turbochargers (one per cylinder
bank), each compressor must handle 0.193 kg/s of air mass flow rate after accounting for the twin-
turbo configuration.
The corrected mass flow rate, essential for compressor map analysis, incorporates temperature and
pressure corrections to normalize the flow to standard reference conditions. This calculation yields
26,8 lb/min for the maximum power operating point, representing the primary design constraint for
turbocharger selection.

CALCULATIONS
Fuel mass flow rate@8700 rpm kg/h 103,0
Air mass flow rate for each compressor@8700 rpm kg/s 0,193
Corrected mass flow rate@8700 rpm kg/s 0,202
Corrected mass flow rate@8700 rpm lb/min 26,8
Intake manifold density @8700 rpm kg/m^3 2,354
Intake manifold pressure @8700 rpm bar 2,183
Compressor Outlet Pressure@8700 rpm bar 2,333
PR across the compressor@8700 rpm 2,45

Fuel mass flow rate@6000 rpm kg/h 70,3

Air mass flow rate for each compressor@6000 rpm kg/s 0,132
Corrected mass flow rate@6000 rpm kg/s 0,135
Corrected mass flow rate@6000 rpm lb/min 17,8
Intake manifold density @6000 rpm kg/m^3 2,049
Intake manifold pressure @6000 rpm bar 1,899
Compressor Outlet Pressure@6000 rpm bar 1,974
PR across the compressor@6000 rpm 2,01

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Main Operating Point Analysis
Two critical operating points were established to ensure optimal turbocharger performance across the
engine's operational envelope:

• Maximum Power Point (8,700 rpm):

- Corrected mass flow rate: 26.8 lb/min
- Pressure ratio: 2.45
- Compressor outlet pressure: 2.333 bar
- Intake manifold pressure: 2.183 bar (accounting for 15 kPa intercooler pressure drop)

• High Torque Point (6,000 rpm):

- Corrected mass flow rate: 17.8 lb/min
- Pressure ratio: 2.01
- Compressor outlet pressure: 1.974 bar
- Intake manifold pressure: 1.899 bar (with reduced 7.5 kPa intercooler pressure drop)

The pressure differential between compressor outlet and intake manifold accounts for the intercooler
pressure drop, which varies quadratically with mass flow rate. At maximum power, the higher air
velocity through the intercooler core results in increased pressure losses (15 kPa), while the reduced
flow at 6,000 rpm corresponds to lower losses (7.5 kPa).
Compressor Map Evaluation and Selection
The selected operating points demonstrate excellent positioning within the compressor map
boundaries. The maximum power point at 26.8 lb/min and pressure ratio 2.45 is strategically located
near the choke line, maximizing the airflow capability while maintaining adequate surge margin. This
positioning ensures stable operation even under varying ambient conditions that might shift the
operating point.
The high torque point at 17.8 lb/min and pressure ratio 2.01 provides substantial margin from the
surge line, guaranteeing stable low-speed operation and excellent transient response characteristics.
The positioning of both operating points within the high-efficiency regions (typically above 65%
isentropic efficiency) ensures optimal energy transfer and minimal heat generation during
compression.
The pressure ratio progression from 2.01 at 6,000 rpm to 2.46 at maximum power demonstrates the
turbocharger's capability to provide variable boost pressure matching the engine's volumetric
demands across the speed range. This characteristic is essential for maintaining optimal air-fuel ratios
and combustion efficiency throughout the operating envelope.

18
 Figure 3.10: Compressor Pressure ratio - Corrected air flow map

The twin-turbocharger configuration enables precise control of boost pressure through wastegate
regulation while maintaining low rotational inertia for rapid spool-up. Each turbocharger, handling
approximately half the total engine airflow, operates within its optimal efficiency range while
providing redundancy and packaging flexibility.

The selected turbocharger successfully achieves the power recovery objective, enabling the
downsized four-cylinder engine to match the performance characteristics of the original six-cylinder
naturally aspirated configuration while providing superior low-end torque characteristics through
forced induction. The careful positioning of operating points within the compressor map ensures
reliable, efficient operation across the complete engine speed range, validating the turbocharger
selection for this high-performance downsizing application.

19
4. Engine structural analysis
As we discussed, the main goal of this project is to evaluate a possible alternative engine for this
Porsche, replacing the original naturally aspirated 6-cylinder boxer with a supercharged 4-cylinder
boxer. It is easy to imagine that the temperature, load, and stress will increase due to the presence of
the turbochargers, which generates higher peak pressure within the combustion chamber. For this
reason, we decided to examine the material properties and the load in each critical zone, with a focus
on ensuring an appropriate safety factor.

4.1 Project constraints & initial parameters

To properly design the new supercharged engine, it is necessary to establish a target safety factor, in
terms of both static and fatigue resistance, equal to 1.5–1.6. This value represents a good compromise
between a standard road car and a high-performance endurance race car. In fact, the original engine
of this Porsche also operates with a safety factor of around 1.5.

To achieve the target we set we began by analysing the original components of the car. A detailed
study of various files allowed us to extract the main dimensional data. It is important to remember
that this is a race car, and one of the primary goals of Porsche’s engineers has always been weight
reduction, which means that the choice of material also plays a crucial role.

The process we applied is relatively straightforward. Starting from the original dimensions of each
component, we modified certain parameters to properly increase the safety factor, while avoiding
excessive weight gain. In this way, we achieved a safety factor that is comparable between the
naturally aspirated 6-cylinder and the supercharged 4-cylinder boxer engine.

Figure 4.1: Engine data

At the beginning of the dimensioning process, several constraints were imposed, including:

• Unitary displacement: The displacement per cylinder was kept constant, along with the
stroke and bore dimensions, in order to preserve the fundamental construction characteristics
of the engine. This ensures that the comparison focuses on the naturally aspirated versus the
supercharged version of the same base engine.
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 • Compression ratio: The compression ratio was reduced to 9.5:1 in order to prevent irregular
combustion and knocking, phenomena that become more likely at higher compression ratios.
This value is a standard choice for high-performance supercharged engines.

With these assumptions, the comparison between the two engines is primarily focused on
performance and structural integrity. Of course, we decided to maintain the same boxer crankshaft
configuration. This layout is a traditional solution adopted by Porsche in its high-performance
vehicles and is characterized by the use of a single crank throw for each piston, positioned in opposite
directions, differently respect a classic V configuration at 180°.

4.2 Combustion model

For the combustion model, we start with the naturally aspirated engine. The main differences
introduced by the supercharged version are:
• Increase in intake manifold pressure
• Increase in intake temperature
• Calculate the volumetric efficiency
The rise in intake manifold pressure is due to the higher air density at the compressor outlet. The
compressor forces more air into the manifold, thereby increasing pressure; more air means more
oxygen enters the combustion chamber, which enhances combustion efficiency.
The intake temperature also increases, as compressing the air raises its thermal energy by forcing the
molecules closer together. This temperature rise is mitigated by the presence of an intercooler, which
cools the charge to a controlled value of about 50 °C.
Volumetric efficiency improves because a greater mass of air enters the cylinders for the same swept
volume.

Figure 4.2: Engine parameters

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As a result of these changes, we observe an increase in both air and fuel flow into the cylinders, and
more importantly, a rise in the maximum peak pressure inside the combustion chamber. This leads to
higher Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (IMEP) and Brake Mean Effective Pressure (BMEP), which
are direct indicators of engine performance. Consequently, the supercharged engine achieves slightly
higher performance compared to the original naturally aspirated version.

Figure 4.3: Engine performance

Figure 4.4: Pressure given by the combustion

4.3 Crank mechanism loads

To redesign the main components of the engine, it is necessary to evaluate the principal loads acting
on the mechanism. In this case, a notable increase in these loads occurs due to the transition from a
naturally aspirated 6-cylinder engine to a supercharged 4-cylinder engine with a turbocharger.
The combustion forces rise significantly because of the higher pressure in the combustion chamber.
In addition, the inertial forces associated with the reciprocating masses also increase. This is primarily
due to a mass increase in the piston pin, introduced to guarantee safe operating conditions, while the
piston and piston rings maintain the same dimensions and weight.
A further increase is observed in the inertial forces related to the reciprocating portion of the
connecting rod. The connecting rod mass increases because the dimensions of its critical sections
must be enlarged, which in turn raises the forces associated with its rotating mass.
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In the following graphs, corresponding to the maximum rotational speed, we present three of the main
loads acting on the crankshaft. In general, an increase in the absolute values of these loads can be
observed, for the reasons described above. Specifically, we show the torque, the thrust force, and the
total force acting on the crankshaft, along with the indicated cycle.

Figure 4.5: Indicated cycle 4 cylinders, Torque on the crank, Thrust force and Total force

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5. Engine structural design
In the following chapter, we analyse the main stresses acting on the various engine components, with
particular attention to the safety factor in each critical zone.

5.1 Conrod
We first focused our analysis on the connecting rod. The material selected is a titanium alloy,
commonly used in racing and high-performance engines to reduce weight and thereby lower the loads
generated by reciprocating forces, while still ensuring excellent strength properties. Since no
information was available regarding the specific alloy chosen by Porsche, we selected Ti-6Al-4V,
which offers a very good trade-off between mechanical strength and low density.

Figure 5.1: Porsche's conrod CAD

5.1.1 Shank
The analysis of the connecting rod shank begins with the definition of the new loads acting upon it.
The maximum compressive load is given by the gas force, combined with the inertial force of the
purely reciprocating masses at top dead center (TDC). Conversely, the maximum tensile load is
defined as the sum of the reciprocating inertial forces, also evaluated at TDC. As expected, the
increase in these acting forces results in higher normal and bending stresses on the cross-sectional
area of the rod. However, buckling phenomena are not significantly influenced by this type of loading.

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The goal of this dimensioning is to ensure a safety factor sufficiently high to guarantee safe operating
conditions during racing, set at approximately 1.5. This target was achieved by increasing the cross-
sectional area of the connecting rod, thereby raising the moments of inertia about both the x- and y-
axes. As a result, the rod’s resistance to bending was improved, and the risk of buckling phenomena
is effectively avoided.

Figure 5.2: Crank mechanism loads

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Figure 5.3: Conrod shank analysis

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5.1.2 Small end
For the small-end section the inner diameter was increased to accommodate the new piston pin and a
1 mm thick bushing. Consequently, the outer diameter was also enlarged to provide an adequate load-
bearing section. The axial thickness of the small end was kept at 23.3 mm like the original engine to
ensure full compatibility with the piston pin and its interface. This careful adjustment of dimensions
was essential to achieve the target safety factor and to preserve structural integrity.

Figure 5.4: Conrod small end analysis

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5.1.3 Transition zone
In the transition zone of the shank, the axial thickness was maintained at 20 mm, as in the original
design. However, to withstand the higher loads, particularly the bending moments, a slight overall
increase in dimensions was required. For example, the inner diameter of the big end was increased
by approximately 2 mm. This adjustment ensured that the connecting rod could sustain the enhanced
operational stresses without compromising performance.

Figure 5.5: Conrod transition zone analysis

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5.1.4 Rod cap
In the rod cap section, the design analysed does not employ a single central rib but instead features
two lateral ribs. This solution was essential to withstand the higher mechanical stresses of the
turbocharged engine, providing greater resistance to bending and lateral deformation, as well as
improved fatigue performance during operation. Compared to the single central rib configuration,
however, this design results in a slight weight increase and higher production cost due to the added
manufacturing complexity. To achieve the target safety factor in this section, the overall dimensions
were also slightly increased, but preserving some of the crucial dimension, like the axial thickness.

Figure 5.6: Conrod cap analysis

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5.2 Bolted connection
For the bolt connection, we decided to use a commercial solution designed for high-performance
engines such as ours. In particular, we opted for ARP, one of the most renowned companies in the
motorsport sector.

The selected material is MP35N, a nickel–cobalt–based alloy that offers a unique combination of
properties: ultra-high strength, toughness, ductility, and exceptional corrosion resistance. The alloy is
work-strengthened and aged to achieve high strength levels and excellent resistance to stress
corrosion cracking (SCC) in harsh environments. MP35N withstands corrosion in hydrogen sulfide,
saltwater, and other chloride solutions, as well as in mineral acids (nitric, hydrochloric, sulfuric).
Furthermore, it shows outstanding resistance to crevice cracking in seawater and similarly aggressive
conditions.

For the tightening procedure, we adopted elastic mounting. This means the assembly takes place
under controlled conditions, where the total friction coefficient for the specific application is carefully
evaluated and measured. Operating within the elastic range improves fatigue resistance. While this
method is feasible only in limited-series production, it allows the acceptance of a relatively low safety
factor by reducing uncertainties in the mounting process.

By integrating advanced materials with precise engineering techniques, we have optimized the bolt
connections to meet the rigorous demands of our high-performance engine.

Figure 5.7: Porsche's conrod bolt CAD

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 Figure 5.8: Bolt catalogue

In figure 5.9 it’s possible to appreciate the measurements chosen for our bolted connections, making
it possible to reach a proper safety factor. To meet the rigorous operational demands of the engine,
two significant modifications were implemented to optimize the connecting rod bolt design, with the
objective of enhancing load-bearing capacity, reducing stress concentrations, and improving overall
joint durability.

The first modification involved increasing the bolt's shank diameter to its maximum feasible value,
making it equivalent to the stress diameter of the thread. The primary effect of this change is the
maximization of the bolt's load-bearing cross-sectional area. Although this also results in a calculated
increase in the bolt's axial stiffness, the final value was analysed and determined to remain within
acceptable design parameters.
The second modification was the introduction of a relief groove at the transition zone between the
bolt head and the shank. This feature expands the contact area with the connecting rod surface,
yielding multiple benefits. It creates a more uniform distribution of load, which significantly mitigates
stress concentration in the critical head-to-shank fillet. Furthermore, the increased contact area
contributes to a higher equivalent stiffness for the entire bolted joint, minimizing the stress
experienced by the bolt. Consequently, this modification enhances the connection's fatigue resistance
and overall durability under high-stress conditions.

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32
 Figure 5.9: Bolt connection analysis

5.3 Piston pin

For the piston pin, since we were dealing with a race car, the chosen material was the 31 Cr-Mo-9V
alloy. It is a particular steel alloy suitable for high wear applications such as racing engines, obtained
through nitriding process. This treatment provides a hard, slick surface that minimizes wear and tear,
ensuring the components can withstand high pressures and reduce maintenance requirements. In fact,
these treatments allow for much higher permissible pressures at the interface. The most critical section
in our case was the one in correspondence with the axial gap lateral faces of the conrod small end and
the inner lateral face of the piston bosses, here the maximum shear force is registered.

Figure 5.10: Porsche's Piston Pin CAD

The length of the piston pin remains the same, which is about half of the bore, while the radial
thickness has been slightly increased in order to assure a proper safety factor in the most critical
section, corresponding to the transition zone between piston bosses and small end (B-B section). In
addition, the allowable bearing pressures have been revised upward to account for the elevated
mechanical loads associated with turbocharging.

33
34
 Figure 5.11: Piston Pin analysis

The safety factors presented in Figure 5.11 are derived from an analytical calculation. Since a Finite
Element Method (FEM) simulation provides a more accurate representation of real-world conditions,
the actual safety factors are expected to be higher than those depicted.

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5.4 Crankshaft
The crankshaft of our engine was developed in a boxer configuration, but with 4 cylinders instead of
6. This configuration ensures a shorter and lighter crankshaft. As is well known, a boxer crankshaft
has the peculiarity of assigning one crankpin to each connecting rod, with a phase angle of 180°
between each crank throw.

For the material selection, we chose a steel alloy as recommended by the manufacturer. Since no
specific information about the original alloy was available, we decided to use one of the most common
steels for racing applications: 36NiCrMo4, selected for its excellent mechanical properties. This
material is widely used because of its high hardenability, which allows thorough hardening
throughout the crankshaft; its good heat resistance, which ensures stable performance at elevated
temperatures; its excellent forgeability, which facilitates the production process; and its good
machinability, which improves efficiency in manufacturing operations.

Figure 5.12: Porsche's crankshaft CAD

For the design of the single crank throw, we did not have specific information from the manufacturer.
Consequently, we decided to use the bearing dimensions adopted by Porsche as a reference in order
to properly design the new crank throw.

36
 Figure 5.13: Porsche's single crank throw CAD

Starting from a baseline design, we refined the crank web to obtain the required static moment and
balance the forces acting on the shaft. Using CAD, we defined both the mass of the single crank web
and the position of its center of gravity to optimize the geometry. Another important aspect is the
cylinder spacing, which differs from a traditional in-line engine. Thanks to the boxer layout, this
spacing can be reduced to nearly half, since the opposing pistons cannot interfere with each other.

Figure 5.14: Crank throw geometry

37
5.4.1 Crankshaft balancing
Regarding local balancing, specifically for a single crank throw, the decision was made to balance all
possible forces using counterweights. This involves balancing all centrifugal forces related to rotating
masses as well as the first-order reciprocating forces. The boxer engine ensures natural global static
and dynamic balance for the first-order forces. However, for the second-order forces, only global
static balance is naturally achieved. To obtain total balance, two counter-rotating balance shafts are
required. As shown in Figure 5.15, the static moment achieved with the counterweight is slightly
higher than the value required for perfect balance. This is intentional, since during the design phase
it is common practice to include a margin in terms of weight. Removing excess material later is
relatively easy with an additional machining operation, whereas adding material would be much more
difficult.

Figure 5.15: Local balancing of single throw

5.4.2 Torque at the crankshaft

Another important aspect to highlight is torque regularity. A high level of torque regularity results in
fewer vibrations and greater comfort, whereas lower torque regularity leads to the opposite. However,
since the chosen vehicle is a race car, comfort is no longer a priority.

In a boxer engine, combustion occurs every 180 degrees of crank angle, and the adopted firing order
is 1-3-2-4. This firing order ensures a sufficient level of torque regularity, but it is clear that the inertia
forces remain significant.

From the figure, it can be observed that the torque produced by combustion (blue line) follows a
sinusoidal behaviour every 180°, as previously mentioned, and that almost all of this torque
contribution is positive. It can also be seen that the inertia torque has a strong influence on the total
torque delivered to the crankshaft. This is due to the absence of balance shafts, which would otherwise
be required to counteract the second-order moments; in this case, they were omitted for weight-saving
reasons.

Finally, the graph shows that the inertia torque and the combustion torque are in counterphase. This
can be explained by the fact that during combustion the piston–connecting rod assembly is strongly
accelerated, and thus the inertia forces oppose this motion.

38
 Figure 5.16: Torque at crankshaft

Figure 5.17: Torque of each crank throw

39
5.4.3 Load on supports
A key aspect to evaluate is the load exerted by the crank throws on the main journal bearings. The
interface between the crankshaft and the main bearing journal is especially critical due to the dynamic
forces involved. The impulsive loads acting on the journal create rotational imbalances that can lead
to edge contact. Minimizing these stresses reduces energy losses and wear, improving tribological
performance and extending component life.

If not properly managed, the fluctuating loads on the main bearings can cause uneven wear and even
premature failure. Combustion peak forces, combined with variations throughout the engine cycle,
place substantial demands on both bearing materials and design. To address these challenges, several
approaches can be adopted:
• Optimized Bearing Design: Selecting advanced materials and applying specialized coatings
improve wear resistance and distribute loads more effectively.

• Enhanced Lubrication Systems: Maintaining reliable lubrication reduces friction and wear,
significantly increasing bearing durability.

By carefully analyzing force distribution and applying these mitigation strategies, overall engine
performance and longevity can be improved.

From the graphs, it is evident that the primary force peaks are generated by combustion. As expected
in a boxer engine, two consecutive cylinders exhibit opposing force behavior. In contrast, the
remaining forces are nearly perfectly balanced, which is reflected in the circular shape of the force
distribution.

Moreover, Figure 5.19 shows the sum of the forces acting on each main journal. It can be observed
that the forces for P1 and P5, as well as for P2 and P4, are perfectly overlapped. In contrast, the P3
support displays a distinct load pattern, resulting from the superposition of forces acting in different
directions.

Figure 5.18: Forces on single support: cylinder 1 and 2

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Figure 5.19: Forces on supports sum

41
5.4.4 Critical sections

Figure 5.20: Critical sections of the crank throw

For a proper crankshaft design, it is essential to pay particular attention to three critical sections:

• 1-1: Cross Section at the Mid-Point of the Crank Pin. This section experiences the maximum
bending moments. The safety factor achieved here is 3.62, considering lubrication holes with a
diameter of 4 mm. The stress concentration factors for bending and torsion are 2.20 and 1.60,
respectively. This ensures that even under significant load, the crankshaft maintains structural
integrity.

• 2-2: Cross Section at the Transition Zone Between the Crank Pin and the Crank Web. High
stress concentrations are registered in this transition zone. To limit the stress concentration, the fillet
radius between the two components remains 2 mm. This adjustment helped achieve a safety factor of
1.39. The larger fillet radius reduces the likelihood of stress fractures and prolongs the crankshaft's
life under repeated stress cycles.

• 3-3: Cross Section at the Transition Zone Between the Main Journal and the Crank Web. This
section also experiences high stress concentrations. In this case, simply increasing the overlap was
sufficient to achieve a safety factor of 1.88. The increased overlap provides better distribution of
stress, thereby enhancing the overall durability of the crankshaft.

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5.4.5 Torsional vibration analysis
Finally, to conclude this project, we decided to analyse the frequency response of the system. As one
might expect, in an engine the applied forces vary with a certain frequency; therefore, it is important
to check the natural frequency in order to avoid potential resonance risks. For this analysis, we chose
to study only the torsional vibrations, as these are usually the closest to the natural frequency of the
crank mechanism.

To carry out this type of analysis and study the dynamic behaviour, an equivalent system was used.
This system is represented by flywheels and torsional elastic shafts. In particular, the following
elements were considered:

• Equivalent inertia for each crank mechanism, consisting of the mean total reciprocating
mass, the rotating portion of the connecting rod, and the purely rotating masses.

• Equivalent torsional stiffness for each crankshaft segment between two consecutive
crankpins.
• Inertia of the flywheel, mounted at the end of the crankshaft, and inertia of the pulley,
mounted at the beginning of the crankshaft.

Figure 5.21: Equivalent system of the crankshaft

The equivalent inertias of the crankshaft, pulley, and flywheel were derived using CAD models, while
the torsional stiffness of the components was calculated using a spreadsheet. With these data, the
tabular Holzer method was employed to determine the critical revving speeds.

In Figure 5.22, we plotted the equation

𝑚

∑ 𝐽𝑖 𝜖𝑖 = 0
𝑖=1

as a function of 𝜔𝑐2 . In this way, it is possible to determine the critical revving speed of the crankshaft
by simply identifying the point at which the function equals zero, that is, where the curve intersects

43
the abscissa. The plot is limited to 9600 rad/s, since the maximum revving speed of the engine is well
below this value; therefore, analysing higher speeds would be unnecessary.

Figure 5.22: 1st and 2nd natural frequencies

For each natural frequency, it is possible to show the normal mode, specifically the oscillation of each
body with respect to the first one.

44
 Figure 5.23: Mode analysis

As can be seen from the graph above, the first critical revving speed corresponds to a deformed shape
with a single node, while the second critical revving speed corresponds to a shape with two nodes.

45
 Figure 5.24: Campbell diagram

Finally, from the Campbell diagram it is possible to identify which engine orders enter resonance
within the engine’s operational speed range. The second natural frequency excites the system starting
from the 4.5th order, where the amplitude of both the inertia and gas order content is relatively low.
In contrast, the first natural frequency excites the system from the 2.5th order, whose amplitude may
be significant. For safety reasons, it would be useful to investigate the system’s response within the
2nd to 10th harmonic orders when the first natural frequency is reached; however, such an analysis is
out of the scope of this project. In any case, the risk of resonance remains quite low and, for racing
purposes, can be considered acceptable.

46
6. Conclusions
To conclude this project, we can state that all the initial objectives have been achieved. We have
demonstrated that, with certain modifications to ensure safety and reliability, it is possible to obtain
performance levels comparable to those of the original naturally aspirated 6-cylinder boxer engine—
and potentially even higher performance with an equivalent increase in turbocharging pressure.
Compared with the original engine, the proposed solution offers a smaller displacement, a similar
weight, and a reduced environmental impact in terms of emissions, thanks to improved overall
efficiency.

The study of supercharging has been extensively addressed, with a focus on performance
improvements, which has allowed us to design a highly efficient engine while maintaining
competitive performance levels. Furthermore, the analysis highlights the robustness of the original
Porsche engineering concept: several components, such as the piston pin, are already capable of
withstanding the increased in-cylinder pressure. However, other components, including the
connecting rod and crankshaft, would require significant redesign to ensure the same level of safety
and durability.

We also considered the possibility of studying a hybrid powertrain to further enhance both
performance and efficiency. However, FIA regulations prohibit the use of hybrid systems in the
championship for which this vehicle is intended. For this reason, our work has been focused on the
development of a “new” engine concept that could be realistically applied to this car in a competitive
racing scenario.
In conclusion, it is necessary to thank our professors, Matteo Giacopini and Enrico Mattarelli, whose
help has been fundamental to progress in our work.

Figure 6.1: Porsche’s crack mechanism assembly CAD

47
7. References

[1] Porsche. [Online]. Available: [Link]

[2] FIA, “Homologation Form,” 2022.

[3] [Online]. Available: [Link]

[4] E. Mattarelli and M. Giacopini, “Engine components design and manufacturing/Internal

combustion engines Lecture Notes”.

[5] “Alloy Wire International,” [Online]. Available: [Link]

content/uploads/2016/08/AW-IT-Schede-tecniche-MP35N_Rev-[Link].

48