NUTRITION AND DIET THERAPY

2ND YEAR | 1ST SEMESTER

KOLEHIYO NG LUNGSOD NG DASMARINAS – INSTITUTE OF NURSING

INTRODUCTION TO NUTRITION 1. The role of nutrition in the prevention of

diseases/sicknesses or illnesses à as a realization,
AND DIET THERAPY as well as recognition
2. The attainment of good nutritional status (NS) or
WHY IS NUTRITION IMPORTANT? nutriture particularly nutritional needs and
“You are what you eat”, a famous caption goes. A healthy limitations considering different foundation (cultural,
diet consists of a well-balanced diet composed of economic, and psychological aspects and styles)
important nutrients in right proportion. It avoids serves as a dedication and concern for food pattern
malnutrition and diseases like obesity, diabetes, heart adaptation of individuals
diseases, cancer & stroke, etc. 3. The application of diet modification (therapeutic
diet) dependent on physician’s prescription based on
• Food that we eat acts as a fuel to the body. patient’s condition, complication, and development
• Food also provide essential nutrients which further leads to knowledge and nutrition education
act as:
DIETETICS: The administration of the study/science of
1.) Energy-provider foods – Carbohydrates, Fats-
nutrition to the humans in the state of health and disease.
Energy is essential for the constantly voluntary &
involuntary activities of the body. • The dietitian is an individual who works in a
2.) Body-building foods – Proteins, Minerals- Muscles, hospital, providing nutritious meals to patients (with
bones & organs are built up and maintained by the home economists as the earliest dietians). The
protein supplied by the food. Minerals: like iron, dietitian is proven as specialized in planning and
phosphorous- affect the formation of the blood – evaluation of patients’ nutritional care for those
skeleton tissue (bones). who are sick needing therapeutic dietary regimens
3.) Protective foods – Vitamins, minerals (diet modifications), also for the healthy ones or
4.) Regulatory-foods – Water, Roughage Water is the normal in general. All of this knowledge and
needed for the regulation of body processes: such skills are required for qualification and registration
as digestion, excretion, maintenance of the body as a dietitian.
temperature and the electrolyte balance. • Republic Act No. 2674, an Act to regulate the
Roughage helps normal body movements. practice of dietetics in the Philippines (June 18,
1960); since the effectivity of said Act, significant
changes have evolved along the delivery of
IMPORTANT NUTRIENTS REQUIRED BY THE BODY: nutritional services in hospitals and other health
care institutions; and the provisions of Republic Act
• CARBOHYDRATES
No. 2674 regulating merely as it does the practice of
• PROTEINS dietetics proved inadequate to meet the fast
• FATS changing needs of promoting the nutritional well-
• VITAMINS AND MINERALS being of individuals and groups within the framework
• WATER of community life, hence, there is an imperative need
• ROUGHAGE to regulate not only the practice of dietetics but also
that of nutrition.
WHAT TO EAT AND WHAT NOT TO?
• Diet therapy is a wide-ranging term for the actual
• It is very important for us to be aware on what to be application of nutrition in order to
eaten and what to do away with. The plate has to avoid/cure/remedy occurrence of diseases. It
be wholesome and balanced and needs to include usually includes modifying existing dietary lifestyle
the right ingredients to supply you the right to promote health in its highest optimum level. Also,
nutrition that you needed to attain good health. the development of an alternative dietary lifestyle
plan is done for the elimination of specific foods so
WHY IS NUTRITION APPLIED TO NURSES? as to restore good health.
Note: Reasons why nutrition science is applied to nursing • Diet therapy, a physiologically-based practice
care: involves specialized dietary regimens (low
carbohydrate, low salt, etc. diets

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NUTRITION AND DIET THERAPY
OBJECTIVES ARE AS FOLLOW: • People get energy from food. We create all the
energy we need by eating. The human body is
• Treatment or prevention a specific disease (such
made up of structures components, such as
as cancer or cardiovascular disorders
muscles, organs, and bones, are also composed
Encouragement in the promotion of healthy
of the nutrients contained in food. This is why
lifestyle and wellness
nutrient intake through eating that provide energy
• Detoxification of the body (by toxins neutralization
and become the constituents of our bodily
or elimination
structures is important for sustainability of human
When just starting on a therapeutic diet, it actually is a life.
different means of eating that person involved look for the
NUTRIENTS
service of specialized people to guide him/her what should
and should not to be eaten, in order to prevent • Substances that nourish the body for growth or
nutritional deficiencies. Healthcare or nutrition metabolism of an organism. While plants do
professional helps one to be aware of dietary science nutrient absorption of nutrients basically from
and understanding its development/progress. minerals and other organic compounds in the soil,
and animals do obtain nutrients from ingested
PRINCIPLES OF DIET THERAPY
foods.
• To maintain good nutritional status
3 MAIN FUNCTIONS OF NUTRIENTS IN OUR BODY
• To correct deficiencies
• To afford rest to the body 1. Source of energy. Calories in food specifically
• To metabolize the nutrients means unit of energy. A calorie is simply a unit of
• To make changes in body weight when necessary energy. Our bodies do not function without energy,
so we need it to let our body to function
PURPOSES OF THERAPEUTIC DIETS:
accordingly.
• Regulate amount of food 2. Regulation of body processes. These include
• Assist body organs to maintain normal function regulating the body temperature. This is done
• Aid in digestion primarily by vitamins, minerals, and the water that
• To improve specific health conditions is also in our bodies.
• Increase or decrease body weight 3. Maintenance, repair, and growth of all body cells.
They are being put back constantly; thus. we need
• Modify the intervals of feedings
nutrients in order to help go on with body
• Significance Useful in managing disease
processes.
• Promote greater resistance to specific conditions
• Prevention or supplemental treatment ENZYME:

FOOD • CHONs (proteins) that hastens the chemical

reaction rate in a living organism. An enzyme acts
• A material, usually of plant or animal origin, that
as catalyst for specific chemical reactions,
contains essential nutrients, such as
transforming/changing a specific set of reactants
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or
(called substrates) into specific products. Life
minerals, and is ingested and assimilated by an
would never exist without enzymes.
organism to produce energy, stimulate growth,
and maintain life; HORMONES
• any substance containing nutrients, that can be
ingested by a living organism and metabolized into • A natural substance which the body produces and
energy and body tissue; that influences the way the body grows or
develops any of various chemical substances
• any nourishing substance that is eaten, drunk, or
which the body cells produced and released
otherwise taken into the body to sustain life,
especially into the blood and having a specific
provide energy, promote growth, etc.
effect on cells or organs of the body usually at a
NUTRIENTS IN FOOD distance from the place of origin; a product of
living cells that circulates in body fluids (as blood)
• Food is the root of all of the energy necessary for and produces a specific often stimulatory effect
humans to eat. It is not just because of being on the activity of cells usually a distance from its
hungry, satisfying the hungry stomach. point of synthesis

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NUTRITION AND DIET THERAPY
BASIC NUTRITION CONCEPTS AVOID TRANS- AND SATURATED FATS

“Good diet is a matter of common sense -- eat less and eat • Regulate consumption of saturated fats, avoid
fresh.” trans-fats. Replace solid butter or margarine with
olive or canola oil.
LIMIT SODIUM
DRINK SMART
• Too much intake of Sodium (Na) is related with
health risks including high blood pressure. Healthy • Soda, juice and flavored coffee-add a lot of sugar
adults should limit their sodium consumption per and calories to your diet. Sip on low-fat milk, water
day. One can substitute salt with herbs in order to and 100-percent fruit and vegetable juices
have good flavor. Also, limit the intake of instead.
processed foods.
SAVE TREATS FOR SPECIAL OCCASIONS
CONSUME WHOLE GRAINS
• Maintain meals and snacks nutritious.
• Ensure that at least half of the grains you eat daily
are whole grains. NUTRITIONAL STATUS

EAT SEAFOOD • The balance between the intake of nutrients by an

organism and the expenditure of these in the
• One has to eat seafood at least twice a week. Fish processes of growth, reproduction, and health
and shellfish are excellent sources of nutrients maintenance. Because this process is highly
including heart-healthy omega-3 fatty acids. complex and quite individualized, nutritional
status assessment can be directed at a wide
EAT LESS
variety of aspects of nutriture. These range from
• Increase in weight and some medical health nutrient levels in the body, to the products of their
problems usually are the results of habitual metabolism, and to the functional processes they
overeating. Use a small plate to limit your portion regulate.
size. and avoid for second rounds. Eat each meal • Nutritional status can be measured for individuals
slowly and thoughtfully. Enjoy eating and stop if as well as for populations. Accurate measurement
hunger is satisfied. of individual nutritional status is required in
clinical practice. Population measures are more
EAT MORE PRODUCE important in research. They can be used to
describe nutritional status of the group, to identify
• Essential nutrients (vitamins and minerals) are
populations or population segments at risk for
present in fruits and vegetables. Fruits and
nutrition-related health consequences, and to
vegetables are of low-calorie content. Try to
evaluate interventions.
incorporate produce into every meal.
• Nutritional Status (Nutriture) is the condition of
DIVERSIFY PROTEIN the body resulting from the utilization of essential
nutrients
• Control one’s consumption of red meat, and
incorporate a variety of other proteins such as OPTIMUM NUTRITION
beans, eggs, legumes, nuts, fish, low-fat dairy and
• Eating the right amounts of nutrients on a proper
poultry into your diet.
time in order to achieve the best performance
and the longest possible lifetime in good
health, assuming that external negative
CHOOSE LOW-FAT DAIRY
influences like accidents and infectious diseases
• Milk and dairy products are good sources of can be avoided
Calcium (Ca) and Protein (CHON). Choose low-fat GENERAL PRINCIPLES
milk, cheese, yogurt and sour cream. Prevent
intake of sugar and calorie-laden flavored milk, ice • Dietary deficiency diseases such as rickets, goiter,
cream, yogurt, cream cheese and pudding. anemia, scurvy, etc. are usually the result of
malnutrition. Likewise, obesity and diseases like
diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and high-blood
pressure are the results of diets with too many

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NUTRITION AND DIET THERAPY
calories and improper balance of nutrients -
protein, fat, and carbohydrates.
• Optimum Nutrition aims à to attain balance of
dietary nutrient intake to prevent occurrence of
diseases caused by deficiencies or excesses. The
food that one eats should have the proper
amount/proportion of nutrients for current stage
of life.
• Optimum Nutrition should supply the correct
quantities of protein, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins,
minerals, fiber, and probiotic bacteria in order to
keep a healthy body and to sustain the desired
level of activity for the best life standard.

MALNUTRITION

• Refers to getting too little or too much of certain

nutrients; a condition that results from nutrient
deficiency or overconsumption; can lead to serious
health issues, including stunted growth, eye
problems, diabetes and heart disease.
• Malnutrition includes undernutrition and
overnutrition, both of which can lead to health
problems and nutrient deficiencies if not addressed.
1.) UNDERNUTRITION:
• Results from not getting enough protein,
calories or micronutrients;
• Leads to low weight-for-height
(wasting), height-for-age (stunting) and
weight-for-age (underweight);
• Have deficiencies in vitamins and minerals,
especially iron, zinc, vitamin A and iodine
Symptoms include: weight loss, fatigue,
irritability and micronutrient deficiencies
2.) OVERNUTRITION:
• too much intake of certain nutrients, such as
protein, calories or fat;
• usually results in overweight or obesity and a
lower intake of certain vitamins and
minerals.

However, micronutrient deficiencies can also happen with

overnutrition- possible to be overweight or obese from too
much consuming of calories but not at the same time
getting enough vitamins and minerals- because foods that
contribute to overnutrition, such as fatty/sugary foods, are
mostly high in calories and fat but low in other nutrients
needed by the body.

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NUTRITION AND DIET THERAPY

CHAPTER 1: COMPOSITION OF i. Rough ER has ribosomes attached to

its membranes in order to synthesize
CELL secretory proteins.
ii. Smooth ER has no ribosomes
CELL STRUCTURE attached and
synthesizes lipids and carbohydrates.
• Cells are made up of water, inorganic ions, and
b. Ribosomes -tiny structures of protein and
carbon-containing molecules. Water is the most
rRNA that are sites of protein synthesis.
abundant molecule in cells, making up 70% or more of
c. Golgi apparatus - a string of flat membranous
total cell mass. As a result, the interactions between
sacs that synthesize carbohydrates. They
water and other constituents of cells are of vital
package material for secretion from the cell by
importance in biological chemistry. The significant
breaking off some of their small sacs and
property of water is that it is a polar molecule, in which
infusing with the cell membrane in order to
the hydrogen atoms have a slight positive charge, and
release the contained substance outside of
the oxygen has a slight negative charge. Due to their
the cell.
polar nature, water molecules can form hydrogen
d. Mitochondria - organelles inside the
bonds with each other or with other polar molecules,
cytoplasm that is the site of energy production
as well as interact with positive or negative ions.
(ATP). They are bound by a double membrane
• Ions and polar molecules are readily soluble in water
and have an inner layer with folds called
(hydrophilic) while nonpolar molecules, which cannot
cristae.
interact with water, are poorly soluble in an aqueous
e. Lysosomes- single-membraned structures
environment (hydrophobic). As a result, nonpolar
inside the cytoplasm that contain digestive
molecules tend to reduce their contact with water by
enzymes that destroy engulfed bacteria and
associating closely with each other instead.
other cellular debris.
• Human body cells have several similar cytoplasm, cell
f. Centrioles - a pair of rod-shaped structures
organelles, and nucleus. Mature blood
that lie perpendicular to one another and
cells) are the exemption having no nuclei. Mature
located just outside the nucleus. Their
RBCs (red blood cells) are the exemptions having no
function is to organize the spindle fibers
nuclei
during cell division.
1. Cell membrane, also known as plasma membrane,
g. Cilia and flagella - mobile thread-like
is selectively permeable and made up of
projections through the cell membrane. Cilia
cholesterol, and proteins.
are shorter than flagella. They sweep
• The proteins in the cell membrane form pores or
materials across the cell surface. The sperm
openings to permit passage of materials by:
cell is the only human cell with a flagellum
o acting as enzymes to help substances enter that aids motility.
the cell h. Nucleus - the control center of the cell that
contains the chromosomes. The forty-six
o acting as antigen markers to identify the cell chromosomes of the human cell are long
as "self” threads called chromatin that is made of DNA
o serving as receptor sites for hormones and protein.

2. Cytoplasm is a watery solution of minerals, gasses.

And organic molecules found between the cell
membrane and the nucleus and is a location of
chemical reactions.
3. Cell organelles are intracellular structures that are
bound by their own membranes, each having a
definite function.

Cell organelles are made up of:

a. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) - a passageway

tor the
transport of materials within the cell.

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NUTRITION AND DIET THERAPY
PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS

• Depending on the internal structure of the cell,

organisms are divided into two types- prokaryotic
and eukaryotic. Prokaryotic organisms are those
that do not have true nucleus and membrane-
bound cell organelles while eukaryotic organisms
are those that have true nucleus and nucleolus
and also contain all membrane- bound cell
organelles.
• Prokaryotic cells are simple, small cells, while
eukaryotic cells are complex, large structured,
and are present in trillions which can be single-
celled or multicellular.

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NUTRITION AND DIET THERAPY

CHAPTER 3: MACRONUTRIENTS travels to the fatty tissues of the body for storage.
The fat cells can store limitless quantities of fat,
CARBOHYDRATES unlike the liver which can store only half a day's
worth of glycogen.
Carbohydrates are organic compounds (saccharides- 2. Fructose (levulose) is the sweetest of simple
starches and sugars) composed of carbon, hydrogen, and sugars. It is found in honey, most fruits, and some
oxygen; hydrogen and oxygen usually occur in ratio of 2:1 vegetables. It is converted into glucose in the
as in H₂O. They are polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones body.
which vary from simple sugars containing from 3 to 7 3. Galactose is not found free in foods. It is produced
carbon atoms to very complex polymers. They provide the from lactose (milk sugar) by digestion and is
major source of energy for the body or as much as 80 to converted into glucose in the body. Some infants
100% of calories. are born with an inability to metabolize galactose,
CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES a condition called galactosemia.
4. Disaccharides or double-sugars 2 are made up of
Carbohydrates are divided into three groups: monosaccharides. They are sweet and, unlike
monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. monosaccharides, they must be changed to
simple sugars by hydrolysis before they can be
A. Monosaccharides or simple sugars are the simplest
absorbed. They include the following:
form of carbohydrates. They are sweet and since they
require no digestion, they can be absorbed directly 1. Sucrose (ordinary table sugar-granulated, powdered, or
into the bloodstream from the small intestine. They brown) is processed from cane and beet sugar. It is found
include the following: in fruits, vegetables, syrups, and sweet food production
1. Glucose (dextrose) or blood sugar is the principal and is converted into glucose and galactose upon
form in which carbohydrate is used by the body. It digestion. It is composed of glucose and fructose.
is abundant in fruits, sweet corn, and corn syrup.
2. Lactose (milk sugar) is found in milk and milk products
It is a moderately sweet sugar found naturally
except cheese. It is converted into glucose and galactose
preformed in few foods but is mainly created in
in digestion and is less soluble and less sweet than
the body from starch digestion. The liver stores of
the body's total glycogen and liberates glucose as sucrose. It remains in the intestine longer than other
sugars and encourages the growth of certain useful
needed. Muscle cells can also store glucose as
bacteria. It forms approximately 40% of milk solids. Cow's
glycogen, but they amass most of their supply
milk contains 4.8% lactose while human milk has 7%. It
using it just for themselves during exercise.
favors calcium and phosphorus assimilation.
Glucose fuels the work of the body's cells. Its
stores last only for hours. Only glucose can 3. Maltose is not found free in foods. It is produced by
provide energy for the brain, other nerve cells, and hydrolysis of starch and is converted into glucose in
developing red blood cells. When a person does digestion. It occurs in malt products and in germinating
not reload used up glycogen stores, body proteins cereals. It can be found in certain infant formulas, beer,
are dismantled allowing glucose to fuel these and malt beverage products. It is less sweet compared to
special cells. This process in which protein is glucose and sucrose.
converted to glucose is called gluconeogenesis.
Insufficient supply of carbohydrates combined C. Polysaccharides are composed of many molecules of
with accelerated breakdown of fat can budge the simple sugars. They are commonly known as complex
body's energy metabolism in an unsafe direction. sugars. They include the following:
With less available carbohydrate for energy, more
1. Starch is the most significant polysaccharide in
fats may be broken down, but not all the way to
human nutrition. Its major food sources include
energy. Instead, fat fragments combine with each
cereal grains, potatoes and other root vegetables,
other and form ketone bodies. Muscle and other
and legumes. It is converted entirely into glucose
tissues can use ketone bodies for energy but when
upon digestion; is more complex than sugars; and
their production exceeds their use, they can
requires a longer time to digest. Thus, it supplies
mount up and cause ketosis, a state that disturbs
energy over a longer period of time.
the body's normal acid-base balance. If more
2. Dextrin is not found free in foods. They are formed
carbohydrates are consumed than what is
as intermediate products in the breakdown of
needed, the body must find a way to store excess
starch.
glucose. The liver breaks it into smaller molecules,
putting them together to form fat. The fat then
OREJANA, ROMMEL C. 7
NUTRITION AND DIET THERAPY
3. Cellulose forms the framework of plants found in lactose and maltose to produce
unrefined grains, vegetables, and fruits. It is non- monosaccharides-glucose, galactose, and
digestible by humans; no specific enzyme is fructose)
present and provides important bulk in the diet
FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES
which helps move digestive food mass along and
stimulates peristalsis. Main sources are stems 1. The principal function of carbohydrates is to serve as
and leaves of vegetables, seed and grain a major source of energy for the body. It must be
coverings, skins, and hulls. Fibers are the supplied regularly and at frequent intervals to meet
structural parts of plants. They are non-digestible the energy needs of the body. Although fat is also a
because digestive enzymes are unable to break fuel, it is primarily a storage form, and the body may
them down. They lower the blood glucose levels of function without it in the diet. The amount of
people with diabetes mellitus. They may be carbohydrates held in the body is relatively small. A
classified into: total of approximately 365 gm is stored in the liver
1. Soluble found in fruits and legumes, barleys, and and the muscle tissues and is present in the
oats which delay gastrointestinal transit and circulating blood sugar.
glucose absorption, and lower blood cholesterol.
2. Insoluble found in wheat beans, corn brans, The breakdown of carbohydrate storage in the body of a
whole grain breads, cereals, and vegetables man weighing 70 kg is shown on the next page.
which accelerate gastrointestinal transit,
Liver glycogen 110 gm
increase fecal weight, slow down starch
Muscle glycogen 245 gm
hydrolysis, and delay glucose absorption.
Extra-cellular blood sugar 20 gm
4. Pectin are non-digestible, colloidal polysaccharides
Total 375 gm 1,460 calories
having a gel quality. Sources include mostly fruits
and are often used as base for jellies. Pectin is also This 375 gm of glucose provides energy sufficient for only
used to treat diarrhea as they absorb toxins and about 13 hours of moderate activity. Therefore,
bacteria in the intestine. They bind cholesterol carbohydrates must be ingested regularly and at
reducing the amount the blood can absorb. moderately frequent intervals to meet the energy demands
5. Glycogens (animal starch) are formed from glucose of the body.
and stored in liver and muscle tissues. Food sources
include mainly meats and sea foods. They are 2. Carbohydrates exert a protein-sparing action. If
converted entirely into glucose upon digestion. The insufficient carbohydrates are available in the diet,
hormones glucagon helps the liver convert glycogen the body will convert protein into glucose in order to
into glucose every time the body needs energy. supply energy.
3. The presence of carbohydrates is necessary for
DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES normal fat metabolism. If there is insufficient
carbohydrate, larger amounts of fats are used for
1. MOUTH
energy than the body is equipped to handle, and
a. Enzyme amylase (an enzyme of the saliva,
oxidation is incomplete. The amount of
secreted by the parotid glands, acts on starch
carbohydrates present determines how much fat will
to begin its breakdown to dextrin and maltose)
be broken down. Therefore, it affects the formation
b. Action-usually, however, the food does not
and the disposal rates of ketones. Ketones are
stay in the mouth long enough for much of this
intermediate products of fat metabolism, which are
change to be completed, so that food is
normally broken down to fatty acids. However, in
conveyed into the stomach mostly in starch
extreme conditions such as starvation and
form.
uncontrolled diabetes in which the amount of
2. STOMACH
carbohydrates is inadequate and unavailable, these
a. Enzyme-none for the carbohydrates
ketones accumulate and produce a condition called
b. Action none; above action by ptyalin may
ketosis or acidosis.
continue to a minor degree
Thus, the anti-ketogenic effect of carbohydrate
3. SMALL INTESTINE
prevents the damaging effects of ketone formation
a. Enzyme pancreatin enzyme, amylopsin,
and accumulation.
converts starch into dextrin and maltose
b. Intestinal juice contains three disaccharides-
sucrose, lactose, and maltose (which act on
their respective disaccharides-sucrose,

OREJANA, ROMMEL C. 8
NUTRITION AND DIET THERAPY
4. Cellulose and closely related insoluble, indigestible 5. Gastrointestinal health - Dietary fibers enhance
carbohydrates aid in normal elimination. They the health of the large intestine.
stimulate the peristaltic movements of the
FATS OR LIPIDS
gastrointestinal tract and absorb water to give bulk to
the intestinal contents. FATS
5. They also supply significant quantities of proteins,
minerals, and B vitamins. - Fats are organic compounds composed of carbon,
6. Lactose remains in the intestine longer than other hydrogen, and oxygen. Triglycerides or fats and
disaccharides, and this encourages the growth of the oils are fatty acid esters of glycerol. They belong to
beneficial bacteria, resulting in a laxative action. class of fats and fat-related compounds called
7. Glucose has specific influences; it is indispensable lipids. Fats constitute 34% of the energy in the
for the maintenance of the functional integrity of the human body. They include substances such as
nerve tissue, and it is the sole source of energy for fats, oil, waxes, and related compounds that are
the brain. Thus, a constant supply of glucose from greasy to the touch and insoluble in water. They
the blood is essential for the proper functioning of provide a more concentrated source of energy
these tissues. compared to carbohydrates.
- Some fat deposits are not used and are
SOURCES OF CARBOHYDRATES considered structural fat. They hold the body
organs and nerves in position and protect them
1. Whole grains rich in iron, thiamine, niacin, and
against shock and injury.
other nutrients are important sources of
carbohydrates. In the manufacture of wheat flour CLASSIFICATION OF FATS
and refined cereal, the germ and outer layers of
the grain are removed resulting in the significant A. Simple lipids are called neutral fats. The chemical
losses of iron and B complex vitamins. These are name for these basic fats is triglycerides. This name
enriched specifically with the addition of thiamin, indicates their chemical structure, a glycerol base with
riboflavin, niacin, and iron. three fatty acids attached. Glycerol is derived from a
2. Sweet potatoes and white potatoes are important water-soluble form of carbohydrate.
contributors to carbohydrate intake from the Waxes are esters of fatty acids with higher molecular
vegetable and fruit groups because they are daily weight alcohol. They are classified into sterol and non-
items in many diets. Some fruits such as bananas sterol esters.
and dried fruits and some vegetables such as corn B. Compound lipids are various combinations of fats with
and lima beans are also relatively high in other components. Three types of compound lipids
carbohydrate content. are important in human nutrition-phospholipids,
3. Milk is unique in that it is the only dietary source of glycolipids, and lipoproteins.
lactose. Each cup contains 12 gm. Cheese 1. Phospholipids are compounds of fatty acids,
contains only traces of lactose. phosphoric acids, and nitrogenous bases.
4. Sugars and sweets are important sources of a. Lecithin is the most widely distributed of the
carbohydrates next to breads and cereals, and phospholipids. Traces are placed in liver and
cane and beet sugars, honey, maple syrup, jellies, egg yolk and in raw vegetable oils such as corn
jams, and candies. "Empty calories" are foods oil. They are added to food products such as
which do not contain any amount of other cheese, margarine, and confections to aid
nutrients aside from carbohydrates. emulsification.
b. Cephalins are needed to form thromboplastin
HEALTH EFFECTS OF STARCH AND FIBERS for the blood-clotting process.
c. Sphingomyelins are found in the brain and other
1. Weight control - Fiber’s rich in complex
nerve tissues as components of myelin sheath.
carbohydrates tend to be low in fat and added
sugars and can promote weight loss. Three substances act as an insulator around the nerve
2. Heart disease - High-carbohydrate diets, rich in fibers. Egg yolk and liver are good sources of these
whole grains, can protect an individual against phospholipids.
heart disease and stroke.
3. Cancer - High-carbohydrate diets can help
prevent many types of cancer.
4. Diabetes - High-carbohydrate, low-fat diets help
control weight.

OREJANA, ROMMEL C. 9
NUTRITION AND DIET THERAPY
2. Glycolipids are compounds of fatty acids TABLE 1: SOURCES OF FATTY ACIDS
combined with carbohydrates and nitrogenous
bases. SATURATED UNSATURATED
a. Cerebrosides are components of nerve tissue Amino Fat Plant Oil
and certain cell membranes where they play a
vital role in fat transport. Their carbohydrate Beef Mutton Vegetable oil Corn
component is galactose,
Seafood Egg Peanut Cotton
b. Gangliosides are made up of certain glucose,
galactose, and a complex compound Red meat Poultry Soybean Olives
containing an amino sugar.
3. Lipoproteins are lipids combined with proteins. Dairy Tallow yolk cauliflower Olive oil
They are formed primarily in the liver and are Suet
found in cell and organelle membranes,
mitochondria, and lysosomes. They are insoluble 2. Glycerol is a water-soluble component of
in water and are combined in protein complex for triglycerides and is inconvertible with
their transport and activity in aqueous medium. carbohydrate. It comes out 10% of the fat. After it
They contain cholesterol, neutral fat, and fatty becomes broken off in digestion, it becomes
acids. available for the formation of glucose in the diet.
C. Derived lipids are simple derivatives from fat digestion 3. Steroids are a class of fat-related substances that
or other more complex products. They are fat contain sterols. A main member of this group is
substances produced from fats and fat compounds cholesterol. It is a complex fat-like compound
during digestive breakdown. found practically in all body tissues, especially in
1. Fatty acids are the key refined fuel forms of fat the brain and nerve tissues, bile, blood, and the
that the cell burns for energy. They are the basic liver where most cholesterol is synthesized.
structural units of fat and may be saturated or Foods rich in cholesterol are egg yolk, organ
unsaturated in nature. meats, shellfish, and dairy fats. Other animal fat
products including butter, cream, whole milk,
SOURCES OF FATTY ACIDS: whole milk cheese, ice cream, and meat contain
a. Saturated fats are those into which no hydrogen small amounts.
can be added. Palmitic and stearic acids are THE OMEGA-6/OMEGA-3 RATIO
two examples of such fatty acids. They are
abundant in animal fats including beef. Plants make omega-3 and omega-6 oils, but the latter is
b. Monounsaturated fatty acids are those in which more widely distributed in plants. Humans should
two of the carbon atoms are joined by a double consume more omega-3 fatty acids from vegetable and
bond. This means that an atom can be added to marine sources like cod liver oil, mackerel, salmon, and
each of the carbon atoms at a double bond. sardines as well as crabs, shrimps, and oysters.
Oleic acid is the most abundant
DIGESTION OF FATS
monounsaturated fatty acid. Olive and peanut
oils are especially high in oleic acid, but most TABLE 2: DIGESTION PROCESS OF FATS
fats contain generous amounts of this fatty
acid. Organ Enzyme Activity
c. Polyunsaturated fatty acids are those in which
Mouth None Mechanical
two or more double bonds are present. Thus,
Mastication
each of four or more carbon atoms could take
up a hydrogen atom. Linoleic acid has two Stomach No Major Mechanical
double bonds and is the most common of the Enzyme Separation of fats
polyunsaturated acids. It is abundant in most as protein and
vegetable oils. starch digested out

Small amount Tributyrin (butter

of gastric lipase fat) to fatty acids
and glycerol

OREJANA, ROMMEL C. 10
NUTRITION AND DIET THERAPY
Small Gall bladder Emulsifier fats • margarine, salt pork, hydrogenated shortenings
Intestine (bile salts) Chocolates, chocolate candies, cakes, cookies,
emulsifier pies, rich pudding

Small Pancreatic Triglycerides to HIGH IN POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS:

Intestine Lipase diglycerides and
• Vegetable oils, safflower, corn, cotton seed,
monoglycerides in
soybean, sesame, sunflower
turn, then fatty
• Salad dressings made from the above oils:
acids and glycerol
mayonnaise, French dressings
FUNCTIONS OF FATS • Special margarine: liquid oil listed first on label
• Fatty fish: salmon, tuna, herring
1. Normally, about 95% of the fat in food is digested
and absorbed. Fats are important sources of The essential fatty acids are not manufactured in the body
calories. It is quite normal for the body to have and must be supplied in the diet.
deposits of fat (adipose tissue) that serve as
1. Linoleic acid is the primary member of the omega-
continuing supply of energy each and every hour.
6 family. It is found in vegetable oils like corn,
In fact, if the body had no reserves of fat, it would
safflower, soybean, and cottonseed, and poultry
need food much more frequently to provide a
fats. It can be made into arachidonic acid which is
continuous supply of energy.
abundant in meats.
2. Fat is said to be protein-sparing because its
2. Linolenic acid is the primary member of the
availability reduces the need to burn protein for
omega-3 family. It is found in oils like flaxseed,
energy.
canola, walnut, wheat germ, and soybean; nuts
3. Fat is essential to maintain the constant body
and seeds like butternuts, walnuts, and soybean
temperature by providing effective insulation
kernels; and vegetables like soybeans. Linolenic
underneath the skin.
acid can be made into eicosatetraenoic acid (EPA)
4. Fat cushions vital organs such as the kidney
and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) which are
against injury.
essential for growth and development, prevention
5. Fat facilitates the absorption of the fat-soluble
or treatment of heart disease, hypertension,
vitamins A, D, E, and K.
arthritis, and cancer. It is also found in human milk,
6. Fat provides satiety and delays the onset of
shellfish, and fish.
hunger.
7. Fat contributes flavor and palatability to the diet. HEALTH EFFECTS OF LIPIDS
FOOD SOURCES 1. Heart disease - Elevated blood cholesterol is a major
risk factor for cardiovascular diseases.
A. Visible fats include lard, butter, margarine,
2. Risks from saturated fats - Lauric, myristic, and
shortenings, salad oils, and visible fats of meat.
palmitic acids raise blood cholesterol levels. Stearic
B. Invisible fats are those available in milk, cheese,
acid does not.
eggs, nuts, and meat.
3. Benefits from monounsaturated fats - Olive oil lowers
Margarine and shortenings are made from relatively less risks of heart disease.
expensive vegetable oils such as cottonseed oil, soybean 4. Benefits from omega-3 polyunsaturated fats Omega-3
oil, corn oil, and coconut oil by the introduction of polyunsaturated fats lower blood cholesterol and
hydrogen into fat molecule under carefully controlled prevent heart disease. EPA sources like fish, eaten
conditions. Margarine is then further processed by once a week, can lower blood cholesterol and the risk
churning the cultural milk to give the flavor of butter. It is of heart attack and stroke.
usually fortified with vitamins A and D. 5. Cancer - Fat does not instigate cancer development
but can promote it once it has arisen.
HIGH IN SATURATED FATTY ACIDS: 6. Obesity - High-fat diets tend to store body fat ably.
• Whole milk, cream, ice cream, cheese made from
whole milk, egg yolk
• Medium fat or fatty meats; beef, lamb pork, ham

• Bacon, butter, coconut oil, lamb fat, lard, regular

OREJANA, ROMMEL C. 11
NUTRITION AND DIET THERAPY
Daily Allowances Cottage 1 cup 10 2 2
Cheese
No specific recommendation for the level of fat intake has
(low-fat)
been made by the Food and Nutrition Board. The
requirement for linoleic acid is low and easily met. For
infant formulas, linoleic acid should supply 3% of the
calories. TABLE 4: CHOLESTEROL CONTENT OF FATS

Fats Portion Cholesterol Total Saturated

Fat Fat
Mayonnaise 1 tbsp 12 (mg)
Pie 1 pc 15 (g) (mg)
Butter 3 pats 18 Butter 1 tsp 11 4 3
Bread-cereals 4 servings 3
Egg 1 pc 6 Margarine 1 tsp 0 4 1

Meat, poultry, fish (lean) 4 oz 10 Vegetable 1 tsp 0 5 1-2

Milk 2 cups 18 Oils

CHOLESTEROL CONTENT OF FOODS TABLE 5: CHOLESTEROL CONTENT OF MEATS

If an individual has risk factors for heart disease, he/she Meat/Protei Portio Cholester Tota Saturate
should not consume more than 200 milligrams of n n ol l Fat d Fat
cholesterol a day.
(mg) (g) (mg)
If risk factors for heart disease exist, then cholesterol
intake should be limited to not more than 300 milligrams a Tofu ½ cup 0 11 2
day.
Pinto beans ½ cup 0 1 0
Cholesterol is only found in animal products. Fruits,
Egg 1 212 5 2
vegetables, grains, and all other plant foods do not have
any cholesterol at all. Halibut 3 ½ oz 41 3 0
TABLE 3: CHOLESTEROL CONTENT OF DAIRY Salmon 3 ½ oz 63 12 2
PRODUCTS
Oyster 3 ½ oz 55 2 1
Dairy Portion Cholesterol Total Saturated
Products Fat Fat Crab 3 ½ oz 52 1 0
(mg)
(g) (mg) Lobster 3 ½ oz 71 1 0

Milk (non- 1 cup 4 0 0 Tuna (in 3 ½ oz 30 1 0

fat) water)

Milk (low- 1 cup 10 3 2 Shrimp 3 ½ oz 194 1 0

fat)
Squid 3 ½ oz 231 1 0
Milk 1 cup 33 8 5
Beef 3 ½ oz 78 18 7
(whole)
(ground,
Yogurt 1 cup 10 0 0 lean
(non-fat)
Beef (short 3 ½ oz 94 42 18
Yogurt 1 cup 29 7 5 ribs)
(whole)
Beef (sirloin) 3 ½ oz 89 12 5
Cheddar 1 oz 30 9 6
Beef Liver 3 ½ oz 389 5 2
Cheese

OREJANA, ROMMEL C. 12
NUTRITION AND DIET THERAPY
Veal (top 3 ½ oz 135 5 2 Basically, the more solid the fat, the more it clogs the
round) arteries. Many margarines and spreads are now available
with low or zero levels of trans fats, but they are less
Lamb 3 ½ oz 106 14 6 suitable for cooking and baking. Trans-fat-free shortenings
(foreshank) are available, too.
Ham 3 ½ oz 53 6 2 COMMON TRANS FAT SOURCES
Pork 3 ½ oz 79 6 2 • Crackers
(tenderloin ) • Doughnuts
• French fries
Pork (chop) 3 ½ oz 85 25 10
• Cookies (also rich in saturated fat)
Chicken 3 ½ oz 631 6 2 • Vegetable shortening
Liver • Hard margarine
• Pastries (also rich in saturated fat)
Chicken (no 3 ½ oz 85 5 1
skin) Trans-fat free foods marketed by restaurants and
manufacturers could not be less unhealthy. As much as
possible, packaged foods high in trans-fat should be
TRANS FAT avoided, for many natural foods are already high in trans-
fat. As a matter of fact, 20% of trans fat consumption
Unlike other members of the fat family (saturated, comes from natural food, not from oil or solid spread that
polysaturated, and monounsaturated fats), trans fat and is processed to enhance palatability or lengthen shelf life.
trans-fatty acids are basically artificial fats, A small
amount of trans fat occurs naturally in meat and dairy For those who avoid manufactured foods to regulate trans-
products fat intake, consumption of fatty natural foods such as meat
and dairy products must be monitored as well. Take note
HYDROGENATION also of the following food which is high in saturated fat.

Trans fats are made by a chemical process called partial • Lard

hydrogenation. Liquid vegetable oil (an otherwise healthy • Butter
monounsaturated fat) is packed with hydrogen atoms and • Whole milk
converted into a solid fat. This makes it a seemingly perfect • Pastries (also rich in trans-fat)
fat for the food industry to work with since it has a high • Cookies (also rich in trans-fat)
melting point and a creamy, smooth texture, and it is
reusable in deep-fat frying. HOW TO LOWER FAT INTAKE

SHELF LIFE AND TEXTURE These two basic guidelines should be followed to lower fat
intake:
Partially hydrogenated fats, or trans fats, lengthen the shelf
life of food. They also add a certain pleasing mouth-feel to • Don't deprive yourself of fatty foods. This will likely
all manner of processed foods, buttery crackers and cause you to crave for more fat. Instead, eat fatty
popcorn, crispy French fries, crunchy fish sticks, creamy foods moderately.
frostings, and melt-in-your mouth pies and pastries. All • To be moderate, add more healthy foods to your
these foods owe those qualities to trans fats. diet; supplementing with a clinically proven fat-
binding or natural appetite-suppressing products
WORSE THAN BUTTER will also help.

Hydrogenated fats were seen as a healthier option to When it comes to fat control, it might be better to practice
saturated fats: using stick margarine was deemed better moderation rather than suppress natural appetite for fatty
than using butter. However, numerous studies now foods. Learning to moderately eat fatty food is certainly
conclude that trans fats are actually worse. Saturated fats easier than avoiding it. Moderate consumption of fat
raise the total and bad (LDL) cholesterol levels. Trans fats means eating a doughnut or two and not a dozen, or a
do the same, but they also strip levels of good (HDL) handful of chips rather than a family-sized serving.
cholesterol, the kind that helps unblock arteries. Trans fats
also increase triglyceride levels in the blood, adding to the Having self-discipline is critical to fat control. Those who
danger of cardiovascular disease. lack self-control cannot commit to a healthy diet as they
let themselves succumb to their unhealthy food habits.

OREJANA, ROMMEL C. 13
NUTRITION AND DIET THERAPY
Such people may find it helpful to submit themselves to While trans fats occur naturally in the meat and dairy
"health authority" such as trainers or physicians who will products harvested from ruminant animals such as sheep
set dietary restrictions, prescribe exercises, and monitor and cows, today, most trans fats ingested by humans have
progress. Being accountable to an outside authority helps been artificially created through the hydrogenation of plant
in pushing these people out of their comfort zone, enabling oils and animal fats.
them to avoid unhealthy foods or adopt lifestyle changes
Developed as a cheap alternative to using animal fats such
which they cannot do otherwise.
as lard or butter, or semi-solid plant fats like palm oil, the
Regulating trans-fat level while enjoying favorite fatty foods hydrogenation process used to manufacture trans fats
in moderation alongside healthy foods such as fruits, involves extracting oil from unsaturated plant fats, usually
vegetables, and whole grains is recommended. It is vegetable oils. Hydrogen is added at very high heat,
important to have a well-balanced diet consisting mainly damaging the oil in order to transform its molecules into a
of healthy foods. more convenient to use trans-fat solid.

WHAT HAPPENS WHEN TRANS FAT IS CONSUMED? MAKING POSITIVE CHANGES

By ingesting margarine or any of the numerous other fake STEP 1 - ELIMINATING TRANS FATS
food products containing trans fats, damaged molecules
Read the labels on everything in your cupboards,
enter into the cellular structure of the body. It is hardly
refrigerator, and freezer. Avoid sources of hydrogenated
surprising, therefore, that many chronic health conditions
and partially hydrogenated fats, and damaged
have been linked to diets rich in trans fats.
polyunsaturated oils.
The ways in which trans fats lead to an increased risk of
FOODS TO AVOID (the following items more often than not
coronary heart disease are well understood. But there are
contain trans fats):
other diseases such as cancer, diabetes, liver toxicity, and
obesity that are believed to be associated with eating trans • Bottled salad dressing
fats, otherwise known as hydrogenated food products. • Chips
• Cookies
Some physicians believe that trans fats also:
• Corn oil
• Accelerate aging • Cottonseed oil
• Compromise the immune system • Deep-fat fried foods
• Damage the lungs • Imitation mayonnaise
• Damage reproductive organs and their processes • Imitation sour cream
Contribute to mental decline and chromosomal • Margarine and other hydrogenated fake butter
damage spreads
• Increase problems with mental functioning such as • Non-dairy creamers
autism, • Pressurized whipped cream
• ADD, ADHD, Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease, • Processed, junk, and fake foods
and depression • Sandwich spreads
• Increase the risk for arthritis and autoimmune • Shortenings
disease
STEP 2- FIGHTING FAT WITH FATS
Since their use is so contentious, trans fats have been
As a general rule, opt for the real thing."
even banned outright in Denmark, are required to be listed
on product labels in many countries and are tightly REAL FOOD:
regulated in others.
• Dairy products such as eggs, butter, cream, milk,
MORE ABOUT TRANS FATS and cheese
Unhealthy trans fats along with healthy saturated, • Fish and shellfish
monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fats (such as • Fruits
omega 3 and omega 6 oils) are a variety of fat types found • Grains
in foods commonly consumed. Trans fats are usually • Legumes (a simple dry fruit often referred to as a
found in baked goods such as doughnuts, cakes, and pod including alfalfa, clover, peas, beans, and
breads, as well as salad dressings and fried, fast, and peanuts)
snack foods. • Meat
• Nuts

OREJANA, ROMMEL C. 14
NUTRITION AND DIET THERAPY
• Oil, especially essential fatty acids (seed, nut, and PROTEINS
fish oils)
The term protein is taken from the Greek word protos
• Poultry
meaning primary, ranking first, or occupying the first
• Sea algae
position. Similarly, protein is the first substance
• Seeds
recognized as a vital part of a living tissue. It contains
• Vegetables nitrogen aside from the basic carbon, hydrogen, and
When trans fats are eliminated from the diet, and food that oxygen. Proteins are more complex compounds of high
is actually food including naturally-occurring fats, is molecular weights and structured in specific
consumed, health is optimized, investing in the body's arrangements and numbers of their simpler building units,
future and, ultimately, making an individual feeling better. amino acids. They are organic substances that, upon
digestion, yield these amino acids.
There is one final step to take after these primary, vital
measures toward replacing health-defying trans fats with CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS
life-giving nourishment. A. Simple proteins are those which yield only amino
STEP 3- CLEANSE, REJUVENATE, AND SUPPLEMENT acids upon hydrolysis. They include the following:
1. Albumins are soluble in water and coagulated by
Start with a Clean Slate heat.
2. Globulins are insoluble in water, soluble in dilute salt
When changing the oil in a car, all the old, dirty oil that the
solution, and coagulated by heat.
car's motor has been sputtering along on should be
3. Glutelin are insoluble in neutral solvents but soluble
flushed out. The same is true when making dietary
in weak acids and alkalis; they are coagulated by
changes. It is important to clear out all the toxic build-up
heat.
so that the body's systems can start fresh. Only then can it
4. Prolamins are soluble in 70% to 80% alcohol but
make the most of the healthy new nourishment coming its
insoluble in absolute alcohol, water, and salt
way.
solutions.
Some doctors recommend regular colon cleansings, 5. are insoluble in all neutral solvents and in dilute
periodic liver flushes, and revitalizing multi-vitamins as acids and alkalis.
part of an ongoing health regimen. 6. Histones and protamine, which are basic
polypeptides, are soluble in water but not
DETOXIFYING THE LIVER coagulated by heat; they are found in the nuclei of
A liver cleanse is another step on the road to recovering cells.
from trans fats. Cleanses comprised of milk thistle are B. Compound proteins, conjugated proteins or proetids
recommended by some doctors because they are proved are combinations of simple proteins and some other
to be effective in helping to alleviate the effects of an non-protein substance called a prosthetic group
unhealthy diet, and the burden it places on all the body's attached to a molecule. They perform functions that a
systems constituent could not properly perform by itself. These
proteins include the following:
Dietary toxins, including trans fats, tax the limits of the 1. Nucleoproteins are combination of simple proteins
body's immune system. With half-a-million chemicals in and nucleic acid. Deoxyribonucleic nucleoproteins
the environment alone, including the thousands it takes to are necessary for the synthesis of proteins in the
grow and process the food and the nearly six thousand cytoplasm.
chemicals and additives in one's diet, the body must 2. Mucoproteins and glycoproteins are combination of
constantly battle to rid itself of deadly toxins. a protein and large quantities of complex
polysaccharides such as mucin found in secretion
Detoxifying the liver can help remove unwanted pollutants
from gastric mucous membranes.
and enable it to function properly. Though it is impossible
3. Lipoproteins are compounds of a protein and a
to get rid of every potential negative from the diet or the
triglyceride or other lipids such as phospholipids or
environment, detoxification and cleansing can go a long
cholesterol found in cell and organelle membranes.
way toward ridding the human body of the pollutants
4. Phosphoproteins are compounds of phosphoric acid
unwittingly ingested on a daily basis.
joined in ester linkage to protein found in casein of
milk.

OREJANA, ROMMEL C. 15
NUTRITION AND DIET THERAPY
5. Chromoproteins are compounds of proteins and DIGESTION OF PROTEIN
non- protein pigments found in flavoproteins,
1. MOUTH
hemoglobin, and cytochromes.
a. ENZYME-none
6. Metalloproteins are compounds or metals (Cu, Mg,
b. ACTION-only mechanical mastication
Zn, and Fe) attached to proteins found in ferritin,
2. STOMACH
hemosiderin, and transferrin.
a. ENZYME- pepsin, produced first as inactive
C. Derived proteins are products formed in the various
precursor to pepsinogen, then activated by the
stages of hydrolysis of a protein molecule.
hydrochloric acid
CHEMICAL STAGES OF A PROTEIN b. ACTION-converts protein into proteoses and
peptones
A. As indicated by its name, an amino acid has a
c. In infants, enzyme rennin converts casein into
chemical structure that combines both acid and base
coagulated curd.
(amino) factors. This important structure gives amino
3. SMALL INTESTINE (ALKALINE)
acids a unique buffering capacity. This acid-base
a. PANCREAS
nature of amino acids also enables them to join one
i. Trypsin (produced first as inactive precursor
another to form the characteristic chain structure of
trypsinogen and then activated by
protein. The amino (base) group of one amino acid
enterokinase) converts proteins, proteoses,
joins the acid (carboxyl) group of another. This
and peptones into polypeptides and peptides,
characteristic chain structure of amino acids is called
ii. Chymotrypsin (produced first as inactive
a peptide linkage. Long chains of amino acids that are
precursor chymotrypsinogen and then
linked in this manner are called polypeptides.
activated by active trypsin) converts proteoses
B. ESSENTIAL AND NON-ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS
and peptones into polypeptides and
1. Essential amino acids cannot be synthesized by
dipeptides; also coagulates milk.
the body and are necessary in the diet.
iii. Carboxypeptidase converts polypeptides into
Examples: simpler peptides, dipeptides, and amino
acids.
Threonine Lysine b. INTESTINE
Leucine Methionine i. Aminopeptidase converts polypeptides into
Isoleucine Phenylalanine peptides and amino acids.
Valine Tryptophan ii. Dipeptidase converts dipeptides into amino
acids.
2. Non-essential amino acids can be manufactured
by the body and, therefore, are not as necessary FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS
for consideration in the diet
1. Proteins are used in repairing worn-out body
Examples: tissue proteins (anabolism) caused by the
continued wear and tear (catabolism) going on in
Glycine Cystine
the body.
Alanine Tyrosine
2. Proteins are used to build new tissue by supplying
Aspartic acid Serine
the necessary amino acid building blocks.
Glutamic acid Arginine
3. Proteins are a source of heat and energy. One
Proline Histidine
gram of protein contains 4 calories.
Hydroxyproline
4. Proteins contribute to numerous essential body
C. COMPLETE AND INCOMPLETE PROTEINS secretions and fluids, enzymes, and proteins.
1. Complete proteins are those that contain all the Some hormones have protein or amino acid
essential amino acids in sufficient quantity and components. Mucus and milk are largely protein.
ratio to supply the body's needs. These proteins Sperm cells are likewise largely protein as is the
are of animal origin-meat, milk, cheese, and eggs. fluid in which the sperm cells are contained.
2. Incomplete proteins are those deficient in one or 5. Proteins are important in the maintenance of
more of the essential amino acids. They are of normal osmotic relations among the various body
plant origin-grains, legumes, seeds, and nuts. fluids
6. Proteins play a vital role in the resistance of the
body to diseases. Antibodies to specific diseases
are found as part of the plasma globulin,

OREJANA, ROMMEL C. 16
NUTRITION AND DIET THERAPY
especially in what is known as the gamma globulin SOURCES OF PROTEIN
fraction of plasma.
1. Complete protein foods - meat, fish, poultry, egg,
7. Dietary proteins furnish the amino acids for a
milk, cheese
variety of metabolic functions.
2. Legumes, nuts
TABLE 6: RECOMMENDED PROTEIN INTAKES FOR 3. Breads and cereals
SPECIFIC POPULATION GROUPS
REQUIREMENT FOR HUMAN NUTRITION
Population Reference RNI
g/day A. Quality of protein fundamental to health and life
Group Weight Kg g/kg/day
B. General daily recommendation of the Food and
Infants, mo Nutrition Board
1. ADULT-0-9 g/kg BW
Birth -<6 6 1.50 9 2. CHILDREN - Growth needs vary according to age
6-<12 9 1.56 14 and growth patterns.
3. PREGNANCY - Rapid growth requires an increase
Children, y of 30 g over that of a non-pregnant woman.
4. LACTATION - It requires an increase of 20 g.
1-3 13 2.15 28
MEASURES OF PROTEIN QUALITY
4-6 19 2.00 38
A. BIOLOGIC VALUE (BV) - It measures the
7-9 24 1.79 43 effectiveness of protein quality in supporting the
Males, y body's needs.
B. NET PROTEIN UTILIZATION (NPU) - It also measures
10-12 34 1.59 54 how capably a protein is used by the body. The
difference is that NPU measures retention of food
13-15 50 1.42 71 nitrogen consumed while BV measures food nitrogen
16-18 58 1.26 73 absorbed.
C. PROTEIN EFFICIENCY RATIO (PER) - It measures the
19 and over 59 1.14 67 increase in weight of a growing animal and compares
it with the intake.
Females, y
HEALTH EFFECTS OF PROTEIN
10-12 35 1.40 49
1. Heart disease - Foods rich in animal protein tend
13-15 49 1.28 63 to be rich in saturated fats.
16-18 50 1.18 59 2. Cancer - Studies suggest a relationship between
high intake of animal protein and some types of
19 and over 51 1.14 58 cancer like cancer of the prostate gland,
pancreas, kidneys, breast, and colon. Roy
Pregnant 66
3. Osteoporosis increases. Calcium excretion rises
Women
as protein intake
Lactating 4. Weight control - Protein-rich foods are also rich in
Women fat which can lead to obesity with associated
health risks.
1st 6 mos. 81 5. Kidney diseases Excretion of end products of
protein metabolism depends on a sufficient fluid
2nd 6 mos. 76
intake and healthy kidneys. A high-protein diet
Source: FNRI-DOST RENI, 2002 increases the work of the kidneys.

PROTEIN-ENERGY MALNUTRITION (PEM)

Protein-energy malnutrition is a condition resulting from

insufficiency of protein or energy or both in the diet.

Acute PEM occurs in children who are thin for their height.
Chronic PEM occurs in children who are short for their age.

OREJANA, ROMMEL C. 17
NUTRITION AND DIET THERAPY

THERE ARE TWO FORMS OF PEM:

1. MARASMUS - Severe deprivation of food over a

long period of time characterized by insufficiency
of protein and energy intake.
2. KWASHIORKOR - This condition reflects an abrupt
and recent deprivation of food which develops
rapidly as a consequence of protein deficiency or
an illness like measles.

OREJANA, ROMMEL C. 18