MODEL POLYTECHNIC JEBBU - BASSA, JENGRE

CAMPUS PLATEAU STATE

LECTURE NOTE ON

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER(COM 111, GNS 114)

DIPLOMA IN PUBLIC ADMIN. (ND1).

PREPARED BY:

HARUNA SUNDAY BIZGA

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

What is a computer? A six-year-old called a computer "radio, movies, and

television combined!" A ten-year-old described a computer as "a television set you can
talk to." The ten-year-old's definition is closer but still does not recognize the computer
as a machine that has the power to make changes.

A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information, or data. It has the

ability to store, retrieve, and process data. You may already know that you can use a
computer to type documents, send email, play games, and browse the Web. You can
also use it to edit or create spreadsheets, presentations, and even videos.

Development of Computers

Although the development of digital computers is rooted in the abacus and early
mechanical calculating devices, Charles Babbage is credited with the design of the first
modern computer, the analytical engine, during the 1830s. Vannevar Bush built a
mechanically operated device, called a differential analyzer, in 1930; it was the first
general-purpose analog computer. John Atanasoff constructed the first electronic digital
computing device in 1939; a full-scale version of the prototype was completed in 1942
at Iowa State College (now Iowa State Univ.). In 1943 Conrad Zuse built the Z3, a fully
operational electromechanical computer.

During World War II, the Colossus was developed for British codebreakers; it was the
first programmable electronic digital computer. The Mark I, or Automatic Sequence
Controlled Calculator, completed in 1944 at Harvard by Howard Aiken, was the first
machine to execute long calculations automatically, while the first all-purpose
electronic digital computer, ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator),
which used thousands of vacuum tubes, was completed in 1946 at the Univ. of
Pennsylvania. UNIVAC (UNIVersal Automatic Computer) became (1951) the first

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computer to handle both numeric and alphabetic data with equal facility; intended for
business and government use, this was the first widely sold commercial computer.

GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS

Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being

used. Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish between varying hardware
technologies. Nowadays, generation includes both hardware and software, which
together make up an entire computer system.

There are five computer generations known till date. Each generation has been
discussed in detail along with their time period and characteristics. In the following
table, approximate dates against each generation has been mentioned, which are
normally accepted.

Following are the main five generations of computers.

[Link] Generation & Description

First Generation
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The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum tube based.

Second Generation
2
The period of second generation: 1959-1965. Transistor based.

Third Generation
3
The period of third generation: 1965-1971. Integrated Circuit based.

4 Fourth Generation

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 The period of fourth generation: 1971-1980. VLIS microprocessor based.

Fifth Generation
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The period of fifth generation: 1980-onwards. ULSI microprocessor based.

Types of computers

There are three types of computers, and each is capable of doing unique things. They
are separated by hardware and the manner data is processed. The three types of
computers in question are Analog, Digital, and Hybrid. Each can be found in various
industries around the world, your home, and even in your car. But hey, let’s go on ahead
and focus on what these computers are all about.
These three types of computers are based on work, applications, and functions:

1. Analog Computer
2. Digital Computer
3. Hybrid Computer
Difference between Analog, Digital & Hybrid computers

1] Analog Computer

An analog computer is a type of system that provides information in continuous form.

These types of computers can only represent physical quantities such as pressure,
weight, voltage pressure, speed, and more. Whatever information the analog computer
outputs are usually shown on a graph.

These computer systems are useful in situations where data is accepted via measuring
instruments, which means, there is no need to convert into numbers or any form of

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digital attributes. A speedometer is a great example of an analog computer, and the
same can be said for the traditional thermometer.

Note that analog computer systems do not require any storage capabilities because they
associate and measure quantities in a single process. In short, they are nowhere smart
when compared to what we use today, but they do have their industries.

In the past, an analog computer was primarily used in scientific and industrial
applications, and even after the rise of digital computers. This is because, in the early
days of digital computers, analog systems were still much faster to operate. However,
between the 1950s and 1960s, the analog computer system became obsolete as they
could no longer keep up with the digital wave.

Electronic Analog Computers

For the most part, these computers are indeed, based on the specifics of analog.
However, their components consist of capacitors, inductors, and resistors. Folks can
model them by using equations of similar form. Furthermore, they are more useful than
regular analog devices because they have an electric circuit.

The use of an electric circuit allows for simulation to move faster than ever before,
which at the time was a huge benefit to the scientific community.

Now, if you are wondering what these computers look like, well, they have a lot of
amplifiers and jacks. The switchboard of old was a great analog computer, but it lacked
reliability when compared to what we have today. And that should not come as a
surprise at all.

For example, we can find analog computers in oil refineries and the papermaking
industries, just to name a few.

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Some characteristics of Analog Computers

 Continuous values
 Small memory
 Slow speed
 Not as reliable
 Results are not accurate
 Difficult to use
Now you know what an analog computer is, let’s talk about Digital.

2] Digital Computer

When it comes down to representing numerals, letters, and other symbols a digital
computer relies on digits to get the job done. The inputs here are ON and OFF, and the
same goes for outputs.

In a typical case, ON is represented by 1, while off is represented by 0. As it stands,

then, we can conclude that digital computers process data that is based on the existence
or the absence of an electrical charge. In short, this is called binary 1 or binary 0.

For those who might want to process numerical or non-numerical data, a digital
computer is more than capable of performing such tasks. Furthermore, such systems can
perform arithmetic operations with ease, and in most instances, much faster than the
human brain.

The man behind the first electronic digital computer is a man known as John V.
Atanasoff. The device was built between 1939 and 1942, and his assistance was a
German engineer who goes by the name, Clifford E. Berry. Konrad Zuse.

Right now, the most common digital computers are that of calculators and accounting
machines.
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Some characteristics of Digital Computers

 Discrete values
 Large memory
 Faster speed
 Very reliable
 Results are 100 percent accurate
Time to talk about Hybrid Computers, which are the most known around the world due
to being widely used by consumers and businesses alike.

3] Hybrid Computer

When you think of a hybrid computer, what comes to mind? It should be a blend of
analog and digital computers. Devices such as these have managed to combine the best
features of analog and digital, making them super important in a number of areas.

In terms of where hybrid computers are used, well, they are mainly found in specialized
applications that need to process analog and digital information. As you might guess,
then, hybrid computers can process discrete and continuous data.

The entire world today relies heavily on hybrid computers, and this has a lot to do with
their flexibility. A single hybrid computer can be used for various things. The same
cannot be said for analog, but we should not forget of its contribution.

An example of a hybrid computer is the Intensive Care Unit (ICU) found in hospitals
around the world. These devices use analog technology to measure temperature and
blood pressure, and the data is then converted and shown in digital form on a small
screen.

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Computer in society
Computers are now a fact of life. Computers have created a very effective information
system to help streamline the management of an organization. This makes it a much
needed tool for every business, banking, government, entertainment, daily life, industry,
education, and administration. It can be said of all large organizations, whether the
department government or private, use a computer for a variety of their daily business
and it is the fastest growing industries in the world today. Each organization usually has
one or more large computer systems and a number of microcomputer. The system is a
great computer for data processing tasks, while many small microcomputer to use as
word processing. Computers have become part of our lives is essential. In general, the
use of computers can be divided into several groups.
The first extensive data processing in order to avoid abuse of the workload while
increasing the effectiveness of trade and industry. Both as a prediction for decision-
makers on the planning, development, and growth based on past data. In addition, it also
as a means of control and non-power electric system based on our needs, such as
closing the air conditioner if the temperature is lower and save energy, connecting the
parts and so on. It is also a link to link data around the world in a short time. For the
fields of use mentioned above, the programs needed to be developed, tested, and
implemented on a computer. The various programs should be written and linked to form
a system for specific tasks. In general, the system means that the software and hardware.
As the system -the system used to process the data or information, call our I/S
ROLE OF COMPUTER IN MANY AREAS
It is known that the rapid growth of computer usage time. In all areas have been using
computers to launch a business.

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Role of computer in business
The use of computers among maximum practiced in the field of business. In fact, small
businesses also use the computer as there are now very cheap microcomputers. Business
organizations now have a number of facts and a lot of numbers to be processed. So
many businesses have started using the computer, for example to calculate the salary, to
identify the goods sold and are still in stock, to issue and send or receive business
statements, letters, invoices and more.

The use of computers and office equipment to assist other managers, clerks, and the
management of office automation mentioned. One of them is a word processing type of
electronic method that enables us to produce and edit letters, reports, documents, and
other than work in a few seconds to type manually. Many of the office to produce
standard letters, such as payment of the balance, invitations and more. In addition, local
business organizations to use computers to create, save, and send envoys to a particular
place. The advantages of using computers in this area, clearly it is very important in a
business organization.

Role of Computers in Banking and Financial

Processing data involving savings accounts, fixed deposits, loans, investments,
profitability analysis, and so on are among the organizations operating budget. The
measures used are standard and recurrent. And with that, the financial institution is the
first user is aware of the importance of computers to save time. Use of financial
institutions including electronic fund transfer activities for example a bank has a
terminal in each branch in the country and also in supermarkets, petrol stations, schools,
factories, homes, hotels, and so on.

The company will move employees’ salary into the account by entering employee
identification numbers then pay the money transferred into the account supermarkets,

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hotels, or gas station when making a purchase. Money transfer facility is referred to the
electronic transfer of money is very effective use is safe and quick method for financial
transactions. With the facility, known as ETC is also individual can issue, transfer, and
include cash or checks to the current balance at any time. Clearly the main purpose of
the use of computers in financial institutions can assist in arranging the affairs of clients
and provide services better and more efficient, reduce fraud in financial transactions
also eliminate cash transactions involving the community with the goal to create a
cashless society.

Role of Computers in Industrial Areas

Industry is a lot of benefit from the use of computers and the development of a human
machine that ‘robot’. Industrial production, for example requires a lot of computers to
process data collected from employees, customers, sales, product information,
production schedules, and so on. Yes said the computer used to control the production
process.

Especially the production of information processing inventory control to keep the latest
information about the remaining inventory of raw materials and finished goods used to
determine the value of inventory and stock status. This computer can alert the staff
involved if he should order the raw materials and when to deliver the goods completed
to the customer. Similarly, to store information about the structure of an item, but the
material requirement planning processes also use computers to facilitate the work.
Appear in the computer industry is very broad and also affect the development of
industry in a country.

Role of Computers in Education

Now in this era of science and technology become more advanced, the computer may
take over the role of books in the store and disseminate knowledge to the public. In

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other words, the computer will change the way we learn and the way we store
knowledge. Hal-related matters such as student registration, class scheduling,
processing of examination results, students ‘and teachers’ personal storage can be
implemented by a computer with a fast and effective in helping the administration. Now
exams results were processed by computer. The IPT also the duties of office automation,
processing, scientific research results and also use the computer. In fact, cataloging
books in libraries also apply to computer use. Last but not least is used for teaching and
learning process is not only at institutions of higher learning in the schools, both for
teaching and studying computer-assisted education on computer is very emphasized that
in the field of education for helping in the administrative process, research is what is
important is the ease and help students and teachers in the teaching and learning.

Role of Computers in the Medical

Hospitals and clinics use computers to store patient records, scheduling doctors, nurses
and other personnel, inventory and purchase of medicines, medical research and
medical diagnosis. Applications of computer-based equipment or use of information
technology has help doctors to diagnose diseases. It is clear that the use of computers in
the medical field to provide solutions to complex problems. Among the new computer
technology that provides assistance to those who are disabled. Microprocessor-based
voice systems assist people with disabilities speaking with a terminal that directs the
computer to perform a verbal task. Similarly, the development of computers has helped
the blind to see, the deaf to communicate, whether with the help of speech synthesizer
or using the keyboard. This can be help them become more active and can do what they
could not do before. Besides works of traditional data processing, such as issuing bills
of patients, medical statistics and scheduling of staff and others have also streamlined
and processed by computer.

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Hospital Information System that is used can be stored in a centralized patient database.
In fact, the use of information technology the computer is programmed to culture and
analyze bacteria, viruses, and other infections agents to automatically detect and
identify a disease thus enabling the hospitals and laboratories to begin treatment. For
example, Computer Help Demography machine (Computer Aided Demography, CAT)
used for the purpose. Similarly, computers are used for a patient oversee psychological
variables such as blood pressure, body temperature, ECG (Electro-Cardiograph) and
sounded a warning if something unusual happens. For this purpose the computer to read
different variables and make comparison with standard values. If there is something
extraordinary happens the computer will draw the attention of doctors and nurses to
issue a warning. Clearly, it was found that the computer has a wide range of
accommodation in the medical field.

Role of Computers in Legal

Computers have been used in the legislative process in recent years. The use of the most
important is the preparation of documents using a word processor. The use of computer
accounting legislation also includes processing to produce weekly and monthly reports,
keep records of payments consulting, diary for the latest attorney information
consumers about the various court procedures and also to keep records of users. As this
area is very complicated, it is the need to retrieve the required information either on
journal of law, an important case, scale, and statistics or important decisions for the
purpose of making the decision to retain legal data bank. Thus the use of one computer
will help lawyers and trainee lawyers and law students find relevant data without
wasting time and get better service.

Role of Computers in Government

Government sector is one of the largest users of computer usage practices in
implementing administrative matters. All the necessary data can be obtained in a short
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time such as information about people, services, economic planning, and land
development projects and for planning and decision making. Through long-term
weather forecasting computer can now be done. With tie loss of life can be because of
better information and faster. “The success of Neil Am strong on July 23, 1969 landing
on the moon is also made possible with the help of computers used to design spacecraft,
space for clothes astronauts, and flight schedules”. This shows the very important use of
computers in the field of space transportation. Service tax and income tax collection
was simplified by using the computer. Keeping records of taxpayers who do it manually,
and bring many problems have been addressed with the use of computer and services
can make the task more efficiently and quickly.

Similarly, in the military, use of computer store inventory held until the war simulation
on the screen. Computers are also used to follow the movement of the enemy in the
border areas. Traffic flow can be managed effectively by detecting the direction of
traffic using the many tools of detection. In this way, if there are more vehicles from
one direction, the computer will let the green light goes on for a suitable period of time.
“In the field of transport, Cosmos- 11 introduced by Mass by providing facilities for
passengers to know the status including those booking hotel reservations, from
anywhere in the world”. Similarly, business owners and vehicle registration can be
performed with the use of computers. Many of the all administrative affairs are
managed by using the computer. This not only saves time but can do all things more
practical.

Role of Computers in entertainment

Now the computer can be programmed to play music. Places of entertainment with
music controlled by computer are cheaper and can be used at any time. Computers are
also used to arrange the order of dance and music. Each game requires movement.
Movement can best be obtained by detailed analysis of a physical system. Computers
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also can be programmed to depict images of high quality. Drawing using the computer
speeds up the process of creating. The work of art can be done and made a review in a
short time compared with traditional Kedah. Cartoon films produced by computers have
grown so widely.

Role of Computers at daily life

Microcomputer use also home to control the safety and control of air conditioning and
lighting. The use of computers in the home allows housewife get the latest information
about fashion and can make orders to use supermarket with and video. In addition to
budget planning and inventory at home. This is all to do with a microcomputer that is
connected to the national data bank. Children can use computers to learn school subjects
or educational games. But it is clear that computers have become machines of
information in our society.

HARDWARE CONFIGURATIONS

Computer Hardware?
Hardware (sometimes abbreviated to HW) can be defined as the physical components
that a computer system needs to function. This distinguishes it from software, which
consists of written instructions that tell the physical components what to do.

Internal and External Components

The components that make up hardware can be categorized as being either internal or
external. Internal components are those installed inside the computer. External
components are connected to the outside of the computer, they can also be referred to as
peripherals, or peripheral devices.

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 20 Examples of Computer Hardware
Below are 20 hardware examples. The first 9 components listed usually belong to the
internal category. The other 11 are typically external.

1. Motherboard
2. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
3. Power Supply
4. Random Access Memory (RAM)
5. Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
6. Video Card
7. Solid-State Drive (SSD)
8. Optical Disc Drive (e.g. BD drive, DVD drive, CD drive)
9. Card Reader (e.g. SD, SDHC)
10. Monitor
11. Keyboard
12. Mouse
13. Printer
14. Speakers
15. External Hard Drive
16. Desktop Image Scanner
17. Projector
18. Joystick
19. Headphones
20. USB Flash Drive

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COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Computer software, also called software, is a set of instructions and documentation that
tells a computer what to do or how to perform a task. Software includes all different
programs on a computer, such as applications and the operating system.

Examples of Application Software

The most common application software programs are used by millions every day and
include:

 Microsoft suite of products (Office, Excel, Word, PowerPoint, Outlook, etc.)

 Internet browsers like Firefox, Safari, and Chrome
 Mobile pieces of software such as Pandora (for music appreciation), Skype (for
real-time online communication), and Slack (for team collaboration)

INPUTS AND OUTPUT DEVICES

An input device sends information to a computer system for processing, and an output
device reproduces or displays the results of that processing. ... Most devices are
only input devices or output devices, as they can only accept data input from a user
or output data generated by a computer.

Input and Output Devices

Input and output devices allow the computer system to interact with the outside world
by moving data into and out of the system. An input device is used to bring data into the
system. Some input devices are:

Keyboard

Mouse
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Microphone

Bar code reader

Graphics tablet

An output device is used to send data out of the system. Some output devices are:

Monitor

Printer

Speaker

Input/output devices are usually called I/O devices. They are directly connected to an
electronic module inside the systems unit called a device controller. For example, the
speakers of a multimedia computer system are directly connected to a device controller
called an audio card (such as a Soundblaster), which in turn is connected to the rest of
the system.

Sometimes secondary memory devices like the hard disk are called I/O devices
(because they move data in and out of main memory.) What counts as an I/O device
depends on context. To a user, an I/O device is something outside of the system box. To
a programmer, everything outside of the processor and main memory looks like an I/O
devices. To an engineer working on the design of a processor, everything outside of the
processor is an I/O device.

THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

A central processing unit (CPU), also called a central processor, main processor or
just processor, is the electronic circuitry within a computer that
executes instructions that make up a computer program.
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SOFTWARE SYSTEM

Computer Language: To communicate with the computers, we need some languages.

These are computer languages.

There are mainly three different languages with the help of which we can develop
computer programs. And they are –

 Machine Level language

 Assembly Level Language and
 High Level Language
Machine Level Language

Computer can understand only the language of Digital Electronics. Digital Electronics
deals with presence and absence of voltages. Within the computer there are two logics
can play their role. These logics are –

 Positive Logic – Here presence of voltage will be denoted by 1 and absence of

voltage will be denoted by 0
 Negative Logic – Here presence of voltage will be denoted by 0 and absence of
voltage will be denoted by 1

But obviously computer can follow anyone of the logics at a time, not both the logics
simultaneously. To make the computer understand, a program can be written using only
0s and 1s. The data can also be specified and represented using only 0s and 1s. Such a
program is called Machine Language program. Machine language was the first in the
evolution of computer programming languages. Computer directly understands a
program written in the machine language. So as a result, machine language program
does not require any translator to convert from one form to another. In fact, even to this
day, basically computers understand only the 0s and 1s.

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Assembly Level Language

After machine level language, the next level of development in the evolution of
computer languages was the Assembly Language. Machine level language uses only the
binary language. But on the other hand, assembly language uses mnemonics or
symbolic instructions in place of a sequence of 0s and 1s. As example, we can consider
that, to add register A and B in a particular computer, assembly language uses the
mnemonic ‘ADD B’ in place of 10001111. In assembly language, we use symbolic
names to denote addresses and data. A number of such examples are dealt with in the
successive chapters. Thus writing a program in assembly language has advantages over
writing the same in a machine language.

High Level Language

High level language is the next development in the evolution of computer languages.
Examples of some high-level languages are given below –

 PROLOG (for “PROgramming LOGic”);

 FORTRAN (for ‘FORrmula TRANslation’);
 LISP (for “LISt Processing”);
 Pascal (named after the French scientist Blaise Pascal).

High-level languages are like English-like language, with less words also known as
keywords and fewer ambiguities. Each high level language will have its own syntax and
keywords. The meaning of the word syntax is grammar.

Difference between High Level and Low level languages

The main difference between high level language and low level language is that,
Programmers can easily understand or interpret or compile the high level language in

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 comparison of machine. On the other hand, Machine can easily understand the low
level language in comparison of human beings.
Examples of high level languages are C, C++, Java, Python, etc.
Let’s see the difference between high level and low level languages:

[Link] High Level Language Low Level Language

1. It is programmer friendly language. It is a machine friendly language.

High level language is less memory Low level language is high memory
2. efficient. efficient.

3. It is easy to understand. It is tough to understand.

4. It is simple to debug. It is complex to debug comparatively.

5. It is simple to maintain. It is complex to maintain comparatively.

6. It is portable. It is non-portable.

7. It can run on any platform. It is machine-dependent.

It needs compiler or interpreter for

8. translation. It needs assembler for translation.

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 It is not commonly used now-a-days in
9. It is used widely for programming. programming.

Differences between source and object program

The main difference between source program and object program is that a source
program is a collection of instructions written using a programming language, while
an object program is an output generated after compiling the source program.
A program is a set of instructions that directs the computer to perform a task.

Define translator

A translator or programming language processor is a generic term that can refer to

anything that converts code from one computer language into another.

An assembler

An assembler is a program that converts assembly language into machine code. It takes
the basic commands and operations from assembly code and converts them
into binary code that can be recognized by a specific type of processor.

compiler

A compiler is a special program that processes statements written in a particular

programming language and turns them into machine language or "code" that a
computer's processor uses. Typically, a programmer writes language statements in a
language such as Pascal or C one line at a time using an editor.

Interpreter

An interpreter is a computer program that is used to directly execute program

instructions written using one of the many high-level programming languages.

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The interpreter transforms the high-level program into an intermediate language that it
then executes, or it could parse the high-level source code and then performs the
commands directly, which is done line by line or statement by statement.
Package Program/Software

Packaged software is a collection of programs that perform similar functions or have

similar features. For example, Microsoft Office includes multiple applications such as
Excel, Word, and PowerPoint.

Data transmission

Data transmission refers to the process of transferring data between two or more digital
devices. Data is transmitted from one device to another in analog or digital format.
Basically, data transmission enables devices or components within devices to speak to
each other.

Telecommunications

Telecommunications, or telecom, refers to the process of exchanging

information such as voice, data and video transmissions via electronic
technologies like telephones (wired and wireless), microwave communications,
fiber optics, satellites, radio and television broadcasting, and the internet.

METHODS OF DATA TRANSMISSION

Data is transferred in the form of bits between two or more digital devices. There are
two methods used to transmit data between digital devices: serial transmission and
parallel transmission. Serial data transmission sends data bits one after another over a
single channel. Parallel data transmission sends multiple data bits at the same time over
multiple channels.

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 Data bits are transmitted as a continuous stream in time with a master clock. The
data transmitter and receiver both operate using a synchronized clock frequency;
therefore, start bits, stop bits, and gaps are not used. This means that data moves faster
and timing errors are less frequent because the transmitter and receiver time is synced.
However, data accuracy is highly dependent on timing being synced correctly between
devices. In comparison with asynchronous serial transmission, this method is usually
more expensive. When data is sent using parallel data transmission, multiple data bits
are transmitted over multiple channels at the same time. This means that data can be
sent much faster than using serial transmission methods.

Computer Network:

A computer network is a group of computers connected with each other through a

transmission medium such as cable, wire etc.

There are mainly three types of computer networks based on their size:
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
3. Wide area network (WAN)

1. Local area network is a group of computers connected with each other in a small
places such as school, hospital, apartment of at least 10km coverage etc.
2. LAN is secure because there is no outside connection with the local area network
thus the data which is shared is safe on the local area network and can’t be accessed
outside.
3. LAN due to their small size are considerably faster, their speed can range anywhere
from 100 to 100Mbps.
4. LANs are not limited to wire connection, there is a new evolution to the LANs that
allows local area network to work on a wireless connection.

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2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

MAN network covers larger area by connections LANs to a larger network of

computers. In Metropolitan area network various Local area networks are connected
with each other through telephone lines. The size of the Metropolitan area network is
larger than LANs and smaller than WANs(wide area networks), a MANs covers the
larger area of a city or town.

3. Wide area network (WAN)

Wide area network provides long distance transmission of data. The size of the WAN is
larger than LAN and MAN. A WAN can cover country, continent or even a whole
world. Internet connection is an example of WAN. Other examples of WAN are mobile
broadband connections such as 3G, 4G etc.

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